Fluid Mechanics-II

Teacher/Instructor :Engr. Muhammad Sumair

B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering (UET Lahore 2014-2018)

M.Sc. Thermal Power Engineering (UET Lahore 2018-2020)
 Cavitation
• Before discussing the phenomenon of cavitation, let us recall some
thermodynamic concepts related to saturation temperature and
saturation pressure. It is well-established that temperature and pressure
are dependent properties for pure substances during phase-change
processes, and there is one-to-one correspondence between
temperatures and pressures.
• At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat. Likewise, at a
given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation pressure Psat. At an absolute pressure of 1
standard atmosphere (1 atm or 101.325 kPa), for example, the
saturation temperature of water is 100°C. Conversely, at a temperature
of 100°C, the saturation pressure of water is 1 atm.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)
• The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure
exerted by its vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature. Pv is a property of the pure substance, and turns out to be
identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv= Psat)
• It is also established that vapor pressure increases with temperature.
Thus, a substance at higher temperatures boils at higher pressures. For
example, water boils at 134°C in a pressure cooker operating at 3 atm
absolute pressure, but it boils at 93°C in an ordinary pan at a 2000-m
elevation, where the atmospheric pressure is 0.8 atm. A mini table for
water is given next for easy reference.
Cavitation (Cont’d)
 Cavitation (Cont’d)
• The reason for our interest in vapor pressure is the possibility of the
liquid pressure in liquid-flow systems dropping below the vapor
pressure at some locations, and the resulting unplanned vaporization.
For example, water at 10°C will flash into vapor and form bubbles at
locations (such as the suction sides of pumps) where the pressure
drops below 1.23 kPa.
• The vapor bubbles (called cavitation bubbles since they form
“cavities” in the liquid) collapse as they are swept away from the low-
pressure regions, generating highly destructive, extremely high-
pressure waves. This phenomenon, which is a common cause for drop
in performance and even the erosion of impeller blades, is called
cavitation, and it is an important consideration in the design of
hydraulic turbines and pumps.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)

Figure 1: Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by 23-mm

aluminum sample
 Cavitation
• Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour
bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid
falls below its vapour pressure and the sudden collapsing of these
vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour
bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic
surfaces, above which these vapour bubbles collapse, is subjected to
these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus,
cavities are formed on the metallic surface and considerable noise and
vibrations are also produced.
• Cavitation includes formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing
liquid and collapsing of the vapour bubbles. Formation of vapour
bubbles of the flowing liquid take place only whenever the pressure in
any region falls below vapour pressure.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)
• When the pressure of the flowing liquid is less than its vapour pressure, the
liquid starts boiling and vapour bubbles are formed. These vapour bubbles
are carried along with the flowing liquid to higher pressure zones where
these vapours condense and bubbles collapse. Due to sudden collapsing of
the bubbles on the metallic surface, high pressure is produced, and metallic
surfaces are subjected to high local stresses. Thus, the surfaces are
damaged.
• Precaution Against Cavitation. The following precautions should be taken
against cavitation:
(i) The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system
should not be allowed to fall below its vapour pressure. If the flowing liquid
is water, then the absolute pressure head should not be below 2.5 m of water.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)
(ii) The special materials or coatings such as aluminum-bronze and
stainless steel, which are cavitation resistant materials, should be used.
Effects of Cavitation. The following are the effects of cavitation :
(i)The metallic surfaces are damaged, and cavities are formed on the
surfaces,
(ii) Due to sudden collapse of vapour bubble, considerable noise and
vibrations are produced,
(iii) The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to
pitting action, the surface of the turbine blades becomes rough, and the
force exerted by water on the turbine blades decreases. Hence, the work
done by water and/or the output power decreases, and thus efficiency
decreases.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)
Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation. The hydraulic
machines subjected to cavitation are reaction turbines and centrifugal
pumps.
1. Cavitation in Turbines. In turbines, only reaction turbines are
subjected to cavitation. In reaction turbines the cavitation may occur at
the outlet of the runner or at the inlet of the draft tube where the
pressure is considerably reduced (i.e., which may be below the vapour
pressure of the liquid flowing through the turbine). Due to cavitation,
the metal of the runner vanes and draft-tube is gradually eaten away,
which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. Hence, the
cavitation in a reaction turbine can be noted by a sudden drop in
efficiency.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)
• In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of a
reaction turbine, the critical value of Thoma's cavitation factor (𝜎,
sigma) is calculated.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)
2. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps. In centrifugal pumps the
cavitation may occur at the inlet of the impeller of the pump, or at the
suction side of the pumps, where the pressure is considerably reduced.
Hence if the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the
vapour pressure of the liquid, the cavitation may occur. The cavitation in
a pump can be noted by a sudden drop in efficiency and head. In order
to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the suction
side of the pump, the critical value of Thoma's cavitation factor (𝜎) is
calculated.
 Cavitation (Cont’d)

• The value of Thoma's cavitation factor (𝜎) for a particular type of

turbine or pump is calculated from above equations. This value of
Thoma's cavitation factor (𝜎) is compared with critical cavitation
factor (𝜎c) for that type of turbine or pump. If the value of 𝜎 is greater
than 𝜎c, the cavitation will not occur in that turbine or pump. The
critical cavitation factor (𝜎c) may be obtained from tables or empirical
relationships.
 Maximum Suction Lift (Head or Height)
• Strictly speaking, a pump (centrifugal or reciprocating) lifts water
from a reservoir because of atmospheric pressure acting on the surface
of water. The pump reduces the pressure in the casing, to such an
extent, that the atmospheric pressure forces up water in the suction
pipe. A little consideration will show, that as the pump cannot produce
a pressure below the vapor pressure (Pv) of the liquid, therefore the
limiting pressure difference is the atmospheric pressure minus the
vapor pressure. This maximum pressure difference (Patm- Pv) is
responsible for lifting the water in the suction pipe.
• Fig. 1 shows a centrifugal pump that lifts a liquid from a sump. The
free surface of liquid is at a depth of hs below the pump axis.
 Maximum Suction Lift (Cont’d)
The liquid is flowing with a velocity Vs, in the suction pipe.
Let hs = Suction height (or lift)

Figure 1: Maximum Suction

Head or Lift or Height for
Centrifugal Pump
 Maximum Suction Lift (Cont’d)
• Applying Bernoulli's equation at the free surface of liquid in the sump
and section 1 in the suction pipe just at the inlet of the pump and
taking the free surface of liquid as datum line, we get
 Maximum Suction Lift (Cont’d)

• For finding the maximum suction lift, the pressure at the inlet of the
pump should not be less than the vapor pressure of the liquid. Hence
for the limiting case, taking the pressure at the inlet of pump equal to
vapour pressure of the liquid, we get P1 = Pv where Pv = vapour
pressure of the liquid in absolute units. Now the equation (ii) becomes
as
Maximum Suction Lift (Cont’d)
Thanks for Listening