Section 2 Materials

of Chemical Vessels
Chapter 2
Panorama

2.1 Structure and

Classification of Vessels
1.Conception of Vessels:

Chemical Vessels are the external shells of various

equipments in the chemical process.

2.Structure of vessels:

3.Classification of vessels:
i. According to pressure and its type
(1)
Internal Pressure Vessel
vessels where the media pressure
inside the vessel is larger than that outside
(gauge pressure).

Low pressure vessel (L):

0.1P < 1.6 MPa
Medium pressure vessel (M):
1.6 P < 10 MPa
High pressure vessel (H):
10 P < 100 MPa
Ultra-high pressure vessel (U):
P 100 MPa

(2)External Pressure Vessel

vessels where the media pressure

inside the vessel is lower than that outside
(gauge pressure). When the internal
pressure < 0.1 MPa (absolute pressure),
such vessels are called Vacuum Vessel.

ii. According to temperature

Normal temperature vessel
-20< T 200
Medium temperature vessel
between normal T & high T vessels
Low temperature vessel
< -20
High temperature vessel
where the wall temperature is
above the creep temperature.

High temperature vessel

Carbon steel & Low-alloy steel T> 420
Alloy steel (Cr-Mo steel) T> 450
Austenite stainless steel (Cr-Ni) T> 550

iii. According to management

P, P*V
Factor
media
importance
Degree of danger:
I < II < III

Grade (I)
Grade (II)
Grade (III)

2.2
Basic Law and
Common Standard for
Design of Pressure Vessels
1.Conditions:
i. The maximum working pressure
Pw 0.1 MPa
(neglecting the net pressure of liquid )

ii. Internal diameter Di (equal the maximum

dimension or size in the non-circular
sections) 0.15m, and V 0.025 m 3
iii. With the medium as gas or liquefied gas,
or liquid whose maximum working
T standard b.p.

2.Basic Law and Common Standard:

i. Security Technique Supervising Rules for
Pressure Vessel 1999
ii. GB 150 1998
Steely Pressure Vessel
iii. GB 151 1999
Pipe-shell Heat Exchanger
iv. JB 4710 2000
Steely Tower Vessel

2.3 Standardization of
Pressure Vessel Parts
1.Significance of Standardization:

i. It consolidates and harmonizes the various

activities in the manufacture and social life.
ii. Its the importance means to organize the
modernization production.

iii. Its the importance component in scientific

management.
iv. It makes for the development of new
products, assures the interchangeability
and common-usability and is convenient to
use and maintain.
v. Its helpful in the interchange of international
science & technology, culture and economy.

2.Active Chemical Vessels

and Standards of
Equipments Components:
Cylinder
Heads
Vessel Flange
Pipe Connecting (Nozzle) Flange

Support
Manhole
Sight (level) Glass

Stiffening Ring
Handhole
Liquid Leveler (LG)

Corrugated expansion joint

Heat Exchanger Tube
Tray
Float (floating) Valve (FV)
Bubble (bubbling) cap
Packing etc.

3.Basic parameters of
standardization:
i. Nominal Diameter DN (Dg)
is a typical dimension.
(1)Rolled cylinder and head from steels
DN = Di (inside diameter)
DN Standard of pressure vessels:
300 350 400

450 500 6000

48 grades in total.

(2)Cylinder made by seamless pipes

DN = Do (outside diameter)
Six grades: 159 219 273
(3)Seamless pipes
DNDi & DN Do,

325 377

426

but DN is a certain value that is smaller than

Do. When the DN is a certainty, Do is to be a
certainty, while Di depends on the thickness.
Denotation of seamless pipes:
such as 252.5 (outside thickness)

Check the standards according to DN.

Comparison of DN and Do
of seamless pipes/mm
DN

10

15

20

25

32

40

50

65

Do

14

18

25

32

38

45

57

76

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

(4)DN of flanges
consistent to their suitable cylinders,
heads and tubes.
i.e. DN of flange = DN of cylinder
DN of head
DN of tube

ii. Nominal Pressure PN (Pg)

Prescriptive standard pressure grades

For example
PN (MPa) of pressure vessel flange:
0.25 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.5 4.0 6.4

iii. Application
In standard designing:
(1)Diameters of cylinders, heads and tubes
must be close to the standard grades.
e.p. Diameter of cylinder
should be
500 600 700
shouldnt be 520 645 750

(2)When selecting the standard vessel parts,

the design pressure at the working
temperature should be regulated to a
certain grade of PN.
Then choose the parts according to PN
and DN.

4.Classification of standards:
i. Chinese Standard
Symbol: GB (Guo biao)
ii. Standard issued by Ministry
JB Ministry of Mechanical Industry
YB Ministry of Metallurgical Industry
HB Ministry of Chemical Industry
SY Ministry of Petroleum Industry

iii. Specialty Standard

iv. Trade Standard
v. Plant Standard

2.4 Basic Requirements

& Contents of Vessel Design
1.Basic requirements:

i. Enough strength no breakage

ii. Enough rigidity limit deformation

iii. Enough stability no failure, ?, drape

iv. Durability assuring certain usage life
v. Tightness no leakage
vi. Saving materials and easy to manufacture
vii. Convenient to be installed, transported,
operated and maintained
viii. Rational technical economy index in total

2.Basic Contents:
i. Selection of materials
Selecting the materials of
equipment according to the technical
indexes t, p, media and the principles of
material selection.
ii. Structure design

iii. Calculation of strength and thickness

(including the cylinders and heads)
iv. Strength verification in hydraulic
pressure test
v. Seal design; selecting or designing flanges

vi. Selection of support & the verification of

strength and stability
vii. Design and calculation of reinforcement
for opening
viii. Selection of other parts and accessories
ix. Other special design
x. Plotting the equipment drawings
xi. Compiling the equipment specifications

Chapter 3 Stress Analysis of

Thin-walled Internal-P Vessel

3.1 Stress Analysis

of thin-walled Cylinders
Subjected to Internal Pressure

1.Thin-walled vessels

(1)Thin-walled vessels:
S / Di < 0.1 (Do / Di = K < 1.2)
(2) Thick-walled vessels:
S / Di 0.1

2.stress characteristics:

There are always two kinds of

stress in pressure vessels.

i. membrane stress
membrane (shell)
theory
ii. boundary stress
shell theory with
moments and conditions
of deformational
compatibility

3.2 Membrane Theory

Rotary Shells Stress Analysis

1.Basic conceptions and hypothesis:

i. Basic conceptions
(1)rotary
curvedsurface &
shell

(2)Axial Symmetry

Geometry figure, endured load

and restrictions of shell are all symmetry
to the revolving shaft (OA).
Several basic conceptions:
generatrix, meridian, normal, latitude,
longitudinal radius, tangential radius.

(3)Generatrix (AB)
The plane curve
which forms the curved
surface.
(4)Longitude (AB)
Section passing OA
and intersecting with
shell, the cross-line is
AB.

B
B

(5)Normal (n)
The line passing
point M in meridian and
is vertical with midwall
surface.
The extension of

K1
normal must intersect with
OA.
C
(6)Latitude (CND)
The cross-line formed by
the conic surface passing
point K2 intersects with the
rotary curved surface.

K2
K2

(7)Longitudinal radius (R1)

*The radius of curvature of meridian
which passes point M in midwall surface
is called the longitudinal radius of point
M in meridian.
*The center K1 of curvature of the round
with diameter R1 must be in the extension
of normal passing point M.
For example:
Longitudinal radius of point M:
R1 = M K 1

(8)Tangential radius (R2)

*The plane which is vertical to the normal
passing the point M in meridian
intersects with the mid-wall surface, the
resulted cross line (EMF) is a curve, the
radius of curvature of this curve in point
M is called tangential radius.

*The center K2 of curvature of the

round with diameter R2 must be in the
extension of normal passing point M
and in the revolving shaft.
For example:
Longitudinal radius of point M:
R2 = M K 2

ii. Basic hypothesis:

Small displacement hypothesis
Straight linear law hypothesis
Non-extrusion hypothesis

2.Free body balance equation

calculation formula of radial
(meridional) stress:
i. Intercepting shell
uncovering the radial stress m
ii. Choosing separation body
iii. Analysis of stress

iv. Constitute balance equation

Fz 0

Pz N z 0

2
D p m DS sin 0
4
D/2
sin
R2

putting it

into the above equation, getting

pR2
m
2S

(3 - 3)

.k

C
p

z
D

R2
C

3.Infinitesimal balance equation

calculation formula of hoop
stress:
i. Intercepting shell
uncovering the radial stress m
ii. Choosing separation body
iii. Analysis of stress

iv. Constitute balance equation

k1

d1

k2
Sdl1

d2

Fn 0 Pn N m.n N .n 0

d1
pdl1dl2 2 m Sdl2 sin

2
d 2
2 Sdl1 sin
0
2

m p

R1 R2 S

(3 - 4)

mSdl2

Basic calculation equation of membrane stress:

pR2
m
2S

m p

R1 R2 S

Illustration of symbols:
m radial stress of a random point in
rotary thin shell, MPa
hoop stress of a random point in
rotary thin shell, MPa

P internal pressure, MPa

S thickness of wall, mm
R1 longitudinal radius of required stress
point in the mid-wall surface of the
rotary shell, mm
R2 tangential radius of required stress
point in the mid-wall surface of the
rotary shell, mm

v. Application range of membrane theory

Applicable to axial symmetric thin-walled
shell without bending stress
No bending stress only normal stress
(tensile stress & compression stress)
Thin-walled shell
S / Di < 0.1 ( Do / Di = K < 1.2 )
Axial

symmetry and continuous

Geometry, loads, physical properties
Free supporting boundary

3.3 Application
of Membrane Theory
Calculation equations:
pR2
m
2S

m p

R1 R2 S

1.Cylindrate shell subjected to

uniform gas internal pressure:
R2 = D / 2

Putting them into the

previous equations:

pD
m
4S

p
D

R1 =

pD

2S

2.Spherical shell subjected to

uniform gas internal pressure:

R1 = R 2 = D / 2

Putting them into

equations (3-3) and (3-4):

pD
m
4S

pD

4S

3.Elliptical shell subjected to

uniform gas internal pressure:
Example:
Known:
Major semiaxis - a
Short semiaxis - b
Thickness - S
Internal Pressure - P
Find the m and of a random point on the
elliptical shell.

Solution:
(1)Find R1 and R2 of point A:
R1:
radius of curvature of A

1 y
y ''

'

3
2

A(x,y)

.k

(a)

By the elliptical equation:

.k

a
2

x2
y2
2 1
2
a
b

getting y and y, then put them into (a).

3
result is:
1
4
2
2
2
2
R1 4 a x a b
a b

R2:

R2 = K2 A = x / sin

here:

sin

tg

(b)

1 tg 2
2

b x
tg y 2
a y
'

b 2
y b 2 x
a
putting them into (b), getting:
1
4
2
2
2
R2
a x a b
b
2

(2)Find m and of point A:

Putting R1 and R2 into (3-3) and (3-4), getting:

p
4
2 2
2
m
a x a b
2Sb
p
4
2 2
2

a x a b
2Sb

2 a

a
4

x a b
2

Stress of special points on elliptical shell:

(1)x=0 (Top of elliptical shell)

pa a

2S b

(2)x=a (Boundary or equator of elliptical shell)

pa
m
2S

pa
a
2 2

2S
b

Standard elliptical heads:

The

elliptical heads whose ratio of major and

short semiaxis a / b = 2 are called standard
elliptical heads.
a / b = 2
pa pD
m

x=0 (Top):
S
2S
x=a (Boundary):
m

a/b=2

pa
pD
m

2S
4S
pa
pD

S
2S

4.Conic shell subjected to

uniform gas internal pressure:
Example:
Known:
Diameter of tapered bottom - D
Half tapered angle -
Thickness - S
Internal Pressure - P
Find the m and of a random point on the
conic shell.

Solution:
(1)Find R1 and R2 of point A:
R1 =

D
k2

R2 = A K2 = r / cos

(2)Find m and of point A:

Putting R1 and R2 into (3-3) and (3-4)
respectively, getting:

pr 1
m
2 S cos

pr 1

S cos

.A

Characteristics of stress distribution

of conic shell:
m

5.Cylindrate shell subjected to

liquid static pressure:

i. Supporting along the boundary of bottom

Example:
P
Known:
.A
Gauge pressure Po (Pa)
Liquid level H (m)
D
Density of liquid - (N/m3)
Find the m and of a random
o

point on the wall of cylindrical shell.

Solution:
(1)Meridional stress:
Cutting along section B-B, taking the
lower part as the separation body.
Po

.A

(Po+x)

(H-x)

D
N

B-B

Establishing the balance equation of axial stress:

Fx 0
2
2
2
( po x) D ( H x) D m D S H D
4
4
4

po D

4S

(2)Hoop stress:
Infinitesimal balance equation (3-4):

m
R1

R2

For point A:
R1 =
R2 = D/2

P = Po + x

Putting them into (3-4),

when x=H:
getting:

po x D
po H D

max
2S
2S

ii. Supporting along the boundary of top

Example:
P
Known:
Gauge pressure Po (Pa)
Liquid level H (m)
D
Density of liquid - (N/m3)
Find the m and of a random
o

point on the wall of cylindrical shell.

.A

Solution:
(1)Meridional stress:
Cutting along section B-B, taking the
lower part as the separation body.
Po

.A

H
D

B-B

(Po+ x)
(H-x)

m
H-x

Establishing the balance equation of axial stress:

Fx 0
2
2
H x D po x D m D S 0
4
4

po H D
4S

(2)Hoop stress:
Infinitesimal balance equation (3-4):

m
R1

R2

For point A:
R1 =
R2 = D/2

P = Po + x

Putting them into (3-4),

when x=H:
getting:

po x D
po H D

max
2S
2S

6.Examples:

i. A certain cylindrical vessel with a spherical

upper head and a semi-elliptical lower head,
its ratio of major semiaxis to short semiaxis
is a / b = 2. The average diameter
D=420mm,
thickness of all cylindrical shell and heads
are 8mm. The working pressure P=4MPa.
Calculating:
(1)Find m and of the shell body.
(2)Find the maximum stress on the both the
heads and their position respectively.

Solution:
(1) m and :
pD 4 420
m

52.5 (MPa )
4S
48
pD

2 m 105
2S

(MPa)

(2)Upper head spherical

pD
m
52.5
4S

(MPa)

(3)Lower head elliptical

When a / b = 2:
a = D/2 = 210 mm
b = a/2 = 105 mm
x=0 (Top):
pa a
pa pD
m

105
(MPa)

2S b
S
2S
pa pD
x=a (Bottom): m

52.5 (MPa)
2S 4S
2

pa
a
pa
pD
2 2

105
2S
b
S
2S

(MPa)

3.4 Conception
of Boundary Stress
1.Forming of boundary stress:
Boundary

The joint and its vicinity of

two parts with different geometry
shape, load, material and physical
conditions, i.e. discontinuous point.

Boundary stress forming not for

balancing the loads but for receiving
restrictions from self or exterior. Its a
group of internal force with same value
but contrary direction occurring
between two parts which are forced to
realize transfiguration harmonization.

2.Characteristics of boundary stress:

i. Distributing along the wall non-evenly

ii. Different joint boundary forming different
boundary stress
iii. Its local stress, i.e. only forming large stress
locally and decaying apparently
iv. Value of boundary stress can be 3~5 times
of that of membrane stress
v. Self-constrained

3.Treatments to boundary stress:

i. Treatments locally in structure
(1)Improving the structure of joint boundary

(2)Strengthening the boundary locally

(3)Assuring the quality of welding line at

boundary
(4)Decreasing the remnant stress at local and
processing the heat treatment to eliminate
the stress
(5)Avoiding the local stress added to the
boundary region overlap with connatural
stress
ii. Materials are of high plasticity

Chapter 4 Strength
Design
of Cylinders and Heads
subjected to InternalPressure
4.1 Basic Knowledge
of Strength Design

1.Criterions of elasticity failure:

eq

t
s

Safety Allowance kept for the

requirements of safety:
o


eq
n

eq equivalent stress
o limiting (ultimate) stress, can be
s b n D, etc.
[] allowance stress
n safety coefficient

2.Strength Theory:
i. The first strength theory
the maximum tensile stress theory

eqI 1 [ ] applying to brittle materials

ii. The second strength theory

the maximum major strain theory
iii. The third strength theory
he maximum shear stress theory

1 3

max

Shear limit:

s
Shear limit :
2

Failure condition:

max

1
s
i.e. ( 1 - 3 )
2
2

or 1 3 s

Strength condition:

1 3 [ ]
III
eq

Applying to the
plastic materials

iv. The fourth strength theory

the maximum deformation energy theory

IV
eq

1
[( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 3 1 )2 ]
2

Strength condition:

IV
eq

[ ]

Applying to the
plastic materials

4.2 Strength Calculation of

Thin-walled Cylinder Subject
to Internal Pressure
1.Strength calculating equation:
i. Determining the major stress
1

pD

2S

2 m

3 r 0

pD

4S

ii. Determining the equivalent stress

eq f ( 1 , 2 , 3 )
According to the third strength
theory:
pD
pD
III
eq 1 3
0
2S

2S

iii. Strength condition

III
eq

pD

[ ]t
2S

(4 - 3)

iv. Strength calculation equation

pD
S
(4 - 4)
t
2 [ ]

Solving equation (4-4) as following:

(1)Replacing medium diameter with internal
diameter: D + Di = S
Calculating pc from
Putting them into equation (4-4), getting:
p.

pc Di
S
t
2[ ] pc

(2)Introducing the welded joint efficiency :

pc Di
S
(4 - 5)
t
2[ ] pc
This is the calculated thickness.
(3)Eliciting the corrosion allowable thickness
C2:
pc Di
Sd
C2
(4 - 6)
t
2 [ ] p c
This is the design thickness.

(4)Adding negative deviation C1:

pc Di
Sn
C2 C1 round of value (4 - 7)
t
2[ ] pc

Getting the nominal thickness

which indicated on the drawing.
(5)Calculating the effective
thickness:
Se Sn (C1 C2 )
pc Di
round of value
t
2[ ] pc

(4 - 8)

v. Equation of strength verification

pc ( Di Se )
t

[ ]
2 Se
t

(4 - 9)

vi. Calculating equation of pw

2[ ]t Se
[ pw ]
Di Se

(4 - 10)

2.Strength calculating equation of

thin-walled spherical vessels:
pc Di
S
t
4[ ] pc
pc Di
Sd
C2
t
4[ ] pc
pc Di
Sn
C2 C1 round of value
t
4[ ] pc

*Equation of strength verification:

pc ( Di Se )
t

[ ]
4 Se
t

*Equation of [pw] the maximum

allowable working pressure:
4[ ]t Se
[ pw ]
Di Se

*Scope of application of previous equation:

cylinder: P0.4 []t
(Do / Di 1.5)
spherical shell: P0.6 []t

(Do / Di 1.35)

Illumination of symbols:
Pc Calculated pressure MPa
Di Do Internal & external diameters of
cylinder mm
S Calculated thickness
mm
Sd Design thickness mm
Sn Nominal thickness mm
Se Efficient thickness mm

C1 Negative deviation mm
C2 Corrosion allowable thickness
mm
C Additional value of wall thickness
mm
Welded joint efficiency
[]t Allowable stress at design temperature
MPa
t Calculated stress at design temperature
MPa
[Pw] The maximum allowable pressure at
design T MPa

3.Determination of design
parameters:
i. Pressure P
(1)Working pressure Pw

the maximum pressure at the top of

vessel and under normal operating
condition

(2)Design pressure P

the maximum pressure at the

specified top of vessel
The design pressure P and the
corresponding design temperature T are
conditions of designing load, and its value
is not less than working pressure.

(3)Calculated pressure Pc

the pressure which is used to determine

the thickness at corresponding
design temperature
Including the liquid (column) static
pressure, when the liquid (column) static
pressure 5% design pressure, it can be
neglected.

Choosing the value of design pressure

Illustrating in the following chart

Conditions
With safety devices

Evaluation of Design P
P(1.05~1.1)Pw

Single vessel
(no safety devices)

PPw

With explosive media

and rupture disk

P(1.15~1.3)Pw

With liquefied gas

Determined by the charging

proportion and Tmax

External Pressure Vessel

Under normal working

condition, P P=P 2-P 1

Vacuum Pressure Vessel

With safety valve:

P=1.25 P
Without SV: P=0.1MPa

ii. Design Temperature T

the enacted temperature of metallic

components under normal operating
condition

Design P and design T both

are the design load condition.

iii. Allowable stress

0
limit Stress

t
[ ]
Safe Coefficien t n
Normal T Vessel
Medium T Vessel

High T Vessel

b
[ ]
nb

ns

min

t
t

t
b
s
[ ]
,

ns
nb

min

t
t
t

s
n
D
t
[ ]
,
,

nD
nn
ns

min

iv. Safe (Safety) coefficient n

ts

tD

tn

Safety
Coefficient

nb

ns

nD

nn

Carbon Steel
Low Alloy Steel

3.0

1.6

1.5

1.0

High Alloy Steel

3.0

1.5

1.5

1.0

Material

Strength
Performance

v. Welded joint efficiency ( )

(1)Double welded butt or completely welded
butt which is the same as double one.
NDE 100% = 1.0
NDE Local = 0.85
Double welded butt
(2)Single welded butt
NDE 100% = 0.9
NDE Local = 0.8
Single welded butt

vi. Additional value of wall thickness C

(1)Negative deviation of plate and tube C 1
Referring to the teaching material page
95, figure 4-7 & 4-8, selecting according to
the nominal thickness Sn.
(2)Corrosion allowable thickness C2
C2 = K a B
Ka corrosion rate, mm/year
B design life of utility, year

Generally speaking:
Ka < 0.05 mm/year
Single corrosion C2 = 1 mm
Double corrosion C2 = 2 mm
Ka = 0.05~0.1 mm/year
Single corrosion C2 = 1 ~ 2 mm
Double corrosion C2 = 2 ~ 4 mm
For stainless steel,
when the media is little corrosive C 2 = 0

4.Pressure Test and Strength

Verification of vessels:
i. Purpose
(1)Verifying the macro-strength and
deformation of vessels
(2)Verifying the tightness of vessels

ii. Time
(1)For new vessels, the Pressure Test and
Strength Verification should be proceeded
after completely welded and heat treatment.
(2)For inservice vessels, the Pressure Test and
Strength Verification should be proceeded
after examination and repair, and before
putting into production.

iii. Media in Test

(1)Water the most commonly used
Stipulation to T of water:
Carbon steels 16MnR
normalizing15MnVR T 5
Other low alloy steels T 15
Stainless steels
content of [Cl-] in water 25ppm

(2)For the vessels which cannot be filled

with liquid, something like dry and
clean air, nitrogen gas or other inert
gases can be used to fill these vessels.

iv. Determination of Pressure for Testing

(1)Internal Pressure Vessel
Hydrostatic Test
[ ]
PT 1.25P

Pneumatic Test

[ ]t

[ ]
PT 1.15P
[ ]t

(2)External Pressure Vessel

Hydrostatic Test PT 1.25P
Pneumatic Test PT 1.15P

Interpretation of symbols:
P Design pressure, MPa
PT Test pressure, MPa
[] Allowable stress at test
temperature, MPa
[]t Allowable stress at design
temperature, MPa

v. Pressure Testing Methods

(1)Hydrostatic Test

*Filling the vessel in test with liquid.

*Slowly increasing P to the test pressure PT .
*Keeping this pressure more than 30
minutes.
*Decreasing P to 80% of PT .

*Checking the welded seam and connection,

reducing P to repair them if existing
leakage.
*Repeating the previous test until upping to
grade.
*After testing, discharging the liquid and
drying the vessel with compressed air.

(2)Pneumatic Test

*Slowly increasing P to 10% of P T as well as

0.05MPa.
*Keeping this P for 5 minutes and have an
primary inspection.
*If up to grade, continue to slowly increase P
to 50% PT, then by the P=10% PT
degree difference increasing slowly P to P T.

*Keeping this P for 10 minutes.

*Decreasing P to 87% PT, then keeping it
and examining and repairing.
*Repeating the previous test until upping to
grade.

(3)Air (gas) Tight Test

*Slowly increasing P to PT.

*Keeping this P for 10 minutes.
*Decreasing P to the design pressure.
*Examining the sealing condition.

vi. Stress verification before pressure test

(1)Hydrostatic test
PT ( Di S e )
T
0.9 s
2Se

(2)Pneumatic test
PT ( Di S e )
T
0.8 s
2Se

T Calculating stress at testing pressure,

MPa
s Yielding point at testing temperature,
MPa

5.Examples:
i. There is a boiler barrel whose Di=1300mm,
working pressure Pw=15.6MPa and it has
a safety valve. Also know that the design
T=350C, the material is 18MnMoNbR, it
is double welded butt with 100% NDE.
Try to design the thickness of this boiler
barrel.

Solution:
(1)Determining the parameters
Pc = 1.1PW = 1.115.6 = 17.16 MPa
(with the safety valve)
Di = 1300mm
[]t = 190MPa (Design T = 350C)
[] = 190 Mpa (At normal T, S > 60-100)
= 1.0 (Double welded butt, 100% NDE)
C2 = 1 mm (Single corrosion, Low alloy steel)

(2)Calculating the thickness

pc Di
S
2[ ]t pc

17.16 1300

61.5 mm
2 190 1 17.16

Design thickness
Sd = S + C2 = 61.5 + 1 = 62.5 mm

Choosing C1 = 1.8 mm (P95 Figure 4-7)

Additional value of wall thickness
C = C1 + C2 = 1.8 + 1 = 2.8 mm
Nominal thickness
Sn = S + C + round-of value
= 61.5 + 2.8 + round-of value
= 65 mm

(3)Hydrostatic test for strength verification

*Parameters:
[ ]
PT 1.25 P
[ ]t

190
1.25 17.6
21.45MPa
190

*Efficient thickness:
Se = Sn - C = 65 - 2.8 = 62.2 mm
s = 410 MPa

*Stress:

PT ( Di S e )

2Se

21.45 1300 62.2

2 62.2
234.9 MPa

*Stress verification:
0.9 s 0.9 410 1 369 MPa

T 0.9 S

That is to say the strength in

hydrostatic test is enough.

ii. There is a oxygen cylinder which has been

kept in storage for a long time, with
Do=219mm using 40Mn2A and rolled by
seamless steel. The actual Sn= 6.5mm and
b = 784.8MPa, s = 510.12MPa, 5 = 18%,
the design T is normal T.
If the working pressure Pw=15MPa, try to
find whether the thickness is enough or not. If
not, what is the maximum allowable working
pressure in this cylinder?

Solution:
it is the problem about strength verification
Whether t []t or not
(1)Determining the parameters
Pc = 15MPa
Do = 219 mm

b 784.8
[ ]

261.6 MPa
nb
3

Sn = 6.5 mm

s 510.12
[ ]

318.8 MPa
ns
1.6

Choosing the little one: i.e. []t = 261.6MPa

 = 1.0 (for seamless steel)

C2 = 1 mm
C1 = 0 (for the minimum thickness,
negative deviation is neglected.)
Se = Sn - C = 6.5 - 1 = 5.5 mm

(2)Strength verification
pc ( Do S e )
t

2Se
15 219 5.5

291.1 MPa
2 5.5

Obviously, t > []t = 261.6 MPa

So, 15MPa is too large, should be reduced.

(3)Determining the maximum allowable

working P
t
2 [ ] S e
[ p]
Do S e
2 261.6 1 5.5

13.48 MPa
219 5.5

So, the maximum safety P for this

cylinder is 13.48 MPa

4.3 Designing Heads subject

to Internal Pressure

Classification according to the shape:

i. Convex heads
Semi-spherical head
Elliptical head
Dished head (spherical head with hem)
Spherical head without hem

ii. Conical heads

Conical head without hem
Conical head with hem
iii. Flat heads

1.Semi-spherical head
i. Molding of heads
Small diameter and thin wall
(
?)
Integrally heat-pressing
molding
Large diameter
Spherical petal welding

Di

ii. Calculating equation for thickness

pc Di
S
t
4 [ ] pc

pc Di
Sd
C2
t
4 [ ] pc
pc Di
Sn
C2 C1 round of value
t
4[ ] pc

i. Calculating equation
for thickness:
For the elliptical heat
whose m = a / b 2

max

ho hi (b)

2.Thickness calculating equation

of elliptical head
Ri (a)
Di

pa a
m

2S b

2. The maximum stress should be at the top point:

Putting m = a / b, a = D / 2 into the equation,
getting:
mpD

max

4S

Under the condition about strength:

max

Then
:

mpD

[ ]t
4S

pD m
S
t
4 [ ]

(1)Replacing P with Pc
(2)Multiplying []t with welded joint efficiency
(3)Substituting D with Di, D = Di + S
(4) m = a / b = Di / 2 hi
Putting these conditions into the equation:
getting:

Di
pc Di
m

S

t

mp
2
[

0
.
5
p
4
h
t
c 2
c
i

2[ ]
2
pc Di

m = a / b = Di / 2 hi

For the standard elliptical head whose m=2:

pc Di
S
2[ ]t 0.5 pc
For the elliptical head whose m>2:
at boundary and m at the top
point
Then introducing the stress strengthening
coefficient K to replace (Di / 4hi)

K pc Di
S
t
2 [ ] 0.5 pc
In this equation:

1
2
K
6

Di
2hi

For standard elliptical head: K=1

This is the common equation for calculating
the wall thickness of elliptical heads.

Beside these conditions:

for standard elliptical heads S e 0.15% Di
for common elliptical heads Se 0.30% Di

The straight side length of standard

elliptical heads should be
determined
according to P103, Figure 4-11

iii. Working stress and the maximum

allowable working pressure
pc KDi 0.5S e

2Se
t

2[ ] S e
[ p]
KDi 0.5S e
t

ho

i. Structure
r
Containing three parts:
D
Sphere: Ri
Transition arc (hem): r
Straightedge: ho (height)
ii. Calculating equation for thickness

3.Dished head

M pc Ri
and
S
t
2[ ] 0.5 pc

1
M 3
4

M Shape factor of dished head

Ri
r

iii. Working stress and the maximum

allowable working pressure
pc MRi 0.5S e

2Se
t

2[ ] S e
[ p]
MRi 0.5S e
t

iv. Dished head

When Ri = 0.9 Di & r = 0.17 Di
the dished head is standard dished head
and M = 1.325
So the equation is:
1.2 pc Di
S
2[ ]t 0.5 pc

4.Conical head
i. Structure
*without hem (suitable for 30 o )
without local strength
with local strength
*with hem (suitable for > 30 o )
Adding a transition arc and a
straightedge between the joint
of head and cylinder

ii. Calculating equation for thickness

The maximum stress is in the main aspect

of conical head.
m

max max

pD
1

2 S cos

According to the strength condition:

max max

pD 1
t

[ ]
2S cos

Then

pD
1
S

t
2[ ] cos

Replacing P with Pc, considering , and

changing p
DD
into Dc 1D=Dc+S

c
t

2[ ] pc cos

This equation only contains the membrane

stress but neglects the boundary stress at the
joint of cylinder and head. Therefore the
complementary design equation should be
established:
(1)Discriminating whether the joint of
cylinder and head should be reinforced
or not.
(2)Calculation for the local reinforcement.

Conical head without hem ( 30 o )

(1)Not require reinforcing
(consistent thickness for the whole head)
main aspect:
pc Dc
1
S

t
2[ ] pc cos
small aspect:

pc Dis
1
S

t
2[ ] pc cos

(2)Require reinforcing
(for the thickness of joint,
the reinforcement region)
Main aspect:
Q pc Di
Sr
2[ ]t pc
Small aspect:

Q pc Dis
Sr
t
2[ ] pc

Interpretation:
Dc inside diameter of main aspect
Di.s inside diameter of small aspect
Di inside diameter of cylinder
Q coefficient (Consulting the Figure
4-16 or 4-18 in book)

Conical head with hem ( > 30 o )

(1)Thickness of hem at the transition section
K pc Dis
S
t
2[ ] 0.5 pc
(2)Thickness of conical shell at the joint
with
transition section f pc Dis
S
t
[ ] 0.5 pc
K coefficient (Consulting Figure4-13)
f coefficient (Consulting Figure4-14)

4.Flat head
i. Structure
The geometric form of flat heads:
rotundity, ellipse, long roundness,
rectangle, square, etc.
ii. Characteristics of load
Round flat with shaft symmetry which is
subjected to uniform gas pressure

(1)There are two kinds of bending stress states,

distributing linearly along the wall.
(2)Radial bending stress r and hoop bending
stress t distributing along the radius.

Fastening the periphery

r .max

D
0.188P

R PD
0.75

S 2S

t
0
r

r.max

The maximum stress is

at the edge of disk.

max = r.max

 Periphery with simply supported ends

max = r.max = t.max

P
S

The maximum stress is

in the center of disk.
2

t
r
0

r.max

D
r .max 0.31P
S
R PD
1.24

S 2S

iii. Calculation equation for thickness

From the condition of strength max []t ,
getting:
Fastening the periphery
0.188 P
SD
[ ]t
Periphery with simply supported ends

S D

0.31P
t
[ ]

In fact, the supporting condition at boundary

of flat head is between the previous two.
After introducing the coefficient K which is
called structure characteristics coefficient and
considering the welded joint efficient , getting
the calculating equation for thickness of round disk:
S p Dc

K Pc
t
[ ]

Sn S p C2 C1 round of value

5.Examples
Design the thicknesses of cylinder and heads
of a storage tank. Calculating respectively the
thickness of each heads if its semi-spherical,
elliptical, dished and flat head as well as
comparing and discussing the results.
Known: Di = 1200 mm Pc = 1.6Mpa
material: 20R []t = 133Mpa C2 = 1 mm
The heads can be punch formed by a complete
steel plate.

Solution:
(1)Determining the thickness of cylinder
pc Di
1
.
6

1200
S

7.26 mm
t
2 [ ] pc
2 133 1.0 1.6

= 1.0 (Double welded butt, 100%

NDE)
S d S C2 7.26 1.0 8.26 mm

C1 = 0.8 mm (Checking Figure 4-7)

Sd + C1 = 8.26 + 0.8 = 9.06 mm
Round it of, getting: Sn = 10 mm

(2)Semi-spherical head

pc Di
1
.
6

1200
S

3.62
t
4 [ ] pc
4 133 1.0 1.6

= 1.0 (wholly punch forming)

S d S C2 3.62 1.0 4.62 mm

C1 = 0.5 mm (Checking Figure 4-7)

Sd + C1 = 4.62 + 0.5 = 5.12 mm
Round it of, getting: Sn = 6 mm

mm

(3)Standard elliptical head

pc Di
1
.
6

1200
S

7.24 mm
t
2[ ] 0.5 pc 2 133 1.0 0.5 16

= 1.0 (wholly punch forming)

S d S C2 7.24 1.0 8.24 mm

C1 = 0.8 mm (Checking Figure 4-7)

Sd + C1 = 8.24 + 0.8 = 9.04 mm
Round it of, getting: Sn = 10 mm

(4)Standard dished head

1.2 pc Di
1
.
2

1
.
6

1200
S

8.69 mm
t
2[ ] 0.5 pc 2 133 1.0 0.5 1.6
= 1.0 (wholly punch forming)

S d S C2 8.69 1.0 9.69 mm

C1 = 0.8 mm (Checking Figure 4-7)
Sd + C1 = 9.69 + 0.8 = 10.49 mm
Round it of, getting: Sn = 12 mm

(5)Flat head
K = 0.25; Dc = Di = 1200 mm; []t = 110 Mpa

S p Dc

K Pc
0.25 1.6
1200
72.36 mm
t
[ ]
110 1.0

= 1.0 (wholly punch

forming)
S d S C2 72.36 1.0 73.36 mm
C1 = 1.8 mm (Checking Figure 4-7)
Sd + C1 =73.36 + 1.8 = 75.16 mm
Round it of, getting: Sn = 80 mm

Comparison:
Head-form Semi-sphe.
Sn mm
kg

Elliptical

Dished

Flat

10

12

80

106

137

163

662

Selection:
Its better to use the standard elliptical
head whose thickness is the same to that of
cylinder.

Chapter 5 Design of
Cylinders
and Formed Heads
subjected to ExternalPressure
5.1 Summarization

1.Failure of External Pressure Vessel

Under the effect of external pressure, the

vessels may deform when the pressure is larger
than a certain value. This kind of damage is
called the failure of external pressure vessels.

2.Classification of Failure

Side bucking the main form of failure

Axial bucking
Local bucking

5.2 Critical Pressure

1.Critical pressure and
critical compressive stress

The pressure that makes the external

pressure vessels fail is called the critical
pressure, indicating by Pcr.
At the moment that exists Pcr, the stress
inside the vessels is called the critical
compressive stress, indicating by cr .

2.Factors affect the critical pressure

i. Geometric dimension of cylinder

90

(1)

Pcr
mm HO2 500

90

90

0.3

350

0.3
175

175

Degree of
vacuum in failure

0.51

350

0.3

90

(2)

(3)

(4)

300

120~150

300

Comparison and analysis

for the experimental results
Figure (1) and Figure (2):
*When the value of L / D is equal, the larger the
value of S / D, the higher the Pcr.
Figure (2) and Figure (3):
*When the value of S / D is equal, the smaller
the value of L / D, the higher the Pcr.
Figure (3) and Figure (4):
*When the value of S / D and L / D are equal,
having the stiffening ring as well, high Pcr.

ii. Materials Performance of the cylinders

(1)The critical pressure (Pcr) hasnt direct
relation with the strength ( s) of the
materials.
(2)The critical pressure (Pcr) depends of the
flexural rigidity of the cylinders in some
aspects.
The stronger the flexural rigidity, the more
difficult for the failure.

iii. The differential in the dimension at the

process of vessels manufacturing
Mainly reflecting on the ellipticity ( ),
which is the processing differential in the
dimension of the cylindrical section.

Ellipticity:
Dmin

Dmax

Dmax Dmin
e
100%
DN

*Large ellipticity e can make the critical

pressure Pcr decrease and failure happen in
ahead.
*Regulated as in the engineering, ellipticity
e 0.5% when vessels subjected to the
external pressure are made.

3.Long cylinder, short cylinder

and rigid cylinder, the
calculating equations of their
critical pressure

i. Long cylinder
cylinders with large L / Do
Calculating equation of the critical P:
3

2E Se
t Se

2.2 E

Pcr
2
1 Do
Do
t

For steel cylinders:

= 0.3

Calculating equation of the critical

stress:
2
Pcr D Pcr Do
t Se

cr

1.1E
2Se
2Se
Do

ii. Short cylinder

cylinders with small L / Do
Calculating equation of the critical P:

P 2.59 E
'
cr

Se / Do
L / Do

2.5

Calculating equation of the critical

stress:
1.5
'

Pcr Do
t

1.3 E
2Se
'
cr

Se / Do
L / Do

iii. Rigid cylinder

cylinders with small L / Do, large Se / Do
Designing criterion:
Only need to satisfy the strength condition:
compression [ ]tcompression
i.e.
Pc Di S e
t

[ ]t
2Se

4.Critical Length

Critical length which is used to classify the

long cylinder and short cylinder; and it is the critical
dimension of the short cylinder and rigid cylinder.
L > Lcr
Long cylinder
Lcr < L < Lcr
L < Lcr

Short cylinder
Rigid cylinder

i. Critical length Lcr of long and short cylinder:

Lcr 1.17 Do

Do
Se

cr

ii. Critical length L of short and rigid cylinder:

'
cr

1.3E S e

Do
t
comp.
Se

5.3 Engineering Design of

External-P Vessels
1.Designing criterions
Pcr
Pc [ P ]
m

Pc Calculating Pressure, MPa

Pcr Critical Pressure, MPa
[p] Allowable External Pressure, MPa
m Stable safety coefficient
For cylinders, m = 3
at the same time, e 0.5%

2.Nomograph for the thickness

designing of the external-P
cylinders
i. Calculating Steps
Step 1: L Do Se
Drawing the curve

f Do S e , L Do

Step 2: Find the relationship between and [P]

2 t
Making : B E
m

For cylinder m=3 and

2 t
B E
3

Then getting the relationship curve B = f ()

So :

Se
[ P] B
Do

ii. Steps of nomograph for the thickness

designing of the external-P cylinders (Tubes)
For the cylinders and tubes whose Do/Se 20:
(1)Supposing Sn, Se = Sn - C, calculating the
values of L / Do and Do / Se.
(2)Calculating the value of (value of A),
checking the Figure (5-5).
If L / Do > 50, checking the figure using
L / Do = 50.
If L / Do < 0.05, checking the figure using
L / Do = 0.05.

(3)Calculating the value of B

According to the used material, choosing
the relevant graphs from Figure (5-7) and
Figure (5-14) and then finding the point A
from abscissa.

Two situations maybe encountered:

*Point A with that certain value lies at the right
of the curve and intersects with the curve,
then the value of B can be found directly in
the
figure.
*Point A with that certain value lies at the left
of the curve and has no joint with the curve,
then the value of B is calculated
2 tby the
B E A
following equation:
3

(4)Calculating [P]
Putting the value of B into Equation (9) [P]
Se
B
[ P] B

Do Do S e

(5)Comparing

~
~
If [ P ] Pc i.e. the supposed Sn is usable, safe

If [ P] Pc

i.e. the supposed Sn is too large and

should be decreased
appropriately, repeating the previous calculating
steps until satisfying
first condition.
i.e. the the
supposed
Sn is too small and

If [ P] Pc

should be increased appropriately,

repeating the previous calculating steps until
satisfying the first condition.

3.Pressure test of external-P

vessels

i. Pressure test of external-P vessels and

vacuum vessels is processing as the
hydrostatic pressure test.
Testing pressure:
PT = 1.25 P
P design pressure

ii. Vessels with jackets (Jacketed Vessels)

(1)Welding the jacket before the hydrostatic test to the

cylindrical parts of jacketed vessels is assured to be
completely qualified.
(2)Taking another pressure test to the jacket after
welding the jacket.
Testing pressure: PT = 1.25 P
(3)At the cause of pressure test to the jacket, the
stability of the cylindrical part should be
guaranteed. If necessary, charging pressure into the
cylinder to make the internal-external pressure
difference less than the design pressure.

4.Example and discussion

Design the thickness of an external-P cylinder.
Known:
Calculating pressure: Pc = 0.2 MPa
Design temperature: t = 250
Inside diameter: Di = 1800 mm
Calculating length: L = 10350 mm
Additional value of wall thickness: C = 2 mm
Material: 16MnR; Et = 186.4 103 Mpa

Solution:
(1)Assuming Sn = 14 mm
Then Do = Di + 2 Sn = 1828 mm
Se = Sn - C = 12 mm
Finding out:
L / Do = 10350 1828 = 5.7
Do / Se = 1828 12 = 152
(2)Calculating the value of (A)
Checking the Figure 5-5, getting:
A = 0.000102

(3)Calculating the value of B

From Figure 5-9, we can see that
point A is at the left of the curve, then the
calculating equation is like following:
2 t
2
B E A 186.4 103 0.000102 12.78 MPa
3
3

(4)Calculating [P]
B

12
.
78
[ P]

0.0834 MPa
Do S e
152
(5)Comparing [P] and Pc
[P] < Pc = 0.2 MPa unsatisfied
Reassuming Sn, or setting the stiffening ring.

Calculation under the condition that supposes

there have two stiffening rings:
(1)Thickness is the same: Sn = 14 mm
After setting two stiffening rings,
the calculating length is like following:
L

Lorigin
3

10350

3450 mm
3

3450
Then L D o
1.9
1828

(D o Se 152)

(2)Calculating the value of (A)

Checking the Figure 5-5, getting:
A = 0.00035
(3)Calculating the value of B
From Figure 5-9, we can see that
point A is at the right of the curve,
getting B = 42.5 MPa

(4)Calculating [P]
[ P]

B
Do S e

42.5

0.28 MPa
152

(5)Comparing [P] and Pc

[P] > Pc = 0.2 MPa satisfied

Calculation under the condition that supposes

to increase the thickness:
(1)Assuming: Sn = 20 mm
Then Do = Di + 2 Sn = 1840 mm
Se = Sn - C = 18 mm
Finding out:
L / Do = 10350 1840 = 5.6
Do / Se = 1828 18 = 102

(2)Calculating the value of (A)

Checking the Figure 5-5, getting:
A = 0.00022
(3)Calculating the value of B
From Figure 5-9, we can see that
point A is at the right of the curve,
getting B = 27.5 MPa

(4)Calculating [P]
B

27
.
5
[ P]

0.27
Do S e
102

MPa

(5)Comparing [P] and Pc

[P] > Pc = 0.2 MPa and closing
So, we can use the steel plate with
Sn = 20 mm, whose material is 16MnR.

5.4 Design of External-P

Spherical Shell and Convex Head
1.Design of external-P spherical
shell and semi-spherical head
i. Assuming Sn, and Se = Sn C.
Calculating the value of Ro / Se.

ii. Calculating the value of (A)

0.125
A
Ro S e

iii. Calculating the value of B and [P]

According the used material, choosing
the relevant graph from Figure 5-7 and
Figure 5-14 and finding out the point A at the
abscissa.

Two situations maybe encountered:

(1)If point A is at the right of the curve, the
value of B can be found from the figure
directly.
Then

B
[P]
Ro S e

(2)If point A is at the left of the curve,

directly calculating:
t

0.0833E
[ P]
( Ro S e ) 2

iv. Comparison

~~
i.e. the original assuming Sn is
If [ P ] P c
usable, and safety.
If [ P]

i.e. the original assuming Sn is

Pc
too small, Sn should be
increased appropriately,
repeating the previous
calculating steps until
satisfying
the first condition.

2.Design of external-P convex head

The method of designing the external-P
convex head is the same to that of designing
external-P spherical head. But the R o in the
designing of spherical head should be adjusted
like following:

i. For elliptical head

Ro the equivalent spherical diameter of
elliptical head; Ro = K1Do
K1 coefficient; depending on a / b,
checking P141, Figure 5-3

ii. For dished head

Ro the equivalent spherical diameter
of the dished head; its the outside
diameter of the spherical part at
the dished head.

5.5 Design of the Stiffening Ring

in External-P Vessels
1.Function of stiffening ring

And

Se

Pcr 2.2 E
Do
t

Pcr
[ P]
m

Pcr' 2.59 E t

Se

Do

Do

2.5

From the previous equations, we can know the

methods to increase [P]:
i. Increasing S
ii. Decreasing the calculating length L
Function of stiffening ring

decreasing calculating length to

increase [P]

2.Space length and number

of stiffening ring
Assuming the space length of stiffening ring is L s
From the design criterions of external-P:
Pc [P]
and [P] = Pcr / m
Making Pc = [P]

then Pcr = m Pc

(a)

From the equation for the critical pressure of

2.5
short cylinder:

S e Do
'
t
Pcr 2.59 E
L Do

Putting equation (a) in, getting:

P 2.59 E
'
cr

Se
Ls

Do
Do

2.5

m pc

Then putting m=3 in, getting:

( Ls ) max

Do S e

0.86 E
Pc Do
t

2.5

(Ls)max Under the condition that Do and

Se of the cylinder is determined,
the maximum space length
between the needed stiffening
rings working safely under the
calculating external pressure Pc,
mm.

The actual space length between stiffening

rings Ls (Ls)max is indicating safety.
The number of stiffening rings:
L
n
1
Ls

In the above equation:

L the calculating length of cylinder before
setting the stiffening rings, mm
Ls the space length between stiffening
rings, mm

3.Connection of stiffening rings and

cylinders
Connection Demands

Must assure all the cylinder and stiffening

ring are under the load together.
ii. Connection Methods

Welding Continuous Weld ( )

Tack Weld ( )
i.

iii. The stiffening rings should not

be randomly crippled or cut
off. If those must be done, the
length of the arc that are crippled
or cut off should not be larger
than the values shown in Figure 5-19.

For example:
There is a horizontal external pressure vessel.
When the stiffening ring is set inside the
cylinder, in order not to affect the fluid flowing
or fluid discharging, we must leave a hole at
the lowest position of the stiffening ring or set a
thoroughfare of fluid.

As illustrating like the following two figures

Chapter 5 Components
and
Parts of Vessels
6.1 Flanges Connection

1.The Sealing Theory ( ) and

Connection Structure of Flanges

i.

Connection Structure

Three parts:
(1)Connected parts
a couple of flanges
(2)Connecting parts
several couples of
bolts and nuts
(3)Sealing parts
gasket

ii. Sealing Theory

Taking the bolts forced sealing as an example to

illustrate the Sealing Theory:

(1)Before butting (2)After butting (3)After charging

medium

2.The Structure and

Classification of Flanges
According to the connection ways of
flanges and equipment (pipelines)
(1)Integrated flange
S.O.flange (slip on flange)
W.N.flange (welding neck flange)

Pipeline Flange Vessel Flange

S.O.flange

W.N.flange

(2)Simple [loose (type), lap joint, lapped] flange

On the welding ring

Interlink on the
turn-down rims

(3)Screwed flange

Square flange

Elliptical flange

3.Factors effect the sealing of

flanges

i. Bolt load under pretension condition

(bolt load for gasket sealing)
The bolt load is too small to seal specific pressure
( ); the bolt load is too large to
avoid the gasket being pressed or extruded.

Increasing the bolt load appropriately can

strengthen the sealing ability of gasket.
So under the condition of certain bolt load,
decreasing the diameter of bolts or
increasing the number of them are both
beneficial for sealing.

ii. The types of sealing face

(1)plain (face) flange
(2)M&F (male and female)
(3)T&G (tongue and groove face)
(4)Conical face
(5)Trapezoidal groove face

iii. Properties of gasket

(1)The common-used materials of gasket
*Non-metal Material
Rubber, Asbestos, Synthetic resins.
Advantages: soft and corrosion resistant
Disadvantages: the properties of high-T
resistance and pressure
resistance is inferior to the
metallic materials.
Used in: Common and Medium T; Flange
sealing of Medium and Low P
devices and pipes.

*Metal (Metallic) Material

soft aluminum, copper, iron (soft

steel), 18-8 stainless steel.
Advantages: high-T resistant, with high strength
Demands: Excellent soft toughness
Used in: Medium and high T; Flange sealing
subjected to medium and high P

(2)Gasket Types (Classifying according to the

properties of materials)
*Non-metal Gasket
such as rubber gasket, asbestos-rubber
gasket.
*Compound Gasket (Metal and non-metal
compound gasket)
such as metal jacketed gasket (
) and Metal spirotallic [spiralwound] gasket

Metal jacketed gasket ( ), i.e.

wrapping the metal slice around the asbestos
gasket or asbestos-rubber gasket
Metal spirotallic [spiral-wound] gasket (
), i.e. making by alternately rolling
thin steel belt and asbestos

*Metal gasket
such as octagon ring gasket, elliptical
gasket, lens ring (washer) [grooved
metallic gasket]

(3)Selection of gasket

*Factors of working pressure and temperature

Medium and low P; common and medium T
Non-metal gasket
Medium P; Medium T
Metal and non-metal compound gasket
High P; high T Metal gasket
High vacuum; cryogenic Metal gasket

*Degree of demands for sealing

*Demands for the types of sealing face
*Properties of gasket
Concrete selection should be referred to
JB4704-92, JB4705-92, JB4706-92.
At the same time, the practical experience
should be taken into account.

iv. Rigidity ( ) of flange

(1)If the rigidity of flange is not enough, there
will occur the serious buckling [ ]
deformation, as well the specific pressure will
decrease and the sealing face will be loose, as
a result, the sealing will fail.
(2)Measures to increase the rigidity of flange
(3)Strengthening the rigidity of flange to
increase the weight of flange as well the value
of whole-flanges sealing.

v. Effect of working conditions

Temperature
Temperature
Pressure
Pressure
Corrosive
Corrosive Characteristics
Characteristics

of medium

Penetrant
Penetrant Characteristics
Characteristics
Greatly affecting the sealing

Combined effect

4.Standard and Selection

of Flanges
i. Standard number of pressure vessel flanges
JB / T 4701-2000 JB / T 4703-2000

Standard types and marks

of pressure vessel flanges
Sealing
face

Without lined ring

With lined ring (C)

Plain

M&F
M F

T&G
T G

Plain

M&F
M F

T&G
T G

A-S.O.Flange
JB/T 4701-2000

A T

S C

A T

S C

B-S.O.Flange
JB/T 4702-2000

A T

S C

A T

S C

W.N.Flange
JB/T 4703-2000

A T

S C

A T

S C

Type

Code

For example:
PN=1.6MPa, DN = 800mm, T&G B-S.O.Flange
with lined ring
T Flange: C-S 800 1.6 JB4702-92
G Flange: C-C 800 1.6 JB4702-92

Standard
Standard
Code
Code

Nominal
Nominal
Pressure
Pressure
MPa
MPa

C-C 800 1.6 JB4702-92

Code
Code of
of Flange
Flange Type
Type
Code
Code of
of Sealing
Sealing
face
face Type
Type

Nominal
Nominal
Diameter
Diameter
mm
mm

ii. Dimension of pressure vessel flanges

Dimension of flanges is only confirmed by
two standardized parameters PN and DN of
flanges.
Confirmation of Nominal Pressure PN of
flanges: JB4700-92 (Book, P160)

iii. Selection steps for pressure vessel flanges

(1)According to the design task, confirming

the types of flanges (S.O. or W.N.).
(Referring to P157 Table 6-2)
(2)According to the nominal diameter D N of
flanges , working temperature, design
pressure, material of flanges, confirming
the nominal diameter DN and nominal
pressure PN of flanges.
(Referring to P160 Table 6-4; P332 Appendix 12)

(3)Confirming the sealing face types of flanges

and the types of gaskets.
(Referring to P155 Table 6-1)
(4)According to the types of flanges, D N and
PN of flanges, checking and finding out the
dimension of flanges; number of bolts and
their specification.
(Referring to P336 Appendix 14)

(5)Confirming the material of bolts and nuts.

(Referring to P163 Table 6-6; P333
Appendix 13)
(6)Portraying the unit drawing of flanges.

Example:
There are flanges to connect the body of a
fractionating (rectifying) tower and the heads.
Knowns:
Inside diameter of tower: Di = 1000mm
Working temperature: t = 280
Design Pressure: P = 0.2MPa
Material of tower: Q235-AR

Solution:
(1)From P157 Table 6-2, A-S.O.Flange is selected.
(2)Confirming the nominal diameter DN and
nominal pressure PN
DN = 1000 mm
(Equal to the inside diameter of tower)
From P160 Table 6-4, choose the material of
tower as that of flanges, i.e. Q235-AR
t = 280

When PN = 0.25 Mpa,

Pallowable = 0.14 MPa < Pdesign = 0.2 Mpa
When PN = 0.6 Mpa,
Pallowable = 0.33 MPa

> Pdesign = 0.2 Mpa

So, the nominal pressure of flanges is:

PN = 0.6 MPa

(3)Confirming the sealing face types of flanges

From P155 Table 6-1, choosing plain sealing
face, spirotallic [spiral-wound] gasket
(4)According to the DN and PN of flanges, from
Appendix 14, Table 32, finding out the
dimension of every part of flanges.
Specification of bolts: M20;

Number: 36

(5)From P163 Table 6-6, finding out:

Material of bolts: 35 steel
Material of nuts: Q235-A
(6)Portraying the unit drawing of flanges
(Omitting)

Standard of tube flanges

(New Standard issued by Chemical Ministry)
European: HG 20592 97 ~ HG 20600 97
American: HG 20615 97 ~ HG 20621 97

6.2 Support for vessels

Support for horizontal vessels
Saddle support, ring support, leg, etc.

Support for vertical vessels

Skirt support, hanging support, etc.

1.Double-saddle support
i. The structure of double-saddle support
Gasket
120

Web-plate
Sub-plate

Anchor bolt

ii. Position of support (A)

ADo/4 & < 0.2L. The maximum value < 0.25L

iii. Standard and selection of double-saddle
support
Type Stationary type: F Movable type: S
Model Type Light-duty: A Heavy-duty: B
Mark JB / T 4712-92 Support

Model
Model Type
Type

Nominal
Nominal Diameter
Diameter

Type
Type

2.Checking calculation of
stress in double-saddle
horizontal vessels
i. Load analysis for horizontal vessels

A F

F A

Shearing Force
Diagram
M1

M3
M2

Bending Moment
Diagram

ii. Reserved force to support

mg q
4
mg
or
F
L hi
F
2
2
3
2
In this equation:
q Mass load/unit length of vessels,
N / mm
L Distance between the T.L.
(tangent lines) of two heads, mm
hi Height of curved surface of heads,
mm

iii. The maximum radical bending moment

The section across the middle point of moment

22 RRm2m2 hhi2i2
11

22

FL
4
A
FL
4
A
L
L
M

M11
44hhi i
44
LL
11


33LL

(N
(Nmm)
mm)

The section at support

A R h
1

L
2 AL
M 2 FA 1
4
h

1 i

3L
2
m

2
i

(N mm)

iv. Calculation for radical stress of cylinder

to the vessels subjected to positive pressure
(1)Stress across the middle section
The most highest point in section (Point 1):
PPccRRmm
M
11
M211
22SSee RRmm2 SSee
The most lowest point in section (Point 2):
PPccRRmm
M
22
M211
22SSee RRmm2 SSee

(2)Stress in the section of support

The most highest point in section (Point 3):
PPccRRmm
M
M
22
33

22
22SSee KK11 RRmm SSee
The most lowest point in section (Point 4):
PPccRRmm
M
M22
44

22SSee KK22 RRm2m2 SSee

v. Checking calculation for radical stress of

cylinder
Radical tensile stress

comb

.
tensile
comb. tensile max
max

tt

Radical compressive stress

comb
comb. comp
. comp. . max
max

tt

the
thesmaller
smaller va
value
lue
crcr BB

In these two equations:

[]t The allowable stress of material at the
design T, MPa
[]c r The allowable compressive stress of
material, MPa
B Calculation method is the same with that
in design of external pressure, see P172

6.3 Reinforcement for

opening of vessels
1.The phenomena and reason for
opening stress concentration

Stress concentration factor:

max
K

max The maximum stress

at the boundary of opening
* The maximum basic
stress of shell

Small opening
in plate

Reasons for stress concentration:

(1)Material of vessel wall is deteriorate
(2)The continuity of structure is damaged

2.Opening reinforcements
Designing
i. Designing Criterions
(1)Equi-area criterion of reinforcement
(2)Plastic failure criterion of reinforcement

ii. Reinforcement Structure

(1)Structure of Stiffening Ring
Nozzle (Connecting Tube)

Stiffening Ring
Shell

(2)Structure of
Method Taking the
parts of nozzles or vicinity of
shells openings which need
to be reinforced as the
, then welding these
parts with nozzles or shells.

(3)Structure of Integral Reinforcement

Method Taking the connecting parts of
nozzles and shells as the integral forgings, at
the same time thickening them, then welding
them with nozzles and shells.

iii. Diameter Range of the openings that need

not to be reinforced
When the following requirements are all met,
the reinforcement is out of need.
(1)Design Pressure P 2.5 MPa
(2)The distance between two mid-points of two
nearby openings (taking length of are as the
length of curved surface) should be larger
than 2 (D1+D2), D1, D2 are the diameters of
the two openings respectively.

(3)Nominal Outside Diameter of

connecting tubes 89 mm
(4)The minimum wall thickness min
of connecting tubes should meet
the following requirements:(mm)

min

25

32
3.5

38

45
4.0

48

57

65
5.0

76
6.0

89

3.Designing methods of
equi-area reinforcement

Metallic
Metallic areas
areas in
in local
local reinforcement
reinforcement

the
the area
area of
of sections
sections which
which are
are
the
the position
position of
of openings
openings

i. Confirmation of the effective range of

opening and reinforcement areas

h2

h1

A1

A2

A3

A4

Effective width: B 2d

B d 2 S n 2 S n. t

max

Effective [working] height:

Outside height
h1

d S n.t

h1 actual overhang height of nozzle

min

Inside height

h2

d S n.t

h2 actual embedded height of nozzle

min

In these equations:
Sn Nominal thickness of cylinders
Sn.t Nominal thickness of connecting
tubes (nozzles)
d Diameter of openings

d = di +2C

di Inside diameter of openings

C Additional value of wall thickness

Computation of metallic areas for

effective reinforcement
(1)The area of the sections on shell which
are the positions of openings A: A = Sd
(2)The unnecessary metallic area A1 on shell or
heads which is larger than calculating thickness S:
A1 = (B d) (Se S) 2 (Sn.t C) (Se S) (1 fr)

(3)The unnecessary metallic area A2 on nozzles

which is larger than the calculating thickness S:
A2 = 2 h1 ( Sn.t St C ) fr + 2 h2 ( Sn.t C C2 ) fr

(4)The metallic area of welding seam in the

reinforcement region A3:
A3 = according to the actual dimension

ii. Designing Steps in Reinforcement for openings

(1)Getting the following data from the strength
calculation:
Calculating wall thickness of cylinders or heads S
Nominal wall thickness of cylinders or heads Sn
Calculating wall thickness of nozzles St
Nominal wall thickness of nozzles Sn.t
Additional value of wall thickness C = C1+ C2

(2)Calculating the effective reinforcement range

B, h1, h2
(3)Calculating the necessary reinforcement area
A according to P183 Table 6-17
(4)Calculating the available reinforcement area
A1, A2, A3

(5)Judging whether it is necessary to add

some reinforcement area
If A1 + A2 + A3 A
reinforcement not required
If A1 + A2 + A3 < A
reinforcement required

(6)If reinforcement is required, calculating the

added reinforcement area A4
A4 = A A1 + A2 + A3
(7)Comparison
Finally getting

A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 A

6.4 Attachment of vessels

1.Man Hole and Hand Hole
i. Nominal Diameter of standard man-hole
DN 400 450
500
600
ii. Nominal Diameter of standard hand-hole
DN 150

250

2.Connecting Tubes (Nozzles) [ ]

3.Flg (Flange, Flanch) [ ]
4.Sight (Level) Glass [ ]