PRACTICAL 6

SUBJECT: SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - PART 1

AIMS

Learn how to observe and describe sedimentary rocks, based on hand-lens
observations of hand-specimens
Learn how to identify the most common sedimentary rock types
Practice formulating petrogenetic interpretations based on hand-specimen
observations

MAIN CONCEPT
Processes forming sedimentary rocks are summarised in a flow chart in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Flow chart showing the various paths that sediment can take from its source in the
zone of weathering to its final site of deposition where it is turned into a solid sedimentary
rock (from Klein & Philpotts, 2013)

There are two major groups of sediments

1. Clastic sediments
2. Chemical and biogenic sediments

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SUPPORTING CONCEPTS
1. Sedimentary rocks are composed of material, that formed by mechanical and/or chemical
weathering. The material is transported by various media (water, ice, wind) and finally
deposited (Fig. 1).
2. The most common minerals in sedimentary rocks are quite stable under conditions of the
Earths surface.
3. The main minerals / petrographic componentes in sedimentary rocks are: (a) quartz, (b)
calcite (c) clay minerals, (d) rock clasts and, subordinate, (e) feldspars.
4. The most important marine depositional environments for sedimentary material are: (a)
deltas, (b) shallow-marine, (c) shores, (d) deep-marine and (e) reefs. Important non-marine
(terrestrial) environments are: (f) fluviatile (rivers), (g) glacial (glacier), (h) alluvial (scree
etc.) and (i) arid (desert).
COMPOSITION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Only those minerals which are resistant to weathering and transport are preserved.
1. Quartz
Quartz is the most common mineral in siliciclastic sediments, because it is very common in
many source rocks and has high hardness and weathering resistance. In contrast, Fe-Mg-Ca
silicates like olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, biotite, but also feldspars, are more easily
affected by weathering processes. Quartz can also be dissolved and re-precipitated as SiO2cement.
2. Calcite
Calcite is the main mineral in limestone and the most common cement mineral in siliciclastic
rocks. Calcite (CaCO3) forms either by anorganic chemical or biochemical precipitation (e.g.,
corals). Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) forms during diagenesis of carbonate sediments.
3. Clay minerals
These very fine-grained sheet-silicates form due to chemical weathering of silicates,
especially of feldpars. They are concentrated in fine-grained siliciclastic sediments (e.g.,
mudstones)
4. Rock fragments and fossils
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Clasts of various rocks are a further components in siliciclastic rocks (e.g., in conglomerate,
wacke). Bioclasts are relicts of organisms (fossils). Corals can form thick reefs.
5. Other minerals
Feldspars and micas may become important in some sedimentary rocks. Dolomite, gypsum,
anhydrite and halite are important in evaporites. From fossilised organic material coal and
petroleum (oil, gas) can form.


Minerals remaining
in sediment

INTENSITY OF WEATHERING
Low
Medium
Quartz
Quartz
Feldspar
Feldspar
Mica
Mica
Pyroxene
Clay minerals
Amphibole

High
Quartz
Clay minerals

Table. 1 Minerals in clastic sediments derived from an average granite outcrop under varying
intensities of weathering (after Press & Siever, 1995)

FABRICS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Together with other parameters sedimentary fabrics preserve information about the transport
(mode, distance) and depositional environment. Commonly sedimentary rocks show bedding.
Two of the major fabric types in sedimentary rocks are:
(1) Clastic fabrics: see previous course!
(2) Non-clastic fabrics: often no bedding in hand specimen; special textures (fossils, ooids)
are often found in biogenic sediments.

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SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTS
A. General comments
1. Composition
The distinction of components (clasts), matix and cement is essential for the description and
classification of clastic sedimentary rocks.
Components: coarser material > 0,02 mm.
Matrix: fine material <0.02 mm) that was deposited (together with coarser components).
Cement later mineral precipitates (carbonates, quartz, etc.) in the pore spaces during
diagenesis.
2. Roundness
Larger particles (clasts) are affected by physical abrasion transport. They break up, decrese in
size and become rounded (longer transport > increased roundness). Roundness can be
described with the terms angular, subangular, subrounded and rounded (Fig. 2).

angular subangular subrounded rounded

Fig. 2. Roundness of particles

3. Sorting and textural maturity

With decreasing transport energy the particles become sedimented. Caused by differences in
density and especially in grain size particles are sorted. Whereas coarser material is already
deposited finer material is still transported. Sorting describes the variation in grain size of a
sediment; good vs. bad sorting, Fig. 3).
Textural maturity
immature: angular, poorly sorted grains, > matrix (mud) -> no significant transport
submature: no matrix (mud-size removed), rather angular grains, poorly sorted
mature: well-sorted, subangular grains
supermature: well-sorted, well rounded grains -> considerable transport or high energy
environment (e.g., beach with strong wave action)
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Fig. 3. Illustration of sorting

4. Matrix versus cement

Distinction of matrix und cement is often difficult without a microscope. A few observations
may help. In matrix-supported rocks the fine mud forming the matrix must have been
deposited together with the larger grains. In grain-supported rocks the content of matrix is low
(texturally mature rocks). The grains are often bound together by cement (Fig. 5).

matrix-supported

grain-supported

Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of matrix- vs. grain-supported clastic fabric

5. Grain size
Grain size is the essential criterion for naming and classifying clastic sediments.
One classification is:
Psephite
Psammite
Pelite

(gravel)
(sand)
(mud: silt, clay)

>2.0 mm
0.02-2.0 mm
<0.02 mm

A more detailed classification is shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Major classes of clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks

5. Some siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
Conglomerate, Breccia
Sedimentary rocks composed predominantly of gravel-size particles (2-63 mm).
rounded components = Conglomerate
angular components = (sedimentary) Breccia
Components can be various minerals and rock fragments
oligomict: just one type of component
polymict: different componet types
Weathering-resistant SiO2-components are common (quartz, quartzite, chert). Carbonate rocks
(limestone, dolostone) and metamorphic rocks can be important. The matrix can be silicate-rich or
carbonate-rich (HCl-test!).
Conglomerates form in high energy environments: rapidly flowing rivers, marine beaches,
submarine fans and debris flows, lithified glacial till. Sedimentary breccias form when transport
distance is short. Note that breccias can form by other processes too: tectonic brecciation, volcanic
eruption etc.
Sandstone, Wacke
Consolidated clastic sediments with >50% of sand detrital grains (0.063-2mm).
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Sandstone s.str. (arenite) have <15% matrix (grain size of matrix < 0.03 mm); Wacke (also
greywacke) have >15% matrix. For further subdivision of sandstones the abundance of quartz
feldspar rock fragments is used (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Classification of sandstone (after McBride 1963, from Klein & Philpotts 2013).

Mudrocks (includes shale)

Fine-grained sedimentary rocks formed from siliciclastic sediment with grain size <0.063mm. If
most grains are coarser than 0.004 the rock is called as siltstone, if most are finer it is called a
claystone. Mudrocks with a high content of clay minerals tend to split into sheets parallel to the
bedding. This fissility characterises mud rocks known as shale. Mud rocks are most abundant (2/3
of sedimentary rocks). Mudrocks rich in organic material are source rocks for petroleum. They also
have low permeability and are therefore excellent cap rocks for oil reservoirs. Clay minerals and
quartz are the dominant minerals. However, they are too fine-grained to be identified
macroscopically.

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Petrographic description of a sedimentary rock an example

This is an example how a description could look like.
S253 Carbonate-cemented sandstone
General aspect: Fresh (unweathered), light-grey sandstone
Mineralogy and clast features: immature sandstone consisting of well-sorted, poorly-
rounded to highly-angular mineral and rock clasts, of generally low sphericity.
Most clasts are minerals: quartz (~20 vol.%), feldspar (~10%), books of biotite
and muscovite (~10%), prismatic mafic minerals (amphibole or pyroxene).
Rounded dark rock clasts (schists?) and transparent quartz clasts up to 1 cm
diameter (~20 vol.%).
Fabric: Clastic: rock is grain-supported and cemented by ~30 vol.% of yellowish-
white calcite (confirmed by acid test). No sedimentary structures visible.
Petrogenesis: Mineralogy suggests that the source of the sediment was eroding
granitic- to dioritic plutonic rocks and perhaps schists (metamorphic rocks).
Deposition was in a near-shore, marine- or river sand-bank environment (no
fossils are present to discriminate between freshwater or seawater deposition).
Aeolian (wind) deposition is ruled out by low maturity and poor rounding (lack of
aerodynamic sorting between very different clast shapes and densities).
Immaturity and poor rounding suggests the source rocks were not distant. The
mineral clasts look very fresh (no alteration to clays), suggesting that erosion of
the source rocks was mechanical rather than chemical, in a cool paleoclimate.
Cementation following deposition due to percolation of CaCO3-bearing
groundwater. This groundwater obviously cannot have come from the source
region of the clasts.

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PRACTICAL 6 - TASKS
SUBJECT: SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. Describe one coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock according to the following
parameters:
a. Estimate the average grain-size of the detrital components.
b. How is the shape of the detrital components characterised? (look at the roundness and
compare with Fig. 2!)
c. How ist the sorting and textural marturity of the rock (compare with Fig. 3!) ?
d. How many distinct detrital components can you observe? (look at the color, hardness etc.!).
Try to identify the detrital components (use also the diluted hydrochloric acid!)
e. Determine whether matrix, or cement can be observed! Estimate the ratio between
matrix/cement and the detrital components! Is the fabric matrix-supported or grain-supported?
(see Fig. 4).
f. Is the matrix made up by siliceous or carbonate material? Use also the diluted hydrochloric
acid!
e. Is the rock solidified? Name the rock!
2. Sandstone and Wacke: Compare samples RS25 with RS26 (or RS31)
a. Estimate the average grain-size of the detrital grains.
b. Which sample has more matrix? Why is RS25 of lighter colour? Is the matrix carbonatic?
c. Which rocks is better sorted?
d. Can you identify quartz in the samples (start with RS25 and use a hand lens!); Can you
observe rounded quartz grains? Why would this observation be important?
e. Try to name the rocks; e.g., use Fig. 5 for the matrix-poor sample.
3. Describe and identify specimen RS21 (S175). See specimen S253 for comparison.
Consider the following parameters:

Which components can you identify? What is most obvious?

What is the grain-size of the matrix? Is the matrix of siliceous or carbonate

material?

Name the rock!

In which sedimentary environment was this rock deposited?

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PRACTICAL 7
SUBJECT: SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - PART 2
CHEMICAL AND BIOGENIC SEDIMENTS
1. Classification
The principal classification is based on chemical composition (Table 3).
Tabelle 3.
Rock

Notes

Limestone

Mineralogy
Calcite, CaCO3

Dolostone

Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2

see limestones

Chert

Amorphous silica, SiO2

cryptocrystalline, high
hardness

Evaporite

Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O;

fine- to coarse grained, low

hardness and density; taste

Halite (NaCl)

see separate classification!

Coal; Oil, Gas

Organic carbon compounds, coal: black colour, relicts of

(C-H-...)
plants; oil and gas: fluids

Iron-formations

Fe-(hydr)oxides, amorphous banded; oolitic

silica etc.

2. Carbonate sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks with >50% carbonate minerals (calcite, dolomite). Most are of biogenic
origin (formed by organisms), some form by anorganic chemical (or mixed) processes.
Anorganic and biogenic precipitation of carbonate
The reaction controlling precipitation and dissolution of calcite in aqueous fluids is:
Ca2+ + 2HCO3- = CaCO3 + H2CO3
calcium ion + bicarbonate ion (dissolved) = calcium carbonate (precipitated) + carbonic acid
(dissolved)
In addition to temperature, the CO2-content of (sea)water controls reaction progress.

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When living evertebrate organisms (molluscs, corals etc.) produce their shells they precipitate
Ca-carbonate through the same reaction. The precipitated calcium carbonate is calcite but in
some cases it is (metastable!) aragonite.
Carbonate components
In contrast to siliciclastic rocks the petrographic componentes of carbonate rocks are mostly
produced at the depositional sites (not transported very far).
1) Allochems (Carbonate components)
Bioclasts: fossils, fossil fragments
Ooids: round, often concentric growth
Intraclasts: irregular shaped
Mineral grains (quartz, white mica etc.)
2) Matrix
fine-grained carbonate mud (= Mikrite)
3) Cement
coarser-grained diagnetic carbonate material filling pore spaces (= Sparite)
Classification of limestones

Fig. 6. Classification of limestones after Dunham (1962). Scale bar in photos s 1 mm.

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Dolostone
Dolostones are present in essentially the same environments as limestones. The main mineral
is dolomite. Dolomite is not directly precipitated from seawater. It forms during diagenesis
(see lecture notes). For distinction of limestone and dolostone do the HCl-test.
Marls
Marls are mixtures of fine-grained (silt, clay) siliciclastic material with carbonate material.
With HCl calcite reacts (fizzing r.) and the fine clay material is left forming a very thin film
of insoluble material.
3. Evaporites
Marine evaporites are formed by evaporation of seawater. Rocks have relatively simple
mineralogy forming beds of gypsum, anhydrite and salt (halite). In the field evaporites are
often associated with carbonate rocks. Halite (salty taste!) has low density (D=2.16) and is
easily deformed by flow -> salt domes, salt diapirs.
4. Cherts
Rocks composed of very fine-grained amorphous/cryptocrystalline silica. These rocks are
harder than carbonate rocks and break with conchoidal fracture. Flint: chert nodules in
carbonate rocks (-> stone tools).
5. Other chemical and biogenic sedimentary rocks
Iron-formations: banded or laminated iron ores (BIF; banded iron formations); >15 wt% Fe;
chert layers.
Phosphorite: rocks with >18 wt.% P2O5; main mineral is apatite.
Coal: combustible sedimentary rock formed from fossilized plant material under reducing
conditions; main coal formation was in the Carboniferous period (~300 m.yr. ago). Coals are
subdivided according to their rank into low-rank lignite (brown coal), bituminous coal
(intermediate rank) and anthracite (high-rank).
Oil and natural gas: not solid; form when kerogen in organic-rich sediment, on being buried
and heated, is converted to oil and natural gas. Black shales are the most common source
rocks for these hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons migrate into reservoir rocks, which must have
high porosity and permeability. They are less dense than water and therefore tend to rise
towards the surface. For them to be kept in a reservoir rock they must be confined by an
impermeable cap rock in a natural trap (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7. Possible traps for oil and gas (from Klein & Philpotts, 2013).

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PRACTICAL 7 - TASKS
SUBJECT: CHEMICAL AND BIOGENIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. Sample S253. There is a detailed petrographic description of this rock in you lab handout
(page 8). Read it carefully and try to confirm the observations, understand the terminology
and follow the interpretations. This is how a short petrographic description of a sedimentary
rock could look like!
2. Try yourself and describe sample S252. Note and follow the systematic grouping. Use
the back side if you need more space.
General aspect:
Mineralogy and clast/component features:

Fabric (eventually with a sketch):

Petrogenesis:

Rock name and classification:

4. Single separate drawer: Please hand on to your neighbour when finished!

Distinction limestone and dolostone: Determine which of the following samples is
limestone and which is dolostone: S237, S241, S210, S249
3. Familiarise yourself with appearance of gypsum, halite (salt) and coal. Which mineral
properties will help you in their recognition?

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