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COLLINS KOECH
 MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDIND AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (CIVIL ENGINEERING)

UNIT CODE: ECV 300

UNIT NAME: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

NAME: COLLINS KIPROTICH KOECH

REG NO: J16-2358-2018

ASSIGNMENT: A REPORT ON THE THREE TYPES OF ROCKS

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… 3

ROCKS………………………………………………………………….....4

Definition.

IGNEOUS ROCKS………………………………………………………..4

Types

Classification

Examples…………………………………………………………………..6

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS………………………………………………...7

Classification

Examples…………………………………………………………………..9

METAMORPHIC ROCKS…………………………………………….…10

Classification

Examples………………………………………………………………….12

References………………………………………………………….……..13

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 INTRODUCTION

Rocks are the most common materials on the surface of the earth. Understanding them is of
much importance since it helps scientists in identifying and locating minerals e.g. Coper, gypsum
and fossil fuels e.g. oil, gas.

Rocks are of different types and are formed from different processes. This report focusses on
the classification of rocks. The basic broad classes are based on the origin of each then further
classification is based on the mode and position of formation.

Classification can also be done based on mineral composition, physical and chemical
properties.

The three broad classes are :igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks make
the origin of all the three types of rocks. Over a period of time rocks revolve in a reformation
process known as the rock cycle.

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 ROCKS

Definition

A rock is defined as a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals, or mineral

Materials.[ CITATION Bly88 \l 1033 ]

Most rocks are aggregates of mineral particles, which are crystals, more or less perfectly
formed or fragments of crystals. Rocks are the most common materials of the Earth.
Rocks by nature are classified according to their mode of formation. The three major
rock types are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

The igneous rocks are formed from magma; the sedimentary rocks are formed from low

temperature accumulations of particles or by precipitation from solution; and the

metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks through application of heat and

pressure.

IGNEOUS ROCKS

An igneous rock is a rock formed by the solidification and crystallization of cooling

magma.

TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS.

. There are two main types of igneous rocks:

Plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks that are formed when magma or red -hot liquid rock cools
down and hardens before it reaches the surface of the Earth, e.g. granite

Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks that form when the liquid magma erupts during volcanic
activity and cools and hardens on the Earth’s surface, forming e.g. basalt or andesite lava.

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

[ CITATION Bly88 \l 1033 ]

There are a number of ways of classifying igneous rocks. These include:

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Silica Content Classification

The silica (SiO2) content classification uses the amount o SiO2 composition in a rock.

Silica is the principal constituent in igneous rocks. The degree of silica saturation

depends upon the concentration of silica relative to the concentration of other chemical

constituents in the rock that combine with it to form silicate compounds. With few

exceptions, silica (SiO2) is the principle oxide constituent of igneous rocks. The

classification involves the analysis of the chemical composition in the igneous rock.

Felsic – Mafic classification

The principle of this method lies on the following parameters.

Felsic minerals by nature are of light colour and of low density, e.g. quartz, feldspar,

feldspathoids. On the other hand, Mafic minerals are usually darker in colour and of high

density, e.g. biotite, pyroxene, olivine and amphiboles.

Leucocratic-Melanocratic classification

Leucocratic rocks – These are pale coloured rocks enriched with light minerals, while

Melanocratic rocks – are the dark coloured rocks dominated by dark coloured minerals.

Classification Based on Silica Saturation of Minerals

From the silica saturation classification, three classes of rocks are recognized:

Silica oversaturated rocks – contain quartz or its polymorphs e.g. granite

is an over-saturated rock.

Silica saturated rocks – contain neither quartz nor unsaturated minerals

e.g. diorite.

Silica undersaturated rocks – contain only unsaturated minerals e.g.

nepheline syenite.

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Al - saturation Classification

a) Per-aluminous rocks – where the molecular proportion Al2O3 > (CaO + K2O + Na2O)

b) Aluminium rocks – Al2O3 ~ (Na2O + K2O)

c) Peralkaline rocks – Al2O3 < (Na2O + K2O)

Figure 3 Basalt

Figure 1 Granite

Figure 4 Obsidian

Figure 2 Andesite

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 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed on the earth’s surface under normal surface temperature
and pressures. They result from the accumulation of the products of weathering of other
rocks and organic materials. Weathering is a general term used for the physical and chemical
breakdown of rocks at the earth’s surface by rain, wind, abrasion etc. Products of weathering are
either transported or may accumulate where they are formed. The processes of transforming
loose fragmented rocks into a compact solid cohesive mass is called lithification. This
process is also known as consolidation, and the resultant rock is said to be consolidated.
Sandstone is a consolidated rock, while sand is an example of an unconsolidated rock.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are divided into three classes which include:

[ CITATION Gre78 \l 1033 ]

Clastic rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from the products of the mechanical breakup of other
rocks. The clastic rocks are most often named and classified on the basis of the average grain
size of the particles that form the rock.

Rudites

Conglomerate – is a relatively coarse-grained rock, with fragments above 2 mm in diameter,

and sometimes larger. Most of the grains are rounded

Breccia - Similar size as conglomerates but most of the clasts fragments are angular

Calcirudite -It is dominantly calcareous (CaCO3) with grains over 2 mm in diameter

Arenites

Quartzite – it consists almost entirely of quartz grains.

Sandstone – usually consists of sand-sized sediment particles of quartz grains but

also with other minor components such as carbonate cement

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Greywacke – It is a poorly sorted sandstone usually dark in colour, containing rock fragments
as well as quartz

Arkose – a sandstone with at least 25% of the mineral composition being feldspar and the rest is
mainly quartz

Calcarenite – This is a rock with sand sized grains but dominantly of carbonate
Composition

Lutites

These are fine grained sedimentary rocks (0.05-0.005) and includes the following:

Siltstone – silt sized particles which are slightly coarser than clay

Mudstone – it has clay-sized particles which usually are too small to be seen by the naked eye
and which consists mainly of quartz and clay minerals

Shale – is made up of finer-grained sediments whose grains cannot be seen with the

naked eye. Its grains are similar to mudstone but it is usually fissile rock i.e. it splits

easily into thin sheets.

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTS

Chemical sediments are basically formed by chemical processes usually from direct

precipitation of solutions. There are two main divisions of chemical sediments:

1. Precipitates, and

2. Evaporites

Precipitates

(a). Crystalline limestone:

Examples of precipitated limestone rocks are:

1. Calcite mudstone – fine grained rock almost glassy in texture

2. Oolites – consists of small spheres of carbonate

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3. Organic limestone – carbonate precipitated by organisms such as molluscs

and also the skeleton of marine organisms such as shelly reefs or crenoids.

Organic sediments

These include mainly organic limestone e.g. coral, peat and coal. These are classified as organic
products or precipitates that are caused by organic processes.

Figure 5 limestone (Precipitate)

Figure 6 Sandstone (Arenite)

Figure 7 Breccia ( Rudite )

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 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

[ CITATION Hol71 \l 1033 ]

Metamorphic rocks are broadly classified as foliated or non-foliated. Non-foliated metamorphic

rocks do not have aligned mineral crystals. Non-foliated rocks form when pressure is uniform, or
near the surface where pressure is very low. They can also form when the parent rock consists of
blocky minerals such as quartz and calcite, in which individual crystals do not align because they
aren’t longer in any one dimension.

Types of Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Four common types of foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of metamorphic grade or

intensity of metamorphism are slate, phyllite, schist (pronounced “shist”),
and gneiss (pronounced “nice”). Each of these has a characteristic type of foliation

Slate

Slate forms from the low-grade metamorphism of shale. Slate has microscopic clay and mica
crystals that have grown perpendicular to the maximum stress direction. Slate tends to break into
flat sheets or plates, a property described as slaty cleavage.

Phyllite

Phyllite is similar to slate, but has typically been heated to a higher temperature. As a result, the
micas have grown larger.  They still are not visible as individual crystals, but the larger size leads
to a satiny sheen on the surface.  The cleavage of phyllite is slightly wavy compared to that of
slate.

Schist

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Schist forms at higher temperatures and pressures and exhibits mica crystals that are large
enough to see without magnification. Individual crystal faces may flash when the sample is
turned in the light, making the rock appear to sparkle. Other minerals such as garnet might also
be visible, but it is not unusual to find that schist consists predominantly of a single mineral.

Gneiss

Gneiss forms at the highest pressures and temperatures, and has crystals large enough to see with
the unaided eye. Gneiss features minerals that have separated into bands of different colours. The
bands of colours are what define foliation within gneiss. Sometimes the bands are very obvious
and continuous , but sometimes they are more like lenses. Dark bands are largely amphibole
while the light-coloured bands are feldspar and quartz. Most gneiss has little or no mica because
it forms at temperatures higher than those under which micas are stable.

Types of Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks that form under low-pressure conditions or under the effects confining
pressure, which is equal in all directions, do not become foliated. In most cases, this is because
they are not buried deeply enough, and the heat for the metamorphism comes from a body of
magma that has moved into the upper part of the crust. Metamorphism that happens because of
proximity to magma is called contact metamorphism. Some examples of non-foliated
metamorphic rocks are marble, quartzite, and hornfels.

Marble

Marble is metamorphosed limestone. When it forms, the calcite crystals recrystallize (re-form

into larger blocky calcite crystals), and any sedimentary textures and fossils that might have been
present are destroyed. If the original limestone is pure calcite, then the marble will be white.  On
the other hand, if it has impurities such as clay, silica, or magnesium, the marble could be
“marbled” in appearance (Figure 10.19, bottom).

Quartzite

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Quartziteis metamorphosed sandstone. It is dominated by quartz, and in many cases, the original
quartz grains of the sandstone are welded together with additional silica. Sandstone often
contains some clay minerals, feldspar or lithic fragments, so quartzite can also contain
impurities.Even if formed under directed pressure, quartzite is generally not foliated because
quartz crystals do not normally align with the directional pressure. On the other hand, any clay
present in the original sandstone is likely to be converted to mica during metamorphism, and any
such mica is likely to align with the directional pressure.

Hornfels

Hornfels is another non-foliated metamorphic rock that normally forms during contact
metamorphism of fine-grained rocks like mudstone or volcanic rocks. Hornfels have different
elongated or platy minerals (e.g., micas, pyroxene, amphibole, and others) depending on the
exact conditions and the parent rock, yet because the pressure wasn’t substantially higher in any
particular direction, these crystals remain randomly oriented.

Figure 8 quartzite
Figure 10 Phyllite

Figure 9 Gneiss Figure 11 schist

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References
Blyth,F.G.H. and de Freitas, M.H. A Geology for Enginneers. London: Englih Language book
Society (ELBS), 1988.
Greensmith, J. T. Petrologyof Sedimentary Rocks, 6th edition. London: Geeorge Allen and Uwin,
1978.
Holmes, D.L. Elements of Physical Geology. -: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1971.

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