PETROLOGY

GCE222: LESSON III

 Rocks
A rock is a solid mass of
naturally occurring geological
and related materials of any
sort.

20XX presentation title 2

 What is Petrology?
• Petrology is the branch of geology concerned with the compositions,
structures, and origins of rocks.

20XX presentation title 3

Figure shows a geologist
pointing at a large feldspar
crystal in a granite outcrop in
the Mojave Desert, California.
 Importance of Petrology
• The petrology at Earth’s
surface is particularly
important, because we interact
with it every day. So, for
example, petrology may help
determine which areas are
appropriate for agriculture.

Figure 1.3 shows sugar cane growing on very young Hawaiian soils
derived from weathered basalt. Even very young basalt can support
robust cane growth.

20XX presentation title 5

 Importance of Petrology
• Petrology is also important
because it is the key to
discovery and
development of mineral
resources.

Figure 1.4 shows ore rock from the Stillwater igneous complex in
Montana. The shiny minerals present are pyrite (gold-colored)
and pyrrhotite (slightly less golden than the pyrite), and both
minerals contain valuable amounts of the metals platinum and
palladium.
20XX presentation title 6
 Petrography
• The field of petrography, really a subdiscipline of petrology,
deals specifically with the description and classification of rocks.
Most petrologic research involves petrography, typically
involving examination of rocks in outcrop and hand sample, but
often most importantly by examining rocks at high
magnification.

20XX presentation title 7

Petrographic microscopes
reveal details that permit
accurate mineral
identification and, often,
reveal information about rock
crystallization history.
 Examples
o Figure shows a photograph of a thin section of
granite, viewed with a petrographic microscope.

o Figure shows a typical thin section. A slice of rock,

glued to the glass slide, is so thin (30 μm) that
light can pass through most mineral grains.

20XX presentation title 9

 Geochemistry
• Studying rocks to learn about Earth’s evolution, the distribution of natural
resources, the nature of volcanic hazards, and many other things,
requires understanding how different rocks form in different
environments. Often, especially for igneous rocks, we gain the most
important insights by examining rock (and magma) compositions. Thus,
many petrologists study igneous rocks by studying rock and magma
chemistry.

20XX presentation title 10

The most widely used method
for rock analysis is X-ray
Fluorescence Spectroscopy
(XRF), and consequently XRF
spectrometers are standard
instruments in many
geochemistry labs.
 INAA Analysis
• A second, widely used analytical technique is neutron
activation analysis. There are several kinds of neutron
activation analysis, but the most common is instrumental
neutron activation analysis (INAA).
• INAA is an especially good method for analyzing rare
earth, platinum group, and a few other important
elements.

20XX presentation title 12

Inductively coupled
plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS)
is a third excellent way
to obtain analyses.
 Three kinds of rocks

20XX presentation title 14

 Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rocks are created when molten rock (magma) cools
and hardens.
• The result is sometimes a crystalline rock composed entirely of
visible mineral crystals. But some igneous rocks, especially those
that form from lavas (magmas that flow on Earth’s surface) are
so fine grained that mineral crystals, even if present, cannot be
seen.

20XX presentation title 15

 Examples

20XX presentation title 16

 Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks fall into several categories. Most sedimentary rocks,
called clastic rocks, contain individual clasts that are mineral crystals and,
perhaps, fragments of other rocks, or fossils or other organic materials,
that have become compressed and cemented together. We call the
process that creates clastic sedimentary rocks in this way lithification.
• Lithification typically involves compression and cementation during burial.
It may also involve recrystallization as individual mineral grains combine
to make larger crystals.

20XX presentation title 17

 Examples

20XX presentation title 18

 Sedimentary Rocks
• Other sedimentary rocks, called chemical sedimentary rocks, form when
minerals precipitate from water, sometimes partly or entirely through
biological processes.

20XX presentation title 19

 Sedimentary Rocks
• And, some sedimentary rocks are combinations of clasts and precipitated
materials and so are part way between being clastic and chemical rocks.

20XX presentation title 20

Figure shows beds
of sedimentary
rocks in the Grand
Canyon. These rock
formations derived
from sediments
deposited over a
time span of about
350 million years.

20XX presentation title 21

 Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks form by alteration or modification of any kind of
preexisting rock.
• Metamorphism may be caused by pressure, heat, or by water or other
fluids or gases that infiltrate a protolith.
• We call the original rock the protolith, and the composition of the
protolith limits the kind of metamorphic rock that can form.

20XX presentation title 22

 Examples

20XX presentation title 23

 Metamorphic Rocks
• Foliations – a layered appearance due to parallel alignment of mineral
crystals, or due to layers of different mineral composition.

20XX presentation title 24

The Rock Cycle

20XX presentation title 25

 Petrology has three subdivisions
IGNEOUS PETROLOGY SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY METAMORPHIC
PETROLOGY
o Igneous petrology is o This category o Metamorphic
a branch that focuses on the study petrology involves
specializes in the of sedimentary rocks the study of the
scientific study of with an emphasis on composition and
igneous rocks, their texture and texture of
chemical composition. metamorphic rocks.
composition and
texture.

20XX presentation title 26

 DESCRIPTION - OCCURRENCE, PROPERTIES AND DISTRIBUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. Granite is a coarse-grained igneous rock composed

mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica. It typically
exhibits a granular texture with interlocking mineral
crystals. Granite is known for its durability, strength,
and aesthe c appeal, making it a popular choice for
various construc on and decora ve purposes.

Occurrence:
Granite forms deep within the Earth's crust through the
slow crystalliza on of magma. It is commonly found in
con nental crust areas and is associated with mountain-
building processes. Granite can occur in a wide range of
colors, depending on the specific mineral composi on and
the geological condi ons under which it formed.

Proper es:
a. Granite is a hard and dense rock with excellent resistance to abrasion, weathering, and chemicals.
b. It has a high compressive strength, making it suitable for structural applica ons.
c. The mineral composi on of granite gives it a unique appearance, with a variety of colors, pa erns, and
textures.
d. It is also heat-resistant and can withstand high temperatures, which makes it suitable for kitchen countertops
and other applica ons that involve exposure to heat.

Distribu on:
Granite deposits can be found worldwide, but significant sources are concentrated in regions like Brazil, India, China,
and several countries in Europe, including Italy, Spain, and Norway. These regions are known for producing a wide
range of high-quality granite varie es. However, granite is also quarried and used in various other countries,
depending on local geology and demand. The distribu on of granite is influenced by geological processes and the
tectonic history of the Earth's crust.

2. Syenite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that is

composed primarily of feldspar minerals, par cularly orthoclase
feldspar. It o en contains smaller amounts of other minerals
such as amphiboles, mica, and quartz. Syenite is similar to
granite in appearance but has a lower quartz content and a
higher propor on of feldspar.

Occurrence:
Syenite forms when magma solidifies beneath the Earth's surface. It
commonly occurs in associa on with granite and other intrusive
igneous rocks. Syenite is found in a variety of geological se ngs,
including mountain ranges, volcanic regions, and ri zones. It can
also be found in some metamorphic terrains where it has undergone
par al mel ng and recrystalliza on.
Proper es:
a. Syenite is a hard and durable rock with a crystalline texture.
b. Its color can vary, ranging from light gray to pink, yellow, or reddish-brown, depending on the specific mineral
composi on.
c. Syenite is generally less resistant to weathering compared to granite but s ll exhibits good strength and
stability. It has a moderate compressive strength and is commonly used as a construc on material,
par cularly for dimension stone and decora ve applica ons.

Distribu on:
Syenite is found in various regions around the world. Major occurrences include areas such as the Kola Peninsula in
Russia, the Adirondack Mountains in the United States, parts of Norway, and some regions in Canada, Australia, and
Africa. Syenite deposits are typically associated with areas of volcanic ac vity or intrusions related to the forma on of
mountain ranges. The distribu on of syenite is influenced by the geological processes that occur during the forma on
and evolu on of the Earth's crust.

3. Diorite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that

is composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar, bio te
or hornblende, and small amounts of quartz. It has a
salt-and-pepper appearance due to the contras ng
colors of its mineral components. Diorite is similar in
composi on to granite but has a darker color and a
higher propor on of mafic minerals.

Occurrence:
Diorite forms when magma solidifies beneath the Earth's
surface. It is typically found in associa on with other
intrusive igneous rocks such as granite and gabbro. Diorite
can occur in a variety of geological se ngs, including
mountain ranges, volcanic arcs, and island arcs. It is also
commonly found in the lower crust and in plutonic complexes associated with subduc on zones.

Proper es:
a. Diorite is a medium to coarse-grained rock with a granular texture.
b. It is known for its durability and strength, making it suitable for various construc on purposes.
c. Diorite has good resistance to weathering and erosion, although it may exhibit some discolora on over me.
d. It has moderate compressive strength and is o en used as a building material, par cularly for countertops,
flooring, and exterior cladding.

Distribu on:
Diorite is distributed worldwide, with significant occurrences found in regions such as the Sierra Nevada in California
(USA), the Bri sh Isles, the Andes Mountains, the Alps, and parts of Asia. It is commonly associated with areas of
volcanic ac vity, subduc on zones, and the forma on of mountain ranges. The distribu on of diorite is influenced by
geological processes and the tectonic history of the Earth's crust. It is o en found in close proximity to other igneous
and metamorphic rocks.

4. Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark-colored intrusive igneous rock composed mainly of calcium-rich plagioclase
feldspar, pyroxene minerals (such as clinopyroxene), and some mes olivine. It has a phaneri c texture and
 typically appears black or dark green due to its mineral
composi on. Gabbro is the intrusive equivalent of
basalt, which is an extrusive volcanic rock.

Occurrence:
Gabbro forms when magma solidifies deep beneath the
Earth's surface. It is commonly found in large plutonic bodies
called batholiths, dikes, and sills. Gabbro is o en associated
with the forma on of oceanic crust, where it makes up a
significant por on of the lower oceanic crust. It can also
occur in con nental crust regions, especially in areas where
ancient oceanic crust has been upli ed and exposed.

Proper es:
a. Gabbro is known for its strength, durability, and resistance to weathering.
b. It has a dense and tough nature, making it suitable for a wide range of construc on applica ons, including as
dimension stone, countertops, and flooring.
c. Gabbro has a high compressive strength and excellent load-bearing capacity, making it ideal for infrastructure
projects.
d. It is also used as a crushed stone aggregate in road construc on and as a raw material for the produc on of
cement and other construc on materials.

Distribu on: Gabbro is distributed globally, with significant occurrences in regions such as the Troodos Ophiolite in
Cyprus, the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, the Isle of Skye in Scotland, and the S llwater Complex in Montana
(USA). It is commonly found in areas of past or present tectonic ac vity, par cularly in associa on with oceanic crust
forma on. Gabbro can be found in both oceanic and con nental se ngs, depending on the geologic history of the
region.
5. Pegma te is a coarse-grained igneous rock that has an
excep onally large crystal size. It is composed of
interlocking mineral grains, predominantly consis ng of
quartz, feldspar (o en in the form of large crystals), and
mica. Pegma tes can exhibit a wide variety of colors and
may contain other minerals such as tourmaline, beryl,
and spodumene.

Occurrence: Pegma tes are typically formed through the slow

cooling and crystalliza on of highly evolved, water-rich
magmas. They o en occur as dikes, veins, or lenses within
other rocks, such as granite or gneiss. Pegma tes are
commonly associated with regions of intense tectonic ac vity,
such as mountain-building processes or within large igneous
complexes. They can also be found in areas that have
undergone metamorphic processes.

Proper es:

a. Pegma te is known for its unique mineralogy and large crystal size.
b. It can contain crystals that are several meters in length, making it a valuable source of rare and precious
minerals.
c. Due to its coarse-grained nature, pegma te is o en used as a source of dimension stone and ornamental
rock.
 d. It is also prized by mineral collectors for its diverse mineral assemblages.

Distribu on: Pegma tes are distributed worldwide, occurring in various geological se ngs. They are commonly
found in regions with grani c intrusions, such as parts of North America (including the famous pegma te-rich area of
the Black Hills in South Dakota), Scandinavia, Brazil, Madagascar, and Australia. Addi onally, pegma tes can be found
in associa on with metamorphic terrains where the rocks have undergone high-grade metamorphism. The
distribu on of pegma tes is influenced by the geologic processes that contribute to the forma on of igneous and
metamorphic rocks.

6. Dolerite is a medium-grained igneous rock that is characterized

by its dark gray to black color and a composi on similar to basalt.
Dolerite typically exhibits a porphyri c texture with larger crystals
(phenocrysts) embedded in a fine-grained matrix. It has a mineral
composi on consis ng primarily of plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene
(usually augite), and some mes olivine. The rock is usually dense
and hard, with a fine-grained, uniform appearance.

Occurrence: Dolerite is commonly found in intrusive bodies known as

dikes or sills. It forms when molten magma intrudes into exis ng rock
forma ons and cools rapidly, resul ng in the forma on of fine-
grained crystals. Dolerite dikes can be seen cu ng across other rock types, indica ng their intrusive nature.

Proper es: Dolerite is known for its durability and strength. It is resistant to weathering and erosion, making it
suitable for construc on purposes. The rock's hardness and toughness make it a desirable material for road
aggregates, concrete aggregates, and dimension stone.

Distribu on: Dolerite can be found worldwide, occurring in various geologic se ngs. It is par cularly abundant in
regions with extensive volcanic ac vity, such as parts of Africa, Australia, Europe, North America, and Antarc ca.
Notable occurrences of dolerite include the Karoo Supergroup in South Africa, the Tasmanian dolerite in Australia,
and the Palisades Sill in the United States.

Dolerite has been used for centuries as a building material due to its durability and resistance to weathering. It is also
commonly observed in natural features such as sea cliffs, headlands, and rocky coastlines. The widespread
distribu on of dolerite is a result of its forma on during volcanic ac vity and subsequent erosion and exposure at
the Earth's surface.

7. Basalt is a fine-grained extrusive igneous rock that is formed from the

rapid cooling of lava on the Earth's surface. It is typically composed of
minerals such as plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and olivine. Basalt is
dark in color, ranging from black to dark gray, and has a dense and
uniform texture.

Occurrence:
Basalt is one of the most common rock types on Earth and is found in
abundance. It is primarily associated with volcanic ac vity, occurring in
volcanic fields, ri zones, and areas of mid-oceanic ridge spreading. Basalt
can also be found in flood basalt provinces, which are large areas covered
by extensive basalt flows. Some notable examples include the Deccan
Traps in India and the Columbia River Basalt Group in the northwestern
United States.

Proper es:
a. Basalt is known for its durability, hardness, and resistance to weathering.
 b. It has excellent compressive strength and is commonly used as a construc on material in the form of crushed
stone for roads, concrete aggregates, and railway ballast.
c. Basalt can withstand high temperatures and is o en u lized in applica ons where heat resistance is required,
such as in fireproofing materials.
d. It is also used for sculptures and architectural purposes due to its aesthe c appeal.

Distribu on: Basalt is distributed worldwide and can be found on every con nent. It is par cularly abundant in
regions with volcanic ac vity, such as the mid-oceanic ridges in the Atlan c and Pacific Oceans, the volcanic islands of
Hawaii and Iceland, and volcanic hotspots like the Yellowstone Caldera. Basal c lava flows cover extensive areas in
various countries, including India, the United States, Iceland, and Ethiopia. The distribu on of basalt is closely ed to
the occurrence of volcanic processes and plate tectonics.

DESCRIPTION - OCCURRENCE, PROPERTIES AND DISTRIBUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. SANDSTONE is a sedimentary rock composed primarily

of sand-sized grains of mineral, rock, or organic material
cemented together by various minerals, such as silica,
calcite, or iron oxide. It typically has a granular texture
and can display a range of colors, including shades of
tan, yellow, brown, red, and white.

Occurrence:
Sandstone is a widespread rock type and can be found in a
variety of geological se ngs. It commonly forms in
environments such as deserts, riverbeds, beaches, and
dunes where there is an abundance of sand-sized par cles.
Sandstones can also be deposited in marine, lacustrine
(lake), and deltaic (river delta) se ngs.

Some key proper es of sandstone include:

1. Grain Size: Sandstone is composed of sand-sized grains, which range in size from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The grain size
can vary, resul ng in different types of sandstone, such as fine-grained, medium-grained, or coarse-grained.
2. Porosity: Sandstones can have varying levels of porosity, which refers to the amount of open space between the
grains. This property affects the rock's ability to hold and transmit fluids, such as water or oil.
3. Hardness: Sandstone's hardness can vary depending on its mineral composi on and cemen ng materials. It
generally has a hardness of 6-7 on the Mohs scale, making it rela vely resistant to scratching and abrasion.
4. Permeabilty: The permeability of sandstone is closely related to its porosity and refers to its ability to allow fluids to
flow through it. Highly porous and well-connected sandstones can have high permeability, making them important
reservoir rocks for groundwater and hydrocarbon resources.

Distribu on:
Sandstones are found worldwide and can be encountered in various regions and geological forma ons including the
Appalachian Mountains, the Sco sh Highlands, the Saharan Desert, and the Himalayas. The specific distribu on of
sandstone is influenced by local geological processes, sedimentary environments, and the history of the Earth's
crust in a par cular area.
2. LIMESTONE is a sedimentary rock primarily composed
of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) derived from the
accumula on of marine shells, coral, and other organic
remains. It typically has a granular or crystalline
texture and ranges in color from white and beige to
gray and even black. Limestone may exhibit various
structures, including layers, fossils, and veining.

Occurrence:
Limestone forms in a variety of environments, including
marine, lacustrine (lake), and even underground caves. It is
commonly found in areas that were once covered by
shallow seas or near the coastlines. The accumula on of
calcium carbonate-rich materials over me, combined with compac on and cementa on, leads to the forma on of
limestone.

Some key proper es of limestone include:

1. Hardness: Limestone has a rela vely low to medium hardness on the Mohs scale, typically ranging from 3 to 4.
It is so er than many other rocks and minerals, making it easier to cut and shape.
2. Porosity: Limestone can vary in porosity, ranging from low to high. Porous limestone contains interconnected
pores and can readily absorb and transmit fluids, such as water.
3. Durability: Limestone is generally a durable rock, but its durability can vary depending on factors such as the
mineral composi on, porosity, and the presence of natural fractures. Some types of limestone are more resistant
to weathering and erosion than others.
4. Acid Reac vity: Limestone reacts with acidic substances due to its calcium carbonate content. It effervesces
(bubbles) when it comes into contact with dilute acid, such as vinegar.
5. Fossils: Limestone o en contains fossils of marine organisms, such as shells, corals, and microorganisms, which
provide valuable records of ancient environments and past life forms.

Distribu on:
Limestone is widely distributed globally and is an important rock for construc on, building materials, and various
industrial applica ons. Its distribu on is influenced by past geological processes, such as the presence of ancient
seas and the interac on between tectonic ac vity and sedimenta on.

3. SHALE is a fine-grained sedimentary rock primarily

composed of clay minerals. It typically has a layered
structure and exhibits a fissile (easily spli ng into thin
layers) texture. Shale can range in color from gray and
black to brown and red. It is o en characterized by its
ability to retain water and exhibit plas city when moist.

Occurrence: Shale is formed in environments where fine-

grained sediment accumulates and undergoes compac on
over me. It commonly occurs in lake and marine
environments, as well as in areas with slow-moving or stagnant
water. Shale can be deposited in offshore basins, deltas, and
quiet deposi onal se ngs.
Some key proper es of shale include:
1. Grain Size: Shale is composed of very fine-grained par cles, predominantly clay-sized par cles. These par cles
are so small that they are not individually visible to the naked eye.
2. Texture: Shale has a laminated or layered structure due to its fine-grained nature. It o en exhibits a fissile
texture, meaning it easily splits into thin sheets or layers.
3. Porosity: Shale generally has low porosity, meaning it has a low volume of open spaces or pores. The small grain
size and compac on of fine par cles contribute to its rela vely low porosity.
4. Plas city: Shale has the ability to retain water and exhibit plas city when moist. This property allows it to be
molded or shaped when wet and can influence its behavior in engineering applica ons.
5. Weathering: Shale is suscep ble to weathering and can easily break down into smaller fragments when exposed
to the elements. It is prone to erosion by wind, water, and other natural processes.

Distribu on:
Shale can be found in many other regions globally, and its distribu on is influenced by sedimentary processes,
deposi onal environments, and tectonic ac vity. The rock's fine-grained nature and ability to retain hydrocarbons
make it significant for energy resources, while its layered structure can provide valuable informa on about Earth's
history and fossil records.

4. CONGLOMERATE is a sedimentary rock composed of

rounded to sub-angular clasts or pebbles, ranging in size from
2 mm to several cen meters, embedded in a matrix of finer-
grained sediment or cemented by minerals. The clasts can
consist of various rock types, including quartz, limestone,
granite, and basalt. Conglomerate o en displays a coarse-
grained texture and may exhibit a range of colors depending
on the composi on of the clasts.

Occurrence: Conglomerates form in environments where

sediment is transported and deposited by high-energy processes, such as rivers, alluvial fans, and coastal areas
influenced by waves and currents. They are commonly found in riverbeds, stream channels, and ancient alluvial
deposits. Conglomerates can also occur in areas affected by tectonic ac vity, where upli and erosion expose older
sedimentary deposits.

Some key proper es of conglomerate include:

1. Clast Size and Sor ng: Conglomerates contain clasts of various sizes, ranging from small pebbles to larger
boulders. The clasts may exhibit varying degrees of sor ng, with well-sorted conglomerates having clasts of
similar size and poorly sorted conglomerates containing a wide range of clast sizes.
2. Matrix Composi on: The matrix of a conglomerate can be composed of finer-grained sediment, such as sand,
silt, or clay, or it can be cemented by minerals like calcite, silica, or iron oxide. The matrix can affect the strength
and durability of the rock.
3. Conglomerate Type: Conglomerates can be classified based on the nature of the clasts and matrix. For example,
a quartz conglomerate contains mostly quartz clasts, while a polymic c conglomerate consists of a mixture of
different rock types.
4. Permeability: The presence of open spaces between the clasts in a conglomerate gives it varying degrees of
permeability. Well-cemented conglomerates can have low permeability, while poorly cemented or poorly sorted
conglomerates can be more permeable.

Distribu on:
Conglomerates are found in many regions globally, par cularly in areas with ac ve or ancient fluvial (river) and
alluvial (deposited by running water) environments. Conglomerates can be found in various geological se ngs
worldwide, reflec ng the dynamic nature of sediment transport and deposi on. They provide valuable informa on
about past environments, sedimentary processes, and the geological history of an area.

5. BRECCIA is a type of sedimentary rock

composed of angular to sub-angular fragments
(clasts) of various rock types that are cemented
together. The clasts can range in size from
pebbles to boulders and are surrounded by a
matrix of finer-grained sediment or cemented
by minerals. Breccia o en exhibits a chao c,
jumbled appearance due to the angular nature
of the clasts.

Occurrence:
Breccia forms in environments where rocks are
subjected to fracturing or fragmenta on, o en
associated with tectonic ac vity, faul ng, or rockfall
events. It can be found in areas with ac ve or
ancient fault zones, impact craters, and near mountain fronts. Breccia can also develop in volcanic se ngs, where
explosive erup ons lead to the fragmenta on and subsequent cementa on of volcanic materials.

Some key proper es of breccia include:

1. Clast Composi on: The clasts in breccia can consist of a variety of rock types, reflec ng the source rocks from
which they were derived. These clasts can range in size, shape, and composi on, crea ng a diverse mixture
within the rock.
2. Angularity: Unlike conglomerate, which typically has rounded clasts, breccia contains angular or sub-angular
clasts. This angularity suggests minimal transport and limited rounding of the clasts.
3. Matrix or Cement: The clasts in breccia are held together by a matrix or cemen ng material, which can be
composed of finer-grained sediment, minerals (such as calcite or silica), or even volcanic ash. The nature and
amount of cement influence the strength and durability of the rock.
4. Texture: Breccia o en exhibits a fragmented and chao c texture due to the angular clasts and the irregular
arrangement within the rock. This texture can be visually striking and provides clues about the rock's forma on
processes.

Distribu on:
The distribu on of breccia is influenced by geological processes that involve fracturing, faul ng, fragmenta on, and
impact events. The rock provides insights into past geological events, such as meteorite impacts, tectonic ac vity,
and volcanic erup ons.
 DESCRIPTION - OCCURRENCE, PROPERTIES AND DISTRIBUTION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

1. Quartzite is a metamorphic rock primarily composed of

quartz grains that have undergone intense heat and
pressure, resul ng in recrystalliza on and the forma on
of a solid, interlocking quartz matrix. It typically has a
compact and granular texture, o en exhibi ng a sugary
appearance due to the high quartz content. Quartzite
can range in color from white and gray to pink, red, and
even green.

Occurrence: Quartzite forms from the metamorphism of

sandstone, where the original quartz grains recrystallize and
fuse together. It commonly occurs in regions with high-grade
metamorphic condi ons, such as mountain ranges and areas
affected by regional metamorphism. Quartzite can be found in both con nental and oceanic crusts and is o en
associated with tectonic plate collisions and the forma on of mountain belts.

Some key proper es of quartzite include:

1. Hardness: Quartzite is a very hard rock and ranks high on the Mohs scale with a hardness of around 7. It is harder
than most other minerals and can scratch glass.
2. Durability: Quartzite is highly resistant to weathering, erosion, and chemical altera on. It is known for its
durability and ability to withstand extreme condi ons, making it suitable for various applica ons, including
building materials and countertops.
3. Heat Resistance: Due to its high quartz content and metamorphic nature, quartzite has excellent heat resistance.
It can withstand high temperatures without deforma on or damage, making it suitable for applica ons such as
fireplaces and oven surrounds.
4. Low Porosity: Quartzite generally has low porosity, which means it has minimal open spaces or pores. This low
porosity makes it less permeable to fluids and less prone to staining or absorbing liquids.

Distribu on:
Quartzite is found in numerous regions worldwide, especially in areas with high-grade metamorphic terrains and
mountainous regions. It is widely distributed globally and has various applica ons, including as a decora ve stone,
construc on material, and as a raw material in the produc on of glass and ceramics. Its distribu on is influenced by
tectonic ac vity, regional metamorphism, and the presence of quartz-rich sedimentary rocks.

2. Marble is a metamorphic rock formed from the

recrystalliza on of limestone or dolomite under high
heat and pressure. It is primarily composed of calcite
or dolomite minerals and has a dis nc ve crystalline
structure. Marble o en displays a range of colors and
intricate pa erns due to impuri es and geological
processes. It has a smooth and polished appearance,
making it highly valued for its aesthe c appeal.

Occurrence: Marble forms when limestone or dolomite

undergoes metamorphism, typically in areas of mountain
building or regional metamorphism. It is commonly found
in regions with extensive geological ac vity, such as convergent plate boundaries and areas affected by mountain
ranges. Marble can be found in various geological se ngs, including within the Earth's crust and exposed at the
surface.

Some key proper es of marble include:

1. Hardness: Marble is a rela vely so rock, with a hardness of around 3-4 on the Mohs scale. It can be easily
scratched or damaged by harder materials.
2. Lustre: Marble has a characteris c vitreous or glassy lustre when polished. Its smooth surface reflects light,
giving it a dis nct sheen.
3. Color and Veining: Marble comes in a wide range of colors, including white, gray, black, green, pink, and more.
The presence of impuri es or mineral inclusions can create intricate pa erns and veining, adding to its aesthe c
appeal.
4. Workability: Marble is highly workable and can be carved, sculpted, and polished into various shapes and
designs. It has been used for centuries in art, architecture, and decora ve purposes.
5. Acid Sensi vity: Marble is suscep ble to etching and damage from acidic substances. Its high calcium carbonate
content reacts with acids, resul ng in the loss of the polished surface and the forma on of dull spots.

Distribu on:
Marble deposits can be found worldwide, and the distribu on is influenced by geological processes and the
availability of suitable precursor rocks. It is widely used in construc on, interior design, sculpture, and decora ve
applica ons due to its beauty, workability, and durability. Its distribu on is influenced by the presence of suitable
limestone or dolomite forma ons and the geological history of an area.

3. Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock

characterized by its smooth texture and ability to split
into thin, flat sheets. It is primarily composed of clay
minerals, such as mica and chlorite, along with quartz
and other minerals. Slate o en has a dark or muted
color, ranging from gray and blue to green and black,
and it typically exhibits a layered or foliated structure.

Occurrence: Slate forms from the metamorphism of shale

or mudstone, which are sedimentary rocks rich in clay
minerals. The transforma on occurs under moderate heat and pressure, resul ng in the alignment of the clay
minerals and the development of a preferred orienta on. Slate is commonly found in regions with regional
metamorphism, such as mountainous areas, where the rock was subjected to compressional forces.

Some key proper es of slate include:

1. Cleavage: Slate has excellent cleavage, meaning it can be easily split into thin, flat sheets along the planes of
folia on. This property allows slate to be used for roofing les, flooring, and other construc on purposes.
2. Low Porosity: Slate is rela vely dense and has low porosity, which makes it resistant to water absorp on. It is
o en used for outdoor applica ons and as a roofing material due to its ability to shed water.
3. Durability: Slate is a highly durable rock that can withstand weathering, temperature changes, and chemical
exposure. It is resistant to fading, erosion, and staining, making it suitable for long-las ng applica ons.
4. Slip Resistance: The cleavage planes in slate can provide a slightly rough texture, offering good slip resistance
when used as flooring or in wet environments.

Distribu on: Slate deposits can be found in various regions around the world. Its distribu on is closely ed to areas
where the appropriate parent rock (shale or mudstone) and metamorphic condi ons exist. Its unique proper es
make it a versa le material for construc on, decora ve, and architectural applica ons.
4. Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock
characterized by alterna ng light and dark
mineral bands or layers. It forms through the
process of high-grade regional metamorphism,
where pre-exis ng rocks, such as granite or
sedimentary rocks, undergo intense heat and
pressure. Gneiss typically has a coarse-grained
texture and exhibits a dis nct banding or
folia on caused by the alignment of minerals.

Occurrence: Gneiss is commonly found in regions

where deep-seated metamorphic processes have
occurred, such as mountain ranges and areas
affected by con nental collisions. It o en forms in
the roots of mountain belts or as a result of tectonic
ac vity. Gneiss can be derived from various parent rocks, including granite, sedimentary rocks, and even other
metamorphic rocks.

Some key proper es of gneiss include:

1. Banding and Folia on: Gneiss exhibits a characteris c banding or folia on, where light and dark mineral bands
alternate. The bands are formed due to the segrega on and alignment of different minerals during
metamorphism, giving gneiss its dis nc ve layered appearance.
2. Mineral Composi on: Gneiss can contain a variety of minerals, depending on its parent rock. Common minerals
found in gneiss include quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, and others. The specific mineral composi on
determines the color and texture of the rock.
3. Strength and Durability: Gneiss is a strong and durable rock due to its high mineral content and interlocking grain
structure. It is resistant to weathering, erosion, and chemical a ack, making it suitable for construc on
purposes.
4. Varied Texture: Gneiss can exhibit a range of textures, from coarse-grained to fine-grained, depending on the
degree of metamorphism. Coarse-grained gneiss o en contains larger mineral grains visible to the naked eye,
while fine-grained gneiss has smaller, less visible grains.

Distribu on:
Gneiss is widespread and can be found in many regions worldwide. It is used as a building material, for ornamental
purposes, and in the produc on of crushed stone and aggregates. Its distribu on is influenced by the occurrence of
suitable parent rocks and the geological history of an area.

5. Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock characterized by its well-

developed folia on or layering. It forms through the process of
regional metamorphism, where pre-exis ng rocks, such as shale or
mudstone, undergo moderate to high levels of heat and pressure.
Schist typically has a medium to coarse-grained texture and
exhibits a dis nc ve planar arrangement of minerals.

Occurrence: Schist is commonly found in regions that have

experienced regional metamorphism, such as mountainous areas and
regions affected by tectonic ac vity. It o en forms in the intermediate
stage of metamorphism between slate and gneiss. Schist can develop from a variety of parent rocks, including shale,
basalt, and granite.

Some key proper es of schist include:

1. Folia on: Schist exhibits well-developed folia on, with minerals aligning in parallel planes or layers. The folia on
gives schist its characteris c banded appearance and can be easily seen with the naked eye.
2. Mineral Composi on: Schist is composed of a variety of minerals, including mica (such as bio te or muscovite),
quartz, feldspar, and others. The specific mineral composi on determines the color and texture of the rock.
3. Medium to Coarse-Grained Texture: Schist typically has a medium to coarse-grained texture, with individual
mineral grains visible to the naked eye. The size and arrangement of the grains contribute to schist's unique
texture.
4. Sheen and Luster: Due to the presence of mica minerals, schist o en displays a characteris c sheen or luster on
its foliated surfaces. This sheen is caused by the reflec on of light off the mica's platy or flaky structure.

Distribu on:
Schist can be found in various regions worldwide, par cularly in areas affected by intense metamorphic processes. It
has been used as a building material, for decora ve purposes, and as a source of crushed stone. Its distribu on is
influenced by the presence of suitable parent rocks, regional metamorphism, and tectonic ac vity in an area.
 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY is the study of the three-dimensional distribu on of rock units with respect to their
deforma onal histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock
geometries to uncover informa on about the history of deforma on (strain) in the rocks, and ul mately, to
understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the
dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the geologic past; a common goal is to
understand the structural evolu on of a par cular area with respect to regionally widespread pa erns of rock
deforma on (e.g., mountain building, ri ing) due to plate tectonics.

Originally horizontal strata deformed due to stress

ATTITUDE OF BEDS
 In geology, the a tude of beds refers to the orienta on or posi on of rock layers or sedimentary beds in rela on
to the Earth's surface. It describes the inclina on or dip of the beds and their orienta on in terms of strike.
 A tude is commonly described using two main measurements:
1. Strike: The strike represents the compass direc on of a horizontal line on the inclined bed. It is measured in
degrees clockwise from north. For example, if the strike of a bed is 120°, it means the bed extends in a direc on
120° clockwise from north.
2. Dip: The dip indicates the angle of inclina on of the bed from the horizontal plane. It is measured perpendicular
to the strike and ranges from 0° (horizontal) to 90° (ver cal). The dip is measured in degrees, with a posi ve
value indica ng the direc on the bed is dipping towards. For example, a dip of 30° means the bed is inclined at a
30° angle from the horizontal, dipping in a par cular direc on.
 By combining the strike and dip measurements, geologists can determine the three-dimensional orienta on of
the beds in the subsurface. This informa on is crucial for understanding the structural geology of an area, including the
deforma on history, folding, faul ng, and the overall geometry of rock layers.

Geologists o en create geologic maps to depict the a tude of beds in an area, using symbols and lines to
represent the strike and dip of rock units. By analyzing the a tudes of beds, geologists can infer the tectonic processes
that shaped the area, interpret the deposi onal history, and understand the geological evolu on of a region.

OUTCROPS
In structural geology, an outcrop refers to a loca on where the bedrock or geological forma on is visible at the Earth's
surface. It is an exposure of rock that emerges from beneath the soil, vegeta on, or other superficial cover. Outcrops
provide direct access to the rocks, allowing geologists to observe and study their characteris cs, including their
composi on, structure, and deforma on.

Outcrops can be found in various se ngs, including mountains, cliffs, river banks, road cuts, and quarries. It allow direct
observa on and sampling of the bedrock in situ for geologic analysis and crea ng geologic maps. In situ measurements
are cri cal for proper analysis of geological history and outcrops are therefore extremely important for understanding
the geologic me scale of earth history.

GEOLOGICAL MAP
A geological map is a specialized type of map that depicts the geological features and forma ons of a par cular area. It
provides detailed informa on about the distribu on of different rock types, geological structures, and other relevant
features on the Earth's surface or in the subsurface.
Geological maps are created by geologists and geographers who study the Earth's composi on, history, and processes.
They use various methods, such as field observa ons, sampling, remote sensing, and geophysical surveys, to gather data
about the rocks, minerals, and geological structures present in an area.
Types of Geological Maps
There are several types of geological maps, each designed to provide specific informa on about the geology of a
par cular area. Some of the most common types of geological maps include:
1. Bedrock maps:
These maps show the loca on and
distribu on of different types of rock
forma ons at or near the Earth’s
surface. Bedrock maps can be used to
iden fy the age, composi on, and
structure of rocks in an area, as well
as their poten al for use as natural
resources.

2. Surficial maps:
These maps show the distribu on of different
types of surficial materials, such as soils,
sediments, and glacial deposits. Surficial
maps can be used to study the history of
climate change, the loca on of natural
resources like water and minerals, and the
poten al for soil erosion and landslides.

3. Structural maps:
These maps show the orienta on and loca on of different
types of geologic structures, such as faults and folds. Structural
maps can be used to study the history of tectonic ac vity in an
area, as well as the poten al for earthquakes and other natural
hazards.

A depth structural map showing hydrocarbon-bearing

an clinal structures with faults throw towards the SW
 4. Mineral maps:
These maps show the loca on and
distribu on of different types of minerals
and mineral resources in an area. Mineral
maps can be used to study the geology of an
area, as well as the poten al for economic
development through mining and other
resource extrac on.

5. Geologic hazard maps:

These maps show the poten al for natural
hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides, and
volcanic erup ons, in an area. Geologic hazard
maps can be used to iden fy areas that are at
risk for these types of events, as well as to
develop strategies for mi ga ng their effects.

Turkey earthquake hazard map

STUDY OF STRUCTURES
Observing and understanding
geological structures helps us to determine
the kinds of stresses that have existed
within Earth in the past. This type of
informa on is cri cal to our understanding
of plate tectonics, earthquakes, the
forma on of mountains, metamorphism,
and Earth resources. Some of the types of
geological structures that are important to
study include fractures, faults, and folds.
Structural geologists make careful
observa ons of the orienta ons of these
structures and the amount and direc on of
offset along faults.
1. Folds are a wavelike bends in layered rock.
They represent rock strained in a duc le
manner, usually under compression.
The axial plane divides a fold into its two
limbs. The surface trace of an axial plane is
called the hinge line(or axis) of the fold.

Parts of folds
Hinge (axis): Axis is the maximum curvature
in a folded bed.
Axial plane: It is the surface connec ng all the
axis. It may be ver cal, inclined, and
horizontal.
Limb: It is on either side of the fold.
Crest: It is the highest part of the folded bed.
Trough: It is the lowest part of the folded bed.
Crest plane: It is the line that connects all
crests.
Trough plane: It is the line that connects all
troughs.
An clines are upward-arching folds, and synclines are downward-arching folds. An clines eroded horizontally at
the surface show the oldest ages in the centerline.
Synclines eroded horizontally at the surface show the youngest ages in the centerline (bedding ages are
symmetrically older going away from the center).

2. Faults are fractures or cracks in the Earth's crust along

which there has been movement of rock masses. They
occur when rocks break due to stress or strain, and the
blocks on either side of the fracture move rela ve to
each other. Faults are classified based on the direc on of
movement and the nature of the displacement.
 Types of Fault
1. Normal faults: These occur when the hanging wall (the block above the
fault plane) moves downward rela ve to the footwall (the block below the
fault plane). Normal faults are associated with extensional forces, o en
found in areas of crustal stretching or ri ing.

2. Reverse faults: These occur when the hanging wall moves upward
rela ve to the footwall. Reverse faults are associated with
compressional forces and are o en found in regions undergoing
crustal compression, such as in mountain-building processes.

3. Strike-slip faults: These occur when rocks on either side of the fault
plane slide horizontally past each other. Strike-slip faults are associated
with shearing forces and are o en observed in transform plate
boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault in California.

3. Joint is a break(fracture) of natural origin in the

con nuity of either a layer or body of rock that lacks
any visible or measurable movement parallel to the
surface(plane) of the fracture. A joint set is a family of
parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be iden fied
through mapping and analysis of the orienta ons,
spacing, and physical proper es. A joint system
consists of two or more interlocking joint sets.

Gene c Classifica on:

 Tensional joint: This is a shrinkage joint
 Shear Joint: This joint is developed from the sliding history of geological strata
 Tectonic joint: Joints developed from tectonic ac vi es and categorized according to a tude of beds.
Geometric classifica on
 Strike joint: Joints strike in the same direc on of the rock forma on
 Dip joint: Joint strike parallel to the dip of the rock forma on.
 Oblique/diagonal joint: The strike of the joint makes an inclined angle with the strike of the rock forma on.

Folds, faults, and joints play a significant role in engineering, par cularly in areas such as civil engineering, geotechnical
engineering, and structural engineering. Here are some key reasons why these geological structures are important in
engineering:
1. Geotechnical Site Inves ga ons: Folds, faults, and joints influence the behavior and proper es of rocks and soil
in the subsurface. They can affect the stability, strength, and deforma on characteris cs of the ground.
 Understanding the presence and nature of these structures is crucial for geotechnical site inves ga ons,
including founda on design, slope stability analysis, and excava on planning.
2. Structural Integrity: Folds, faults, and joints can have a direct impact on the structural integrity of engineered
structures. Buildings, bridges, tunnels, and other infrastructure may be affected by these geological structures.
Proper considera on of folds, faults, and joints during the design and construc on phases is essen al to ensure
the stability and durability of the structures.
3. Groundwater and Contaminant Flow: Faults and joints can serve as pathways for groundwater flow, influencing
water supply and management. They can also impact the migra on of contaminants, such as pollutants or
hazardous substances, through the subsurface. Understanding the distribu on and characteris cs of faults and
joints is important in assessing and mi ga ng poten al risks associated with groundwater contamina on and
resource management.
4. Rock and Mineral Resources: Folds, faults, and joints can have a significant impact on the extrac on and
u liza on of mineral resources. These structures may control the accumula on, concentra on, and accessibility
of valuable minerals. Knowledge of the structural controls provided by folds, faults, and joints is crucial in
iden fying and loca ng economically viable mineral deposits.
5. Construc on and Excava on Planning: Folds, faults, and joints influence excava on and construc on projects.
They can impact the stability of excava on walls, the design of support systems, and the selec on of
construc on methods. Proper assessment and understanding of these structures are necessary to ensure safe
and efficient construc on opera ons.
By considering and analyzing folds, faults, and joints, engineers can make informed decisions, mi gate poten al risks,
and op mize designs in various engineering projects. Incorpora ng geological informa on into engineering prac ces
leads to safer and more reliable infrastructure development, improved resource management, and effec ve mi ga on of
geological hazards.
 ROCK MECHANICS

Rock mechanics is a branch of geomechanics that focuses on the behavior of rocks under various mechanical and
environmental condi ons. It involves the study of how rocks respond to forces, stresses, and deforma ons. Rock
mechanics plays a crucial role in understanding the stability, strength, and behavior of rock masses in engineering and
geotechnical applica ons.

Physical proper es and mechanical proper es of rocks:

1. Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a

material. Porosity is determined by dividing the
volume of voids by the total volume of a material
to determine a percentage.
Porosity (%) = (Volume of Voids / Total Volume) x
100.
2. Permeability is a measure of the ability of a
material (such as rocks) to transmit fluids.
Porosity and permeability are related proper es of
any rock or loose sediment. Both are related to the
number, size, and connec ons of openings in the
rock.
3. Density is the measure of mass per unit volume of a rock. It provides an indica on of the rock's overall
compactness and can vary depending on the rock type and mineral composi on.
4. Strength refers to a rock's ability to resist deforma on or failure under stress. It is a cri cal property for
construc on materials and stability analysis. The strength of a rock can be evaluated through various tests,
including compressive strength, tensile strength, and shear strength.
5. Hardness is a measure of a rock's resistance to scratching or abrasion. It is determined by the strength of the
chemical bonds within the rock's mineral cons tuents. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is commonly used to
compare the hardness of different minerals and rocks. The scale ranges from 1 (so est, such as talc) to 10
(hardest, such as diamond).
6. Elas city refers to a rock's ability to deform under stress and return to its original shape once the stress is
released. It is related to the rock's elas c modulus, which measures its s ffness or resistance to deforma on.
Rocks with high elas city can undergo temporary deforma on and then recover their original shape when the
stress is removed. Elas city is crucial for understanding rock behavior under dynamic loads, such as earthquakes
or rock bursts.
7. Plas city is the property of a rock to undergo permanent deforma on without fracturing under stress. It occurs
in rocks that can undergo duc le deforma on, where the rock's mineral grains or crystal la ce can deform and
flow without breaking. Plas city is influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and mineral composi on.
Rocks with high plas city can be shaped or molded under pressure, like clay or some metamorphic rocks.
Plas city is relevant in geotechnical engineering for understanding the behavior of soils and weak rocks.

Dynamic proper es of rocks:

It refers to their behavior and response under dynamic or me-dependent loads.
1. Wave theory in rock mechanics deals with the propaga on of waves through rocks.
There are two primary types of waves relevant to rock mechanics:
a. P-waves (Primary waves) are compressional waves that cause par cles in the rock to move parallel to
the direc on of wave propaga on. These waves travel faster than other seismic waves and can
 propagate through both solids and fluids. The wave velocity of P-waves in rocks depends on the density,
elas city, and compressibility of the rock material.
Generally, P-wave veloci es are higher in denser and more rigid rocks. For example, in crystalline rocks
like granite or basalt, P-wave veloci es can range from a few kilometers per second (km/s) to several
kilometers per second. In so er rocks or unconsolidated sediments, P-wave veloci es are lower, typically
ranging from hundreds of meters per second (m/s) to a few kilometers per second.

b. S-Waves (Shear Waves) are shear waves that cause par cles in the rock to move perpendicular to the
direc on of wave propaga on. These waves propagate slower than P-waves and can only travel through
solid materials.
S-wave veloci es are generally lower than P-wave veloci es in rocks. They are also affected by the rock's
elas c anisotropy (varia on in proper es with direc on). In crystalline rocks, S-wave veloci es are
typically slower than P-wave veloci es, with values ranging from a few hundred meters per second to a
few kilometers per second.

Factors Influencing Wave Velocity:

Several factors influence the velocity at which waves propagate through rocks. The following are some key
factors that affect the velocity of waves propaga ng through rock materials:
a. Rock Type and Composi on
b. Porosity and Satura on:
c. Degree of Satura on
d. Rock Fabric and Anisotropy
e. Stress and Confining Pressure
f. Temperature
g. Frequency and Wave Type

2. Sta c and dynamic moduli of elas city are dynamic proper es of rocks that describe their response to applied
stress and strain. These proper es provide insights into the s ffness and deforma on characteris cs of rocks
under sta c and dynamic loading condi ons.
 The sta c modulus of elas city, also known as the Young's modulus or the elas c modulus, represents
the rock's s ffness under sta c or slowly applied loads. It measures the ra o of stress to strain within the
elas c deforma on range. When a rock is subjected to an external force, it deforms elas cally un l it
reaches its elas c limit, beyond which permanent deforma on occurs.
 The dynamic modulus of elas city, also known as the dynamic Young's modulus, represents the rock's
s ffness under dynamic or rapidly applied loads. It measures the ra o of stress to strain when the rock is
subjected to high-frequency or dynamic loading, such as seismic waves or impact forces. The dynamic
modulus of elas city reflects the rock's ability to transmit and dissipate energy during dynamic events.

Both sta c and dynamic moduli of elas city are important in engineering and geology. They help in assessing
the mechanical behavior and deforma on characteris cs of rocks under different loading condi ons. These
proper es are used to evaluate rock stability, design founda ons, analyze slope stability, and predict the
response of rocks to seismic events. Understanding the sta c and dynamic moduli of elas city aids in the
characteriza on of rock masses, selec on of suitable construc on materials, and assessment of the safety and
durability of engineered structures.
Grou ng refers to a technique or process used in engineering and construc on to improve the proper es of rock or soil
masses. It involves injec ng a fluid material, known as grout, into the subsurface to fill voids, strengthen weak zones, or
control water flow.

Grou ng can be used for various purposes, including:

1. Ground Improvement: Grou ng is commonly used to improve the strength and stability of weak or loose soil or
rock forma ons. By injec ng grout into the ground, voids and fractures can be filled, crea ng a more compact
and stable mass. This process is par cularly useful in areas where there is a risk of se lement, subsidence, or
slope instability.
2. Sealing and Water Control: Grou ng can be employed to control or mi gate water flow through rock or soil. By
injec ng grout into fractures, joints, or porous zones, the permeability of the subsurface can be reduced,
effec vely sealing off water pathways. This technique is commonly used in tunnel construc on, dam
founda ons, and underground construc on to prevent water ingress or to stabilize water-bearing forma ons.
3. Founda on Stabiliza on: Grou ng can be used to improve the load-bearing capacity of founda ons. By injec ng
grout into weak or loose zones beneath a founda on, the surrounding soil or rock can be strengthened,
increasing the founda on's stability and preven ng se lement.

The selec on of grout materials and injec on techniques depends on the specific project requirements, geological
condi ons, and desired outcomes. Common types of grouts include cemen ous grouts, chemical grouts, and expansive
grouts. The injec on can be performed using various methods, such as permea on grou ng, compac on grou ng, or
pressure grou ng.
 Chapter 5: Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering

Geological and geophysical investigations are closely related and often conducted together in civil
engineering projects to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the subsurface conditions. While geological
investigation focuses on the properties and behavior of rocks and soils, geophysical investigation involves the
use of physical principles and techniques to gather data about the subsurface.

A. Site investigations are an essential part of civil engineering projects and involve the detailed study
and assessment of a specific location where construction or development is planned.

Here are the key components and objectives of site investigations in civil engineering:
1. Desk Study: It involves a review of available documents, records, maps, and geological or
environmental data related to the site. This helps gather preliminary information and identify potential
issues or constraints that may affect the project.
2. Geological Investigation: This includes analyzing the soil and rock types, their properties,
composition, and stratigraphy. Geological investigations help determine the stability of slopes,
potential for landslides or subsidence, groundwater conditions, and the suitability of the site for
construction.
3. Geotechnical Investigation: This includes conducting field tests, sampling, and laboratory
analysis to determine parameters such as soil strength, compaction characteristics, permeability,
and settlement potential. The data obtained from geotechnical investigations is crucial for foundation
design, slope stability analysis, and overall structural stability.
4. Environmental Assessment: This may involve assessing soil and water contamination,
identifying protected habitats or species, evaluating the impact on air and noise quality, and ensuring
compliance with environmental regulations. The findings guide the design and implementation of
appropriate mitigation measures to minimize environmental damage.
5. Infrastructure and Utility Surveys: This includes locating underground pipelines, cables, and
other utilities that may impact construction activities. Understanding the existing infrastructure helps
in planning construction processes, determining potential conflicts, and coordinating with utility
providers for relocation if necessary.
6. Site-Specific Assessments: These can include topographical surveys, hydrological studies,
traffic assessments, archaeological surveys, and seismic evaluations. These investigations provide
important data for designing drainage systems, transportation networks, and ensuring the overall
safety and functionality of the project.
B. Geological investigation/exploration methods

1. Geologic mapping is a highly

interpretive, scientific process that can
produce a range of map products for
many different uses, including assessing
ground-water quality and contamination
risks; predicting earthquake, volcano, and
landslide hazards; characterizing energy
and mineral resources and their
extraction costs; waste repository siting;
land management and land-use planning;
and general education.

2. Sampling and Analysis: Sampling is a

fundamental technique in geological
exploration. It involves collecting rock,
soil, or sediment samples from the
surface or subsurface for laboratory
analysis. These samples are then
analyzed to determine their mineralogy,
geochemistry, and physical properties,
providing valuable information about the
potential resources present.

C. Geophysical investigation methods:

1. Seismic Methods involve generating and recording seismic waves to obtain information about
subsurface structures.
 There are two main types of seismic methods:

a. Reflection Seismic: This method involves creating controlled vibrations (such as through a
seismic source) and recording the reflected waves from subsurface interfaces. It helps
determine the depth and geometry of rock layers, identify faults, and locate potential
hydrocarbon reservoirs.
b. Refraction Seismic: Refraction seismic surveys measure the travel time and direction of
seismic waves refracted at interfaces between different subsurface layers. It helps determine
the depth to bedrock, velocity variations, and subsurface layering, which are important for
engineering projects like foundation design.

2. Electrical methods utilize the electrical properties of rocks and soils to gather information about
subsurface conditions.

Two commonly used electrical methods are:

a. Electrical Resistivity method measures the ability of rocks and soils to conduct electrical
current. By injecting electrical current into the ground and measuring the resulting voltage,
variations in subsurface resistivity can be identified. It helps in mapping subsurface lithology,
detecting groundwater, and locating potential mineral deposits.

b. Induced Polarization (IP) surveys measure the time-dependent voltage response of rocks
and soils after applying a current. It helps in identifying chargeability contrasts associated
with mineralization, such as sulfide ores.
3. Direct penetration techniques involve physically probing the subsurface to obtain information
about the soil or rock layers. One commonly used direct penetration method is:
a. Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) involves pushing a cone-shaped penetrometer into the
ground and measuring the resistance to penetration. It provides data on soil stratigraphy,
shear strength, and compaction characteristics. CPT is frequently used for geotechnical
investigations to assess soil properties and design foundations.

4. Core boring involves drilling boreholes

into the ground and extracting cylindrical
samples of the subsurface materials.
This method provides intact core
samples that can be analyzed in detail
to understand the geological and
geotechnical properties of the
subsurface. Core boring is commonly
used in geological and geotechnical
investigations to study rock composition,
rock strength, permeability, and other
parameters relevant to engineering
design.
5. Logging of Cores refers to the detailed examination and recording of information from the
extracted core samples. Geologists and engineers visually inspect the core and describe its
characteristics, including lithology, grain size, color, fractures, and other features. Logging of
cores helps in the interpretation of the subsurface conditions, identifying potential zones of
interest or hazards, and refining the geological models.
D. DAMS, TUNNELS, BUILDINGS, AND ROAD CUTTINGS
1. Dam
A dam is a structure built across a
stream or river to hold water back.
Dams can be used to store water,
control flooding, and generate
electricity.

Geological conditions required for the construction of Dam:

a. Foundation Stability: The geological conditions must provide a stable foundation for the
dam. This includes the presence of competent and stable rock or soil layers capable of
supporting the weight and load of the dam structure.
b. Impermeable Layers: Dams often require impermeable geological layers (such as clay or
low permeability rock formations) to prevent excessive seepage of water through the
foundation and abutments.
c. Geological Stability: The presence of stable geological formations is crucial to ensure
long-term stability and prevent risks of landslides or slope instability.

2. Tunnels

A tunnel is an
underground
passageway that is
excavated through
soil, rock or both.
Tunnels are used for
transportation, water
conveyance, sewage,
and utility conduits.
 Tunnels can be broadly classified into the following categories based on their purpose:
a. Transportation tunnels: These tunnels are constructed for vehicular traffic, rail transport, and
pedestrian use. Examples include road tunnels, railway tunnels, and pedestrian walkways.
b. Utility tunnels: These tunnels are used to carry pipes, cables, and other utility services, such
as water, gas, electricity, and telecommunications.
c. Mining tunnels: These tunnels are constructed in mining operations for the extraction of
minerals and ores.
d. Hydroelectric power tunnels: These tunnels are used to convey water to hydroelectric power
plants, where the force of the water is used to generate electricity.
e. Sewage tunnels: These tunnels are used to transport sewage from one location to another,
usually from a treatment plant to a discharge point.

Geological conditions required for the construction of Tunnel:

a. Rock Stability: Tunnels require stable geological conditions, especially if they are excavated
through rock formations. The presence of strong and competent rock with minimal fracturing and
faulting is essential.
b. Groundwater Conditions: Geological conditions should consider groundwater levels and the
potential for water inflows during tunnel excavation. Proper drainage and waterproofing
measures may be required.
c. Geological Hazards: Assessment of geological hazards such as fault zones, shear zones, and
potential for rockfalls is necessary to ensure the safety of the tunnel.

3. Buildings
 Geological conditions required for the construction of buildings:

a. Foundation Support: Buildings require stable and load-bearing foundations. The geological
conditions should include competent soil or rock layers capable of supporting the weight of the
structure.
b. Soil Settlement: The settlement characteristics of the soil should be considered to prevent
excessive settlement and differential movement, which can lead to structural damage.
c. Groundwater Conditions: Understanding the groundwater table and potential for water-related
issues, such as soil liquefaction or swelling, is important for building construction.

4. Road Cutting
Road cutting refers to the process of excavating or removing a section of a road or pavement to
perform various activities such as repairs, maintenance, installations, or expansions of underground
utilities. These utilities can include water pipes, gas lines, electric cables, or telecommunication
infrastructure. Road cutting is commonly carried out by utility companies, construction crews, or
municipal authorities.

Geological conditions required for the construction of road cutting:

a. Soil Stability: The geological conditions should provide stable and competent soils or rocks to
ensure the stability of road cut slopes.
b. Slope Geometry: The natural slope angle of the geological formation should be considered,
and appropriate slope angles and stabilization measures should be implemented to prevent
slope failure.
c. Geological Hazards: Assessment of geological hazards like landslides, rockfalls, or soil erosion
is necessary to minimize risks and ensure the safety of the road cutting.