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Amplitude Modulation: Power Savings A. Single Sideband (SSB)
Amplitude Modulation: Power Savings A. Single Sideband (SSB)
AM Wave
Vm
V
cos( c m )t m cos( c + m )t
2
2
where: Vc = maximum voltage of the carrier signal
Vm = maximum voltage of the original
modulating signal
c = 2fc = frequency of the carrier signal
m = 2fm = frequency of the modulating
signal
V (t ) = Vc sin c t +
V m V max V min
=
V c V max +V min
where: m = modulation index
Vmax = maximum peak-to-peak voltage swing
of AM wave
Vmin = minimum peak-to-peak voltage swing
of AM wave
m=
mVc
mVc
cos( c m )t
cos( c + m )t
2
2
AM Bandwidth
BW = 2 f m
where: BW = bandwidth
fm = modulating signal frequency
Superheterodyne Receiver
f si = f s + 2 f i
where: fsi = image frequency
fs = signal frequency
fi = intermediate frequency
It
Pt
m2
m2
= 1 +
=1+
2
Pc
2
Ic
where: Pt = total transmitted power
Pc = unmodulated carrier power
It = total transmitted current
Ic = unmodulated carrier current
m = modulation index
= 1+ Q2 2
f image
f
f
f
= si s =
RF
fs
f si
f RF
f image
where: = image-frequency rejection ratio(IFRR)
Q = quality factor of the circuit
TELEVISION
Details of Horizontal Blanking
Period
Time, sec
Total line (H)
63.5
H blanking
0.15H-0.18H or 9.5-11.5
H sync pulse
0.08H, or 4.75 0.5
Front porch
0.02H, or 1.27
Back porch
0.06H, 3.81
Visible line time
52-54
Details of Vertical Blanking
Period
Time
Total field (V)
1/60s 0.0167s
V blanking
0.05V-0.08V or 9.5-11.5
Each V sync pulse
27.35 s
Total of 6 V sync pulse 3H = 190.5 s
Each equalizing pulse
0.04H = 2.54 s
Each serration
0.07H = 4.4 s
Visible field time
0.92V-0.95V, 0.015-0.016s
PAV = PPEAK DR
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
Directional Gain
G dir =
=
L
where: = horizontal beam-width (radians)
= the wavelength of the radar
L = the dimension of the antenna in the
direction of interest (i.e. width or height)
= vertical beam-width (radians)
PAV PRT
PW
Radar Range
R=4
PPEAK =
PT AP SAO
(4 ) 2 PR min
AP =
4AO
2
2
P A S
R =4 T 2O
4 PR min
where: R = Radar Range
PT = Transmitted Power
AP = antenna gain
S = cross-sectional area of the target
A0 = captured area of an antenna
PRmin = detected signal level in W
Doppler Effect
2v cos
FD =
TRANSMISSION LINES
Electrical Characteristics
Characteristic Impedance
Z
ZO =
Y
where: Z = R +jL /m
Y = G +jC S/m
R
G
L
ZO =
C
ZO =
R=
Also,
Z O = Z SC Z OC
where: ZSC = short circuit impedance
ZOC = open circuit impedance
d
m
F
C=
2D
m
ln
d
where: L = Inductance
C = Capacitance
D = Separation between center to center
d = diameter of the wire
r
ZO
10 3
Characteristic Impedance, Z0
L
ZO =
C
120 2 D
ZO =
ln
d
r
276
2D
log
d
r
Note: 150 Z0 600
ZO =
f
5d
at high frequency,
C = 1.016
a
m
100 ft
R = 8.34 10 8
at low frequency,
Alternate formulas:
L = 1.016 Z O r 10 3
Resistance, R
D H
ln
2 d m
F
2
C=
D
m
ln
d
where: D = diameter of the outer conductor
d = diameter of the inner conductor
L=
Alternate formulas:
L = 1.016 Z O r 10 3
C = 1.016
r
ZO
10 3
H/ft
Characteristic Impedance, Z0
60
D
ZO =
ln
d
r
138
D
ZO =
log
d
r
Note: 40 Z0 150
F/ft
Resistance, R
H/ft
F/ft
1 1
f +
D d m
where: D = diameter of the outer conductor (m)
d = diameter of the inner conductor (m)
f = frequency (MHz)
R = 8.34 10 8
1 1
R = 0.1 f +
D d 100 ft
where: D = diameter of the outer conductor (inches)
d = diameter of the inner conductor (inches)
f = frequency (MHz)
dB/length
= 4.343
Z
O
2
= LC =
=
radians/length
VP
1
VP =
m/s
LC
where: Vp = propagation velocity
Loading Conditions
Note: The zero reference is at the load not on the
generator.
1. ZL = Z0 (match load)
with ZL = Z0 then Zin = Z0
I R = I S e L
V R = V S e L
V (d ) = V + e jd + V e jd
1
I (d ) =
V + e jd V e jd
ZO
Loss-less transmission line
where: V(d) = line voltage at point d
I(d) = line current at point d
Z0 = characteristic impedance of the line
V+ = incident voltage
V = reflected voltage
= complex propagation constant for lossyline
= complex propagation constant for lossless line
d = distance from the load
I S = I R e L
V S = V R e L
PR = PS e 2L
PS = PR e 2L
where: IR, IS, VR, VS = receiving and sending end
current and voltages respectively
PR, PS = power at the receiving and sending
end
= complex propagation constant
L = length of the transmission lone
Zin = input impedance
ZL = load impedance
2. ZL Z0 (Mismatch)
Z2
Z in = O
ZL
Z + Z O tanh L
for L > /4
Z in = Z O L
Z O + Z L tanh L
where: Zin = the equivalent impedance representing
the entire line terminated by the load
2. ZL (open circuit)
V (d ) = 2V + cos( d )
2 jV + sin( d )
Z0
V (d )
Z (d ) =
= jZ 0 cot( d )
I (d )
R = 1
I (d ) =
3. ZL = Z0 (matched load)
V (d ) = V + e jd
for /4 line
V + e jd
Z0
Z (d ) = Z 0
R = 0
I (d ) =
4. ZL = jX (pure reactance)
- Reactive impedance can be realized
with transmission lines terminated by
a short or by an open circuit.
Z in = jZ 0 tan( L)
Im(Z in ) > 0
0<L<
4
Parallel
Z in
L=
Resonance
4
Capacitance
Im(Z in ) < 0
<L<
4
2
Series
Z in = 0
L=
Resonance
2
Inductance
3
Im(Z in ) > 0
<L<
2
4
Parallel
3
Z in
L=
Resonance
4
Capacitance
3
Im(Z in ) < 0
<L<
4
Shorted Transmission Line Fixed Frequency
Parallel
L=0
Z in
Resonance
Capacitance
Im(Z in ) < 0
0<L<
4
Series
Z in = 0
L=
Resonance
4
Inductance
Im(Z in ) > 0
<L<
4
2
Parallel
Z in
L=
Resonance
2
Capacitance
3
Im(Z in ) < 0
<L<
2
4
Series
3
Z in = 0
L=
Resonance
4
Inductance
3
Im(Z in ) > 0
<L<
4
Degree of Mismatch
A. Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
Z
R
SWR = 0 = L
(whichever is larger)
RL Z 0
1+
SWR =
1
Note: The greater the SWR, the greater the mismatch
ANTENNA
Antenna Characteristics
P2
P1
where: G(dB) = antenna gain in decibels
P1 = power of unidirectional antenna
P2 = power of reference antenna
G = 10 log
ERP = Pin G
ERP = Prad D
where: G = power gain (unitless)
Pin = power delivered to the feedpoint
For an isotropic antenna: PT = Prad
But for a unidirectional antenna: PT = ERP
Prad
I2
where: Rrad = radiation resistance
Prad = power radiated by the antenna
I = current at the feedpoint
Rrad =
l
= 790
Pd = Pin Prad
where: Rrad = radiation resistance
Prad = power radiated by the antenna
Rrad
RT
Prad = Pin
G = D
where: = antenna efficiency (1 for lossless ant.)
Rrad = antenna radiation resistance
RT = antenna radiation resistance
= Rrad and Rd (ohmic resistance)
D = directivity (maximum directive gain)
=
fr
Q
= 70
D
where: BW = bandwidth
fr = antenna resonant frequency
Q = antenna quality factor
= beamwidth
BW =
PF
= 20 log F
PB
B
where: AFB = front-to-back ratio (dB)
PF = power output in the most optimum
direction
PB = power output in the opposite direction
AFB = 10 log
Isotropic Antenna
Gain over isotropic = 0 dB
Beamwidth = 360
Types of Antenna
A. Dipole Antenna
a. Half-wave dipole
Gain over isotropic = 2.14 dB
Beamwidth = 55
b. Folded half-wave dipole
Gain over isotropic = 5.64 dB
Beamwidth = 45
B. Beam Antenna
a. Yagi-Uda Antenna
Gain over isotropic = 7.14 dB
Beamwidth = 25
b. Rhombic Antenna
Gain over isotropic = 5.14 dB
C. Loop Antenna
Gain over isotropic = 3.14 dB
Beamwidth = 200
V = k (2f ) BAN
where: V = voltage induced in a loop antenna
k = physical proportional factor
B = field strength flux, V/m
A = loop area, m2
N = number of turns
D. Antenna with parabolic reflector
2
Aeff
kAs
2 D
G=
=
= k
Aiso
Aiso
2
D 2
As =
4
4
where: Aeff = effective aperture or antenna capture
area
Aiso = isotropic area
k = illumination factor
D = diameter of parabolic reflector
Aiso =
D
G = 6
Parabolic dipole: D =
with k = 0.65
5
2
56
Elevation Pattern: 3dB beamwidth =
h
70
Azimuth Pattern: 3dB beamwidth =
w
2
D
G = 7.5
E. Helical Antenna
2
D NS
G = 15
52
=
D NS
1
= the length of the longest element
2
d1 = the distance between the longest element
and the second element
r = design factor which is between 0.7 and
0.98
where: l1 =
Antenna Height
For a straight vertical antenna with h /4
h
he =
sin 2
2h
sin
FIBER OPTICS
Nature of Light
E P = hf
where: Ep = energy of a photon; Joules (J)
h = Plancks constant, 6.62510-34 J-s
f = frequency, Hz
frequency of red light = 4.41014 Hz
frequency of violet light = 71014 Hz
Snells Law
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
where: n1 = refractive index of material 1
n2 = refractive index of material 2
1 = angle of incidence
2 = angle of refraction
Note: 1 = 1010 m
1 micron = 106 m
nair = 1.0003 1
c
v
sin C =
c = connector attenuation
s = total splice losses
fm = fiber margin
L = distance between repeaters
n2
n1
Mode of Propagation
1
N = V2
2
d
d
V =
n12 n 22 =
NA
O
O
n n2
= 1
n1
where: N = number of modes
V = V number
d = diameter
= wavelength
NA = numerical Aperture
n1 = refractive index of core
n2 = refractive index of cladding
= fractional index difference
Optical Fiber System Design
Mathematical Analysis
The power budget is the basis of the design of an
optical fiber link.
Total gain Total losses 0
Z=
1
Bt
5
= r 0
= r 0
where: = permeability of the medium (H/m)
= permittivity of the medium (F/m)
The Power Density
ERP PT GT
=
=
A
4r 2
W/m2
Therefore
(Pt + Pr) (f + c + s + fm) 0
Thus,
L = Pt Pr = (f + c + s + fm)
where: Pt = transmitted power
Pr = receiver sensitivity (minimum received
power)
f = fiber attenuation
10 9
o =
= 8.854 10 12
F/m
36
4 10 7
=
= 120 = 377
10 9
36
r
A (dB) = 10 log 1 = 20 log 2
2
r1
r
A (dB) = 10 log 1 = 20 log 2
2
r1
Snells Law
n1 sin 1 V2
k1
=
=
=
n2 sin 2 V1
k2
where: 2 = angle of refraction
1 = angle of incidence
V2 = refracted wave velocity in medium 2
V1 = incident wave velocity in medium 1
k1 = dielectric constant of medium 1
k2 = dielectric constant of medium 2
n1 = refractive index of medium 1
n2 = refractive index of medium 2
c
= k
Vp
where: n = refractive index
c = velocity of light in free space
Vp = velocity of light in a given medium
n=
r = 2 d sin 2
V/m
2
2h h
= at ar
d
where: d = direct radio wave field strength (V/m)
= the geometrical length difference
between the direct and reflected paths
hat and har = the heights of transmitting and
receiving antenna above the reflecting plane
tangent to the effective earth
NOISE
Noise Calculation
N = kTB
where: N = noise power
k = Boltzmanns constant
T = resistor temperature
B = bandwidth of the system
Note: 17 C/290 K is the typical noise temperature
Vn = 4kTBR
in V
where: Vn = noise voltage
R = resistance generating the noise
Series Resistors
Vn T = Vn21 + Vn22 + Vn23 + ...
Parallel Resistors
I nT = I n21 + I n22 + I n23 + ...
d = 2ht + 2hr
where: ht and hr = in feet
d = in miles
I n = 2e( I D + 2 I o ) B
where: I0 = negligible reverse saturated current
R2
( A1 )
R3
( A1 ) ( A2 )
2
+ ... +
Rn
( A1 ) ...( An1 )2
2
F = 0 dB
Information Theory
Hartley Law
C = 2 B log 2 n
bps
where: C = channel capacity
B = channel bandwidth (Hz)
n = number of coding levels (2 for binary, 8
for octal, 10 for decimal etc.)
Shannon-Hartley Law
C = B log 2 (1 + S / N )
bps
C = 3.32 B log(1 + S / N )
bps
where: S/N = signal-to-noise ratio (absolute value)
Note: For a practical telephone channel B = 3.1 kHz
(300 3400 Hz).
bits
Power required
Pn
= (n 1) 2
P2
where: Pn = power required in the n-level code
P2 = power level required in the binary code
n = number of levels in a code
Noise Measurements Units
dBrn (dB above reference noise)
N
dBrn = 10 log
1 10 12 W
dBrn = dBm + 90
dBa (dB above adjusted noise)
For a pure tone:
N
dBa = 10 log
1 10 11.5
dBa = dBm + 85
For F1A weighted:
dBa = dBm + 82
dBrnC (dB above reference noise, C-message
weighted)
dBrnC = dBm + 90
pWp (picowatts, psophometrically weighted)
( psop hom etricV 2 )
pWp =
10 12
600
pWp
dBmp = 10 log 3
10
Transmission level point
TLP (dB) = 10 log
S 0TLP
TLPdB = S dBm S dBm0
S dBm 0 = S dBm TLPdB
ANGLE MODULATION
Angle Modulation Characteristics
Phase Deviation/ Modulation Index
PM waveform:
m = = K 1Vm
where: m = = modulation index or peak phase
deviation (radians)
K1 = deviation sensitivity of the PM
modulator (rad/V)
Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude (V)
FM waveform:
K 2Vm
fm
where: K2 = deviation sensitivity of the FM
modulator (rad/V-s)
fm = modulating signal frequency (Hz)
m=
Frequency Deviation
PM waveform:
f = K 1Vm f m
where: f = peak frequency deviation of PM
waveform (Hz)
f = K 2Vm
where: f = peak frequency deviation of FM
waveform (Hz)
Deviation Ratio
FM Noise Analysis
FM waveform:
f max
D.R. =
f m (max)
where: D.R. = deviation ratio of an FM waveform
fm(max) = maximum modulating frequency
Power Relations in an Angle-Modulated Wave
Vc2
Pt =
2R
N = f m
N
= sin 1
S
S S
=
N N
where: N = frequency deviation of the noise
= phase shift (radians)
S = frequency deviation of the carrier
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Frequency Shift-Keying
F
MI =
Fa
where: MI = modulation index
F = frequency deviation
Fa = modulating frequency
8PSK
Output
112.5
157.5
67.5
22.5
+112.5
+157.5
+67.5
+22.5
B.E.
1
1
2
3
3
4
4
Sampling
Nyquist sampling theorem states that the minimum
sampling rate that can be used for a given PCM code
is twice the highest audio input frequency
fs 2 fa
where: fs = minimum Nyquist sampling rate
fa = highest frequency to be sampled
PCM code
resolution
2
V
Vmax
DR = max =
Vmin resolution
qemax =
In dB:
Vmax
Vmin
where: qemax = quantization error
DR = dynamic range
DRdb = 20 log
Analog Companding
a. -law companding used in U.S. and Japan
V
Vmax ln 1 + in
Vmax
Vout =
ln (1 + )
where: Vmax = maximum uncompressed analog input
amplitude
Vmin = amplitude of the input signal at a
particular distant of time
= parameter used to define amount of
compression
Vout = compressed output amplitude
Basic Formulas
Sound Velocity
V
1 + ln A in
Vmax 1 Vin A
Vout = Vmax
1 + ln A
A Vmax
where: A = parameter used to define the amount of
compression
ACOUSTICS
The Sound Generation
Octave
f n = f a 2 n 1
where: fn = frequency of the nth octave
fa = fundamental frequency
n = 1, 2, 3
Phon
v = f
PO
O
where: = ratio of the specific heat at constant
volume
Po = the steady pressure of the gas (N/m2)
o = the steady or average density of the gas
(kg/m3)
v=
m/s
ft/s
m/s
P
I
= 10 log
I L = 10 log
IO
PO
where: Io = threshold intensity (W/m2)
= 10-12 W/m2
Recall: TK = TC + 273
TR = TF + 460
9
TF = TC + 32
5
5
TC = (TF 32 )
9
Sound Pressure Level
2
P
P
I
= 10 log = 10 log
PO
IO
PO
2
where: P = RMS sound pressure (N/m )
Po = reference sound pressure
= 210-5 N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
= 0.0002 bar
= 2.089 lb/ft2
SPL = 20 log
Sound Intensity
P2
P2
=
W/m2
v 410
where: = density of air
v = velocity of sound in air
v = characteristic impedance of air to sound
= 410 rayls in air
I=
Room Acoustics
Optimum reverberation (at 500 to 1000 Hz)
Room
Reverberation
Function
time (s)
Recording and broadcast studios 0.45 0.55
Elementary classrooms
0.6 0.8
Playhouses, intimate drama
0.9 1.1
production
Lecture and conference rooms
0.9 1.1
Cinema
0.8 1.2
Small Theaters
1.2 1.4
High school auditoriums
1.5 1.6
General purpose auditoriums
1.5 1.6
Churches
1.4 3.4
1000
2000
4000
30%RH
103
40%RH
103
50%RH
103
60%RH
103
70%RH
103
80%RH
103
3.28
6.56
16.4
3.28
6.56
16.4
RH = Relative Humidity
Ia = Ii Ir
where: Ir = reflected sound intensity
a = 55.3
v t 2 t1
Absorption coefficient
a
S
where: V = volume of reverberation chamber
t1 = reverberation of the chamber without
absorbent material
t2 = reverberation of the chamber with
absorbent material
a = absorption of the chamber without
absorbent material
a = extra absorption due to the material
v = velocity of sound in air
S = surface area under measurement, which
should be a single area between 10 and 12 m2
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
Communications Satellite
Orbit Location (Satellite Elevation category)
(a) Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite
Orbital height
: 100 300 mi
Orbital velocity
: 17,500 mph
Orbital time (period)
: 1.5 hours
Satellite Availability
: 15 min per orbit
Typical operating frequency : 1.0 GHz 2.5 GHz
(b) Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellite
Orbital height
: 6,000 12,000 mi
Orbital velocity
: 9,580 mph
Orbital time (period)
: 5 12 hours
Satellite Availability
: 2 4 hours per orbit
Typical operating frequency : 1.2 GHz 1.66 GHz
(c) Geostationary or Geosynchronous (GEO)
Satellite
Orbital height
: 22,300 mi
Orbital velocity
: 6,879 mph
Orbital time (period)
: 24 hours
Satellite Availability
: 24 hours per orbit
Typical operating frequency : 2 GHz 18 GHz
THE GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE
Altitude
: 19,360 nmi
: 22,284 smi
: 35,855 km
Period
: 23 hr, 56 min, 4.091 s (one
sidereal day)
Orbit inclination
: 0
: 6879 mph
: 42.5% of earths surface (0
elevation)
Number of satellites : Three for global coverage
with some areas of overlap
(120 apart)
Areas of no coverage : Above 81 north and south
latitude
Advantages
: Simpler ground station
tracking
: No handover problem
: Nearly constant range
: Very small Doppler shift
Disadvantages
: Transmission delay
: Range loss (free space loss)
Spatial separation
: 3 6 [Typically 4
(equivalent to at least 1833
miles of separation distance)
or more]
Velocity
Coverage
= AP
where: = semi-major axis (km)
A = constant (unitless)
A = 42241.0979 for earth
P = mean solar earth days [ratio of the time
of one sidereal day (23 hours and 56
minutes) to the time of one revolution of
earth (24 hours)]
P = 0.9972
v=
m/s
Satellite height
gT 2 R 2
h=
R
km
4 2
where: T = satellite period
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8110-3
km/s2)
3
No
kTe
k
Te
Expressed in dB
G
C
4D
= 10 log At Pr 20 log
+ 10 log
No
Te
10 log Lu 10 log k
G
C
= EIRP(dBW ) L p (dB) + (dBK 1 )
No
Te
Lu (dB) k ( DBWK )
Uplink Equations
At Pr ( L p Ld ) Ar At Pr ( L p Ld ) G
C
=
=
No
kTe
k
Te
Expressed in dB
G
C
4D
= 10 log At Pr 20 log
+ 10 log
No
Te
10 log Ld 10 log k
G
C
= EIRP(dBW ) L p (dB) + (dBK 1 )
No
Te
Ld (dB) k ( DBWK )
MULTIPLEXING
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Voice band frequency (VF): 0 4 kHz
Basic voice band (VB) circuit is called 3002
Channel: 300 3000 Hz band
Note: The basic 3002 channel can be subdivided into
24 narrower 3001 (telegraph) channels that have
been frequency-division multiplexed to form a single
3002 channel.
A. Basic Group
f c = (112 4n)
kHz
where: fc = channel carrier frequency
n = channel number
Lower sideband
fLSB = fc (0 to 4 kHz)
17
18
D25
D26
D27
D28
Upper sideband
fUSB = fc + (0 to 4 kHz)
B. Basic Supergroup
f c = (372 + 48n)
kHz
where: fc = group carrier frequency
n = group number
Lower sideband
fLSB = fc (60 to 108 kHz)
Upper sideband
fUSB = fc + (60 to 108 kHz)
C. Basic Mastergroup
Two categories of mastergroups
U600 may be further multiplexed and used for
higher-capacity microwave radio.
L600 used for low-capacity microwave systems.
Basic Mastergroup bandwidth:
L600 (60 2788 kHz)
BW = 2728 kHz
U600 (564 3084 kHz)
BW = 2520 kHz
The Supergroup Carrier Frequencies
L600 Mastergroup
Supergroup Carrier frequency (kHz)
1
612
2
Direct
3
1116
4
1364
5
1612
6
1860
7
2108
8
2356
9
2724
10
3100
U600 mastergroup
Supergroup Carrier frequency (kHz)
13
1116
14
1364
15
1612
16
1860
2108
2356
2652
2900
3148
3396
Digital
Signal
DS 1
Bit rate
(Mbps)
1.544
Channel
Capacity
24
T1C
DS 1C
3.152
48
T2
DS 2
6.312
96
T3
DS 3
44.736
672
T4M
DS 4
274.176
4032
T5
DS 5
560.160
8064
Services
Offered
VB
telephone
VB
telephone
VB tel,
picturephone
VB tel,
picturephone, TV
Same as
T3 except
more
capacity
Same as
T3 except
more
capacity
Medium
Twisted pair
Twisted pair
Twisted pair,
wave
coax, wave
coax, optical
fiber
optical fiber
Level
1
2
3
4
5
Frequencies
697 Hz
770 Hz
852 Hz
941 Hz
Voice
Voice
Common
Voice
Voice
channel Channel Signaling Channel Channel
1
2 15
channel
16 29
30
TS 1 TS 2 16
TS 17 TS 18 30 TS 31
Minimum
BW
fb/2
fb/2
fb
fb
fb/2
Average
DC
+ V/2
0V
+ V/2
0V
0V
Clock
Recovery
Poor
Poor
Good
Best
Good
Error
Detection
No
No
No
No
Yes
TELEPHONY
Introduction
1.) Typical sounds produced by humans: 100 to
1000 Hz.
2.) Peak sensitivity of human hearing: 4 kHz.
3.) Upper frequency limit for hearing: 18 to 20 kHz.
4.) Lower frequency limit for hearing: 18 to 20 Hz.
Nature of Speech
1.) Sound pressure wave of speech contains
frequencies: 100 Hz to 10 kHz.
2.) Speech power range: 10 to 1,000 W.
1477 Hz
3
6
9
#
Line-Encoding Summary
Encoding
Format
UPNRZ
BPNRZ
UPRZ
BPRZ
BPRZ-AMI
DTMF Frequencies
1209 Hz 1336 Hz
1
2
4
5
7
8
*
0
A=
Grade _ of _ service =
GSM Network
Radio-Path Propagation Loss
d
P = 40 log 1
d2
(40 dB/decade path loss)
h '
G = 20 log 1
h1
(A base station antenna height gain of 6dB/octave)
where: P = the difference in two receive signal
strengths based on two different path lengths
d1 and d2
G = the difference in two receive signal
strengths based on two different antenna
heights h1 and h1
Receive signal in decibels
For non-obstructive path
r
h '
Pr = Pro log + 20 log e +
h1
ro
For obstructive path
r
Pr = Pro log + L +
ro
where: r = distance between the base and the mobile
unit in mi or km
he = effective antenna height
L = shadow loss
Pro = received signal at a reference distance ro
ro = usually equal to 1 mi (1.6 km)
= correction factor
Standard Condition:
Frequency (fo)
Base-station antenna height (h1)
Base-station power at the antenna
Base-station antenna gain (Gt)
Mobile-unit antenna height
ro
Mobile-unit antenna gain (Gm)
900 MHz
30.46 m
10 watts
6 dBd
3m
1.6 km
0 dBd
q = 3K
K=
q2
3
Radio Capacity
A. Analog, FDMA and TDMA cellular system
Bt
m=
2C
Bc
3 I
where: Bt = total allocated spectrum
Bc = channel bandwidth
(C/I) = required carrier-to-interference ratio
in linear values
B. CDMA cellular system
M
m=
K
where: M = total number of voice channels
K = frequency reuse factor
Antenna Separation Requirement
A. At the Base Station
h
= 11
d
where: h = antenna height
d = spacing between two antennas
B. At the Mobile Unit
A separation of a half-wavelength between two
mobile antennas is required at 850 MHz. Therefore,
the separation between two antennas needs to be
only 0.18 m (about 6 inches) at the cellular
frequency of 850 MHz.
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
S=
3Re
L
where: S = separation
Re = effective earths radius
L = path length
Path Characteristics
Free-space attenuation or path Loss, Lp
4d
LP =
LP = 32.4 + 20 log d km + 20 log f MHz
2
Also,
D
G = 6
FM
10
c) Based on equipment
R = (1 U ) 100%
MTTR
U=
MTBF + MTTR
where: U = unavailability or probability of outage
MTTR = Mean Time To Repair
MTBF = Mean Time Between Failures or
Mean Time Before Failures
Also,
Outage
8760 _ hours
Note: Downtime or Outage time (in hours per year)
U=
MTBF
MTBF + MTTR
where: A = Availability
A=