I-1: Review of DT Signal

& System Concepts

1/30

Notational Conventions (P-1.2)

Sets of Numbers:

R = real numbers
C = complex numbers
Z = integers ( , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, )

Signals: x(t), y(t) = continuous-time (CT) signals

x[n], y[n] = discrete-time (DT) signals

DT Convolution:

{x * y}[n ] =

DT Circular Convolution:

x[ m ] y [ n m ]

m =

{x
y}[n ] =

N 1

Proakis & Manolakis

dont follow this

Proakis & Manolakis

dont follow this

x[m] y[(n m) mod N ]

0 n N 1

m =0

Recall: We dont want Circular convolution it is what we get if we try to implement

Convolution in the frequency domain by multiplying DFTs (but not DTFTs)
But we can fix it so that it works. We use proper zero-padding!!!
2/30

Transforms (P-2)

Proakis & Manolakis dont follow this Notation

Fourier Transform for CT Signals

Fourier Transform for DT Signals

X F ( ) = {Fx}( )

x (t )e

jt

X f ( ) = {Fx}( )
=

dt

x[n]e jn

n =

1
x (t ) =
2

1
x[ n ] =
2

F
jt
X ( )e d

Discrete
Time
Fourier
Transform

( )e jn d

Set z = ej
Z Transform for DT Signals
X z ( z ) = {Zx}( z )
=

x[n]z

Discrete Fourier Transform for DT Signals

X [k ] = {Dx}[k ]
d

n =

N 1

Discrete Fourier Transform

x[n]e j 2kn / N

k = 0,1,2,..., N 1

n =0

Inverse ZT done using partial

fractions & a ZT table

1
x[ n ] =
N

N 1

X d [k ]e j 2kn / N

k =0

n = 0,1,2,..., N 1
3/30

Fourier Transforms for DT Signals (P-2.7,P-4, PM-4, PM-7)

DTFT = In Head/On Paper tool for analysis & design
DFT = In Computer tool for Implementation/Analysis&Design
(In both cases you generally strive to make the DFT behave like DTFT)
DFT for Implementation:
Compute DFT of signal to be processed and manipulate DFT values
May or may not need zero-padding (depends on application)
DFT for Analysis & Design:
Compute DFT of given filters TF to see its frequency response
Generally use zero-padding to get fine grid to get approximate DTFT
DFT/DTFT Properties you Must Know:
Periodicity. (DFT&DTFT both periodic in FD)
. (IDFT gives periodic TD signal)
Time Shift.. (Time Shift in TD Linear Phase Shift in FD)
Frequency Shift. (Mult. by complex sine in TD Freq Shift in FD)
Convolution Theorem (Conv. in Time Domain Mult. in Freq Domain)
Multiplication Theorem.. (Mult. in Time Domain Conv. in Freq Domain)
Parsevals Theorem. (Sum of Squares in TD = Sum of Squares in FD)
4/30

Summation Rules (P-1.3)

Make sure you are familiar with rules for dealing with
summations, as shown in Section 1.3 of Porat.
In addition, a particular summation formula that shows up
often is the Geometric Summation:
N1 N 2
, if 1

N 2 1
1
n
=
N N ,
n = N1
if = 1
1
2

Special Case: N1 = 0
1 N 2
, if 1

N 2 1
1
n =
N ,
n =0
if = 1
2

5/30

Eulers Formulas
e j + e j
cos( ) =
2
e j e j
sin( ) =
2j

= cos( ) + j sin( )

e j = cos( ) j sin( )

Im

Im

e j

j sin( )

j sin( )

cos( )

Re

e j

2jsin()

e j

2 cos( )

Re

e j
6/30

Discrete-Time Processing (P-2, PM-5)

x[n]
Xf()
Xz(z)

h[n]
Hf()
Hz(z)

y[n] = h[n]*x[n]
Yf() = Hf() Xf()
Yz(z) = Hz(z) Xz(z)

h[n] = systems Impulse Response

It is response of system to input of [n]
Hf() = systems Frequency Response
It is DTFT of impulse response
Hz(z) = systems Transfer Function
It is ZT of impulse response

7/30

Discrete-Time System Relationships

Time Domain

Inspect

Z / Freq Domain
Block
Diagram
Inspect
ZT (Theory)
Inspect (Practice)

Difference
Equation
p

i =1

i =0

Pole/Zero
Diagram
Roots

Transfer
Function

H ( z) =

b0 + b1 z 1 + " + bq z q
1 + a1 z 1 + " + a p z p

y[k ] = ai y[n i ] + bi x[n i ]

ZT

Impulse
Response
h[k]

DTFT

Unit Circle
z = ej
Frequency
Response

H f ( ) = H z ( z ) |z = e j
8/30

Poles and Zeros of Transfer Function

Consider Here Only p>q
H z ( z) =
=
=
=

b0 + b1 z

+ " + bq z

Im{z}

1 + a1 z 1 + " + a p z p
z p q z q (b0 + b1 z 1 + " + bq z q )
z p (1 + a1 z 1 + " + a p z p )
z p q (b0 z q + b1 z q 1 + " + bq )

Re{z}

z p + a1 z p 1 + " + a p
z p q ( z 1 )( z 2 )"( z q )
( z 1 )( z 2 )"( z p )

Numerator Roots define zeros

Denominator Roots define poles

In this case
pq zeros at z=0

Poles must be inside

unit circle for stability
Poles & zeros must occur in
Complex Conjugate pairs
to give real-valued TF coefficients9/30

IIR and FIR Filters

H z ( z) =

b0 + b1 z 1 + " + bq z q
1 + a1 z 1 + " + a p z p

FIR: Finite Impulse Response h[n] has only finite many nonzero values
Filter is FIR: If ai = 0 for i = 1, 2, , p (It is IIR otherwise)

H z ( z ) = b0 + b1 z 1 + " + bq z q
bn , n = 0,1,..., q
h[n ] =
0, otherwise

TF coefficients are the

impulse response values!!

10/30

Example System
Time Domain
Difference
Equation

Z / Freq Domain
ZT (Theory)
Inspect (Practice)

Input-Output Form

y (n) y (n 1) = x(n)

Transfer
Function

Y (z) 1 z = X (z)
1

Recursion Form

y (n) = x(n) + y (n 1)

Y ( z)
H ( z) =
=
X ( z ) 1 z 1
11/30

Example System (cont.)

Time Domain

Z / Freq Domain
x(n)

y(n)

Block
Diagram

Inspect

Difference
Equation

y(n-1)

z-1

Inspect
ZT (Theory)
Inspect (Practice)

Recursion Form

y (n) = x(n) + y (n 1)

Transfer
Function

H ( z) =

1 z 1
12/30

Example System (cont.)

Z / Freq Domain

z = e j
z 1 = e j
On
Unit
Circle

H ( z) =

1 z 1

Transfer
Function

z 1 = e j

H ( ) =
1 e j
( , ]

Unit Circle
Frequency
Response

13/30

Example System (cont.)

Plotting Transfer Function

=
1 e j 1 [ cos() j sin()]

=
[1 cos()] + j sin()

Eulers
Equation

H ( ) =

H () =

[1 cos()] + [ sin()]
2

sin()
H () = tan 1

cos(
)

Group into
Real & Imag

Standard
Eqs for
Mag. & Angle

14/30

Example System (cont.)

Z/Freq Domain

Im{z}

Unit
Circle

Pole/Zero
Diagram
Re{z}
Roots
Transfer
Function

z
H ( z) =
=
1
1 z
z

Zero
Num. = 0
When z = 0
Pole
Den. = 0
When z =

If || < 1: Inside UC
If || > 1: Outside UC
15/30

Example System (cont.)

Time Domain

Z / Freq Domain

H ( z) =

Inv. ZT
Table
(See Porat)

h(n) = n
Impulse
Response

Inv. DTFT

h( n) =
d
1 e j

1 z 1

Transfer
Function
ZT
Unit Circle
DTFT

Frequency
Response

H ( ) =
1 e j
( , ]
16/30

Review of Standard
Sampling Theory

17/30

Practical Sampling Set-Up

ADC
x(t)
Hold

x[n] = x(nT)

Sample at
t = nT
T = Sampling Interval
Fs = 1/T = Sampling Rate

DAC

Pulse
Gen
~
x p (t ) =

CT LPF

x(nT ) ~p(t nT )

~
x r (t )

n =

Signal Value

2
1
0
-1
-2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0. 8

0.6

0. 8

Tim e

Signal Value

2
1
0
-1
-2

0.2

0.4
Tim e

18/30

Sampling Analysis (#1)

Goal = Determine Under What Conditions We Have:
x (t ) = x (t )
Reconstructed CT Signal = Original CT Signal ~
Simplify to Develop Theory: Use ~
p (t ) = (t )
Why????

1. Because delta functions are EASY to analyze!!!

2. Because it leads to the best possible case

~
x p (t )

x p (t ) =

x(nT ) (t nT )

n =

xp(t) is called the Impulse Sampled signal

Note: xp(t) shows up during Reconstruction, not Sampling!!
19/30

Sampling Analysis (#2)

Now, the impulse sampled signal xp(t) is filtered to give
the reconstructed signal xr(t)
x p (t ) =

x r (t ) = ???

x(nT ) (t nT )

n =

= x (t )

CT LPF

n =

H( f )

(t nT )

7
Xr ( f ) = H( f )X p( f )

Need to find Xp( f ). But First a Trick!!!

x p (t ) = x (t )

(t nT )

n
=

 

periodic use FS

1
= x (t )
T
1
=
T

j 2kt / T
e

k =

x (t )e

k =

j 2kFs t

1
X p( f ) =
T
1
=
T

j 2kFs t
F
x
(
t
)
e

k =

X ( f kFs )

k =

20/30

Sampling Analysis (#3)

ADC

x(t)

DAC

Hold

x[n] = x(nT)

Sample at
t = nT

Impulse
Gen

CT LPF
x p (t )

x r (t )

X( f )
B

Xp( f )
2Fs

Fs

Fs
H( f )

Xr( f )

Xr( f ) = X( f )
If Fs 2B

2Fs

f
21/30

Sampling Analysis (#4)

What this says: Samples of a bandlimited signal completely define
it as long as they are taken at Fs 2B
Impact: To extract the info from a bandlimited signal we only need to
operate on its (properly taken) samples
Use computer to process signals

x(t)
Hold
Sample at
t = nT

x[n] = x(nT)

Computer

Extracted
Information

22/30

Sampling Analysis (#5)

FT of Impulse Sampled Signal gives view of Original FT
&
FT of Impulse Sampled Signal = DTFT of Samples
DTFT gives view of FT of original signal
Lets see this

F {x p (t )} = F x ( nT ) (t nT ) = x ( nT ) F { (t nT )}

 

n =
n =
e jnT

jnT
x
(
nT
)
e
=

n =

F
X p (

jn
x
[
n
]
e

= T

n =

/ T ) = X ( )

23/30

Sampling Analysis (#6)

= T

X( f )
B

B
DTFT

2Fs
4
4

Fs Fs/2
2
2

Fs/2 Fs

2Fs
4

2
= f
Fs

DT Freq
(rad/sample)
/ Normalized DT Freq

Read notes on web on Concept of Digital Frequency

24/30

Introduction to
EE521 Case Study

25/30

EE521 Case Study: Emitter Location

Processing Tasks
Intercept RF Signal @ Rxs

Sample Signal Suitably for Processing

Detect Presence of Emitters Signal
Estimate Characteristics of Signal
Use Estd Chars to Classify Emitter
Share Data Between Rxs
Cross-Correlate Signals to Locate Tx

Radio Freq Transmitter (Tx)

Communications
Radar

Data
Link
Data Link

Receiver #1
(Rx1)

Receiver #3
(Rx3)
Receiver #2
(Rx2)

26/30

Overall Processing Set-Up

Rx1
Antenna

Detect
Signal

Analog Digital
RF
Front-End

Sampling
Sub-System

Estimate
Signal
Parameters

Digital
Front-End

Compress
& Data Link

RF Data Link

Rx2
Antenna

Data Link &

Decompress

Analog Digital
RF
Front-End

Sampling
Sub-System

Classify
Emitter

Digital
Front-End

Cross
Correlation

Detect
Signal

Estimate
Signal
Parameters

Classify
Emitter
27/30

Processing Tasks Overview (#1)

RF Front-End (Analog Circuitry):
RF = Radio Frequency
Selects reception band; may need to scan bands
Amplifies signal to level suitable for ADC, etc.
Frequency-shifts signal spectrum to range suitable for ADC
Technology trend is toward requiring less shifting
Unfortunately: noise introduced by analog electronics (Random Signals)
Topic Well Cover

FT of Signal
Before RF-FE
1 GHz

3 GHz

4 GHz

Antenna

RF
Front-End

FT of Signal
After RF-FE
200 MHz

28/30

Processing Tasks Overview (#2)

Sampling Sub-System (Mixed Analog/Digital Circuitry):
Converts analog CT signal into digital DT signal (Bandpass Sampling)
Converts real-valued RF signal into complex LP signal (Equiv. LP Signals)
Digital Front-End (Digital Processing):
Topics
Convert to complex LP signal (Equiv. LP Signals)
Well
Equalizes response of analog front-end (DFT-Based Filtering)
Cover
Magnitude and Phase
Bank of digital filters splits signal into sub-bands
for further processing (Filter Banks)
Reduce sampling rate after filtering to sub-bands (Multi-Rate Processing)
Signals are
Oversampled

DTFT of Signal
Before Digital FE
Digital
Front-End

29/30

rad/sample

Processing Tasks Overview (#3)

Detect Presence of Signal (Digital Processing):
Has signal been intercepted or only noise in subband (DFT-Based Proc.)
Estimate Parameters of Signal (Digital Processing) (see also EE522):
Estimate frequency of signal (DFT-Based Processing)
Classify/Model Signal (Digital Processing):
What type of signal is it? (Spectral Analysis of Random Signals)

PSD Model

b0 + b1 z 1 + b2 z 2 + " + b p z p

Px ( ) = 2
1
2
q
1 + a1 z + a 2 z + " + a q z j
z =e

Use PSD Model parameters {bi} and {ai} to classify signal type
Compress/De-Compress Signal (Digital Processing) (see also EE523):
Exploit signal structure to allow efficient transfer
(DFT-Based Proc./ Filter Banks / Spectral Analysis)
Cross-Correlate Signals (Digital Processing):
Compute relative delay and Doppler (DFT-Based Proc.& Multi-Rate Proc.)
30/30