What are Earthquakes?

The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden

release of energy
Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks
Continuing adjustment of position results in
aftershocks

What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?

Explains how energy is

stored in rocks
Rocks bend until the
strength of the rock
is exceeded
Rupture occurs and
the rocks quickly
rebound to an
undeformed shape
Energy is released in
waves that radiate
outward from the
fault

The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake

The point within Earth

where faulting begins is
the focus, or hypocenter
The point directly above
the focus on the surface
is the epicenter

Seismographs record
earthquake events

At convergent boundaries,
focal depth increases
along a dipping seismic
zone called a Benioff
zone

Where Do Earthquakes Occur and How Often?

~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt
most of these result from convergent margin activity
~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on
spreading ridge centers
more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are
recorded each year

The Economics and Societal Impacts of EQs

Building collapse
Fire
Tsunami
Ground failure

Damage in Oakland, CA,

1989

What are Seismic Waves?

Response of material to the
arrival of energy fronts released
by rupture
Two types:
Body waves
P and S

Surface waves
R and L

Body Waves: P and S waves

Body waves
P or primary waves
fastest waves
travel through solids,
liquids, or gases
compressional wave,
material movement is
in the same direction
as wave movement
S or secondary waves
slower than P waves
travel through solids
only
shear waves - move
material
perpendicular to
wave movement

Surface Waves: R and L waves

Surface Waves
Travel just below or along the grounds surface
Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side
movement
Especially damaging to buildings

How is an Earthquakes Epicenter Located?

Seismic wave behavior
P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
Average speeds for all these waves is known
After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a
seismograph station can be used to calculate the distance
from the seismograph to the epicenter.

How is an Earthquakes Epicenter Located?

Time-distance graph
showing the average
travel times for P- and Swaves. The farther away a
seismograph is from the
focus of an earthquake,
the longer the interval
between the arrivals of
the P- and S- waves

How is an Earthquakes
Epicenter Located?

Three seismograph stations

are needed to locate the
epicenter of an earthquake
A circle where the radius
equals the distance to the
epicenter is drawn
The intersection of the
circles locates the epicenter

How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?

Intensity
subjective measure
of the kind of
damage done and
peoples reactions
to it
isoseismal lines
identify areas of
equal intensity

Modified Mercalli Intensity Map

1994 Northridge, CA earthquake,
magnitude 6.7

How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?

Magnitude
Richter scale
measures total amount
of energy released by
an earthquake;
independent of
intensity
Amplitude of the
largest wave produced
by an event is
corrected for distance
and assigned a value
on an open-ended
logarithmic scale

What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

Ground Shaking
amplitude, duration, and damage increases in poorly
consolidated rocks

Can Earthquakes be Predicted?

Earthquake Precursors
changes in elevation or tilting of land surface, fluctuations in
groundwater levels, magnetic field, electrical resistance of the
ground
seismic dilatancy model
seismic gaps

Can Earthquakes be Predicted?

Earthquake Prediction Programs
include laboratory and field studies of rocks before, during,
and after earthquakes
monitor activity along major faults
produce risk assessments

Can Earthquakes be Controlled?

Graph showing the

relationship between the
amount of waste injected
into wells per month and
the average number of
Denver earthquakes per
month
Some have suggested
that pumping fluids into
seismic gaps will cause
small earthquakes while
preventing large ones