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Physics of Magnetism
m
Radius
e-
Current
Physics of Magnetism
Firstly, electrons orbiting the nucleus have an orbital
angular momentum L, such that:
Physics of Magnetism
Secondly, the electron has a spin and a spin angular
momentum S.
Each electron spins around an axis, and that axis can have
one of two possible orientations: either parallel or
antiparallel to an external magnetic field. This spinning
charge gives rise to a magnetic field:
S = B
The superposition of these forms of electron motion gives
the total angular momentum of the atom. Magnetism in
solids, however, is dominated by the magnetic moment
associated with electron spin.
Physics of Magnetism
The magnetic characteristics displayed by an atom depend
on the arrangement of its electrons. Electrons are arranged
around the nucleus of an atom in shells (states of
successively higher energy). Within a shell, electrons exist
in orbitals, which are described by quantum numbers. Each
orbital contains no more than two electrons (Pauli exclusion
principle) and these have opposite spins.
1s2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p6
3d10
4s2
4p6
4d10
4f14
5s2
5p6
5d10
5f14
6s2
6p6
6d10
7s2
7p6
8s2
Physics of Magnetism
Physics of Magnetism
n
the principal quantum number defines the energy level
of the orbital. Electrons with the same n are said to be in
the same shell. Increasing n indicates shells farther away
from the nucleus.
l
the orbital quantum number defines the total angular
momentum of the orbital. l can vary from 0 to n-1.
Electrons with l values of 0, 1, 2, 3 are known as s, p, d and
f electrons.
m
the momentum quantum number defines the
component of angular momentum in the direction of the
applied field. m is an integer value 1, 0 -1.
S
the spin quantum number defines the spin of the
electron. This can be + or -, and is summed over the full
number of electrons in a shell. A full shell has S = 0,
whereas for Fe S=2.
Physics of Magnetism
Atomic
Number
Element
11
1s
2s
Na
12
Mg
13
Al
14
Si
15
16
17
Cl
2p
3s
N
3p
4s
1s2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p6
3d10
4s2
4p6
4d10
4f14
5s2
5p6
5d10
5f14
6s2
6p6
6d10
7s2
7p6
8s2
Physics of Magnetism
Atomic
Number
Element
21
Inner Shells
3d
4s
Sc
22
Ti
23
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
1s22s22p63s23p6
Physics of Magnetism
The net magnetic moment of an atom:
(J) = orbital angular momentum spin angular momentum.
These combine to minimise J and, hence, the net magnetic
moment.
When J = 0, the atom is non-magnetic
When J 0, the atom acts as a magnet.
Physics of Magnetism
As the magnetic moment in solids is dominated by the
magnetic moment associated with electron spin, an atom
will possess an overall magnetic moment where there are
unpaired electrons in an orbital (i.e. the spin moments are
not cancelled).
As single electrons are added the spin moments are
combined, and the resultant magnetic moment (from spin) is
at a maximum when the outer shell is half-full, and
decreases as further electrons are added to the outer shell
until it is full.
Paramagnetic Material
J= H
Diamagnetic Material
J= H
Paramagnetic Material
J= H
Diamagnetic Material
J= H
Paramagnetic Material
J= H
Diamagnetic Material
J= H
Physics of Magnetism
Atomic
Number
Element
21
Inner Shells
3d
4s
Sc
22
Ti
23
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
1s22s22p63s23p6
Oxygen
Cr 3d orbital
Fe2+
O2-
Fe2+
Fe2+
O2-
Fe3+
Paramagnetic Material
J= H
Diamagnetic Material
J= H
J
JS
JR
HC
H
Hysteresis
Loop
Physics of Magnetism
In ionic compounds, such as oxides, more complex forms of
magnetic ordering can occur. Such compounds can have two
atomic sublattices. If the ferromagnetic effects within
these sublattices oppose and exactly cancel out each other
the material is antiferromagnetic. Ferrimagnetic and
canted antiferromagnetic substances are those where the
two internal ferromagnetic effects do not completely cancel
each other. These materials behave like ferromagnetics and
have a Curie temperature (or more correctly a Nel
temperature).
0K < T < Tc
T > Tc
Physics of Magnetism
Magnetic Properties
of all materials
Diamagnetism
No
Permanent
magnetic moment?
Yes
Paramagnetism
No
Long-range order?
Yes
Ferromagnetism
Parallel
Nearest-neighbour
orientation?
Antiparallel
Ferrimagnetism
Antiferromagnetism
Unequal
Magnetism in Oxides
Magnetism in Oxides
IlmenoHaematite
series
TitanoMagnetite
series