Professional Documents
Culture Documents
- ErosionalOtfshore
SandRldgesandlawstandaroundFrance
ORIGINOF SOMEOFFSHORE
SANDBODIESAROUNDFRANCE
SergeBrRN1,Tania MnnssETl,GillesLERlcoLArsl,
Jean FrangoisBo.pnulert,Marc de Bnrtsr2,
Jean Yves REyNAUD"
& BernadetteTEssrER"
'IFREMER,centrede Brest,BP70;29280Plouzan6,
France;
Tel.: +33-298.22.42/q
Fax:+33-298.22.45.7O;
E-mail:
sberne@ifremer.fr
3universite
deLire1,Laboratoire
r. rrolilff"tJrti"9,t3:ff.t""Ttre,
5e65s
Vlreneuve
d'Ascq,
France;
Fax:+33-320.43.49.10;
Tel: +33-320.43.43.96;
E-mail:bernadette.tessier@univJillel
.fr
INTRODUCTION
generallyencased
Shallowmarinesandstone,
in shales,are commonin the stratigraphic
record,
wherethey representinterestingreservoirs,especially in the Western InteriorBasinsof North
America.Comparison
withQuaternary
shelvesled
severalauthorsto interpretthesesandbodiesas
transgressive(tide- or wave-dominated)sand
ridgessimilarto thatdescribed
aroundNW Europe
(Strideet al., 1982)and the Atlanticcoastof the
US (Swift,1975;Swiftand Field,1981).Mostof
thesesand bodiesare now re-interpreted
as lowwhose isostand and transgressive
shorefaces,
laled positionon the shelf can be relatedto
(forced)regressions
(Plint,1988;Posamentier
et
al.,1992;WalkerandBergman,1993;Walkerand
Plint,1992;WalkerandWiseman,
1995).Surprisingly,few attentionhas beenpaidto the structure
andoriginof modern(Quaternary)
outershelfsand
bodies,in orderto examinewhethersuch a reinterpretation
also could be applied.This paper
QEO-ECO-MARINA,2/1997
Nationallnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Romania
Proc. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Marine
lnteractions"in Malnas,Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
=i9.1)
10'
r the
The
rarker
ligital
rrticle
pro"
N50'
:hern
ridge
ea.lt
and
right,
clear
rding
c0mTheir
)arse
ainly
ction
leasity of
[h is
uring
r100
r the
'one
eloctidal
san0
scan
rWir'19
ridge
At lantic
Ocean
Lions
editerranean
N40'
Gulf of Lions
CelticSea (A) and the wave-dominaied
Fig.1 positionof the studiedareason the outershelvesof the tide-dominated
mappedon the shelves The dark lines in the EnglishChannelcorre(B).The dottedareascorrespondto the majorsand accumulations
spondto the majorincisionsby riversduringlow standsof the sea'
7'30'
7"
6'30'
6'
aves
iport.
dges
retricrest
ar to
rined
w0y
i afe
)cent
the
y renensting
=lan-
)e0).
Melrs, it
It is
and
iised
that only the upper part of the ridges has been appears that the bottom of the ridge does not
reached by vibrocoresto date; consequently,all match the surroundingsea floor: a "core",characthe proposedstratigraphicreconstructions
are very terised by strong acoustic impedance and subspeculative.
horizontalinternalreflectors,separatesthe Upper
Evidence of glacial sedimentson the ridge Little Sole Formation (Plioceneto early Quaterflanks (probablytransportedby ice-rafting)dem- nary)from the ridge itself(Reynaudet al., 1995).
onstrates that the ridges exisied before glacial The most strikingfeature is the presenceof deep
conditionsretreatedfrom the surroundingregion. (up to 30 m) channelsincisedinto the ridge.SevDetailedsedimentological
and micropaleontologi-eral phasesof incisionmay be identified,but the
cal studiessuggestthat, during Weichseilian,
an best preservedchannelsare the most recent,their
ice lobe advancedin the CelticSea from the lrish upper terminationbeing the erosionalsurface of
Sea, with groundedice as far south as N49"30' the ridge.Their infill consistsof oblique reflectors
(Scourseet al., 1990),but there is no evidenceof (maximumangle of dip about 12") (Fig.Sb)sugglaciationin the study area, which is located gestinglateralaccretionwithin a fluvial -or estuarine/deltaic
tidal-channel.Mappedin 3D from the
aroundN48'.
densegrid of seismiclines,they appear as relaBased on the presenttidal regime and the
tivelystraight,about500 m wide, roughlyoriented
sparse dated samples, the sand ridges in the
North-South,pinchingout towardthe two flanks of
Celtic Sea have been interpretedas tidal sand
the ridge (Pagnol 1995)"The lowest positionof
bodiesformed betweenthe last low sea level and
their incisionis about 150 m below presentsea
the early stage of the Flandriansea level rise,
level.
(Bouysseet al., 1976, Pantin and Evans, 1984;
Below the topographicbottom of the ridge, a
is supported
Strideet al., 1982).This interpretation
(more than 10km) and deep (more than
large
by numericalmodellingof M2 tidal constituent
for
200
m
below present sea level) incision is oba sea level loweredby 100 m, whichindicates
that
The infill is characterisedby several cut
served.
currentwould have been abouttwice strongerthan
phases
(Figs 4 and 5a). Correlationwith
and
fill
present
(Belderson
one
et al., 1986). lt has
the
been proposedthat southern ridges formed first, investigationsin the British sector indicate that
and the ones farther north formed progressively these depositsbelong to the Upper Little Sole
later, in relationwith the northwardpassageof a Formation,dated Plioceneto Early Quaternary
glacialforebulge(Wingfield,1995).However,such (Pantinand Evans, 1984, Evans, 1990, p.659).
a forebulgeis not predictedby numericalglacio- The mappingof this unitoverthe wholestudyarea
suggestsa link betweenthe positionof the ridges
hydro-isostatic
models(Lambeck,1995).
and that of the infills(Vanhauwaert,
1993,Fig.6).
In any of these interpretations,the inferrecj
Origin and evolution of the Kaiser-l-Hind
mechanismfor ridge formationis an up-building
process controlled by tidal currents, as in the
It is not possibleto explain the internalstrucHuthnance(1982a,b)numericalmodel.
ture of the Kaiser-l-Hindas the productof the formationof a "classical"
sand ridge.In the Southern
lnternal structure of the Kaiser I Hind
North Sea, the gently dipping reflectorsobserved
conductedin 1992,1993
Seismicinvestigations
by Houbolt resultedfrom combined aggradation
and 1994 reveal with great detail the internal
and progradation,
with (a) sand circulatingaround
structureof the Kaiser-l-Hind,
one of the ridgesof
the bankand (b) slow migrationof the ridge in the
the CelticSea. This ridgeis 60 km in length,5 km
directionof (or slightly obliquelywith respect to)
in width and up to 35 m thick. As many other
the dominanttidal current.The incisedchannels
ridgesin the area, it is separatedinto 2 sub-units,
evidencedon the seismicprofilesin the upperpart
each of them culminatingat -115 m and separated
of
the ridge can only be interpretedas fluvial
by a depressionat -135 m (Fig.3).On the seismic
and/or estuarineor deltaic tidal channelswhich
profiles,the ridge does not exhibitthe low angle
must have formed during Quaternarylowstands.
clinoformscommonlydescribedwithin tidal sand
As the upper channels almost outcrop (at the
ridges,as the Well Bank and the Smith Knoll in
resolutionof the seismicdevice),it is most likely
the SouthernNorth Sea (Houbolt.1968), but a
that they would correspondto the last lowstand
very complexpatternof cut and fill structures(Figs
(stage2). lf we interpretthese features as fluvial
4 and 5). Major boundingsurfacesare gentlydipchannels,
this implies a sea level lower than, or
ping toward the East. As a result,the major seisequalto, 150 m. lt can be notedthat a geometric
mic unitsthey delimitare shiftedin that direction
model of sea-levelduringihe end-Pleistocene
to
from the bottom to the top of the bank. Most of
Holocenetransitionlocatesa peakforebulgein the
these units exhibit clinoformswhose true angle of
soulhernCeltic Sea, al 12 ka BP, at a present
dip (determinedfrom measurementsalong 2 perwater
depth 160 m below presentmean sea level
pendiculardirections)reachesup to 10'. Most of
(Wingfield,
1995).In contrast,numericalmodelsof
theseclinoformsdip towardthe Souffi tzllesf.lt also
GEO-ECO-MARINA, 2/1997
Natlonallnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Romania
Proc. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Mainelnteractions"in Malnas,Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
L--
QffshoreSendRldgesandlowstandaroundFrance
S.Bemeet al.- Erosianal
)es not
characrd subUpper
]uater19e5).
rf deep
l. Sevrut the
t, their
ace of
lectors
r) Sugestuarmthe
; relaiented
nksof
ion of
rt sea
-100m
K a i s er - l - H i n
SW
NE
-200m
Sholf break
-300m
-400m_Tr+-T-__---l--i
k m 10
ll
20
30
40
II
50
60
70
80
90
200
lge,a
than
s obal cut
2so
t with
r that
Sole
rnary
65e).
area
idges
6).
i
itrucl for:hern
rved
ation
lund
r the
t to)
nets
part
rvial
hich
nds.
the
kely
and
tvial
| 50 E
F
L
U
F
F
e
u
F
. o o$
of the stratigraphicunits
The identification
ridge(positionin Fig.1)and interpretation.
Fag.4Seismicsectionacrossthe Kaiser,l-Hind
is baseOon correlationwith boreholesfromthe Britishsectorof the CelticSea (Evans,1990).CF: CockburnFormation(upperMiocene);
M.F: Melville
bottomof the ridge;B.S: "base-system";
T.B: topographic
ULSF:UpperLittleSoleFormation(Plioceneto EarlyQuaternary);
(see discussionin the text for the age of the formations).
formation
E
F
'Of
rtric
lto
the
;ent
rvel
;of
arethesameas in Fig.4Theabbreviations
of the KaiserI Hindridgein analongcrest(correct?) directionstructure
Fig.dInternal
givestheposition
of Fig'5b'
Therectangle
in Fig.2).
ridge(position
(a)Lini drawing
fora profilealongtheKaiser-l-Hind
GEO.ECO-MARINA,Yl997
Nationatlnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Romania
in Malnas,Romania,Oot l-7' 1996
Proc. lnterrr.Workshopon'Fluvial-Mainelnteractions"
F
F
120
E
130 E
F
otJ'J
:---.-=-=-\
140 ffi
/,"/'
/t
,'
,/
t
r50
=_-\-.<
glacio-hydro-isostatic
rebound around the British
lsles do not suggest the existenceof any major
forebulgein the southernCeltic Sea or of paleoshorelines at positionsto the west of 5'30' W
(Lambeck; Lambeck,1995).This meansthat, in
this area, sea level since -20,000 B.P. was never
deeper than about -120 m, not -160 m as suggestedby Wingfield(1995).
In any case, the cut and fill morphologydoes
not requirea base level as low as the deepestincision if we considerthat incision may also take
place in a submarine(esluarineor deltaic)setting,
the erosionbeing enhancedby tidal scouringas
observedin "highstand"estuariessuch as the Gi'
ronde estuary(Allen and Posamentier,1993).The
presenceof incisedchannelswithinthe ridgesimplies an origin different from the "classical"upbuilding process, as well as different lithologic
constituentsand sedimentarystructures.lt means
that a large amount of the ridge constituentsare
not shelf-tidalsands but fluvial, or more likely es62
tuarine/deltaic
deposits.The numerousphases of
erosionand depositionpreservedin the ridge suggesi that several high frequency eustatic cycles
have been preserved.However,the lack of correlationof boundingsurfacesat a regionalscale and
the absenceof ground truthing prevent from distinguishingpossibleautocyclicprocesses(lobe or
channel migrations)from global, glacio-eustatic
forcing.
Most irnportantly,the present morphology of
the ridgeappearsas the resultof an erosionalprocess (the top of the ridge is an erosionalsurface).
This does not rnean that the ridge morphology
cannot be the result of tidal processesbut that,
becauseof the availabilityof sedimentin this particular area, the tidal currents"shaped"deltaic or
estuarinedepositsinto sand ridges. At a smaller
scale,largedunes migratingwith a negativeangle
of climb and incorporatingunderlying deposits
have alreadybeen mentionedin aeolian(Rubin,
1987,p. 25) or subtidal(Bern6et al., 1991,Fig.7)
GEO-ECO-MARINA,2/1997
National lnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Ramania
Proc. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Mailnelnteructions"in Malnas,Romania,OcL1-7, 1996
^L-
6'40'
6"20'
48'?o',
48"00'
E
I
-t'
47"4}',
F
o-
r.lJ
o
x,
tJ.l
F-
;of
ug;les
Te-
rnd
lis0r
ttic
of
r0e).
g}/
at,
tr0r
FT
tle
its
n,
I
environments.This "tidal" interpretationis supportedby the shape and orientationof the ridges,
which match the orientationof modelledlowstand
tidal ellipse(Beldersonet al., 1986),and also by
the presentday tidal bed forms circulatingaround
the ridge. lt is also in agreementwith the Huthnance model (1982a, b), which implies higher
bottom friction (and consequentlypossible substrate erosion)in betweenthe ridges.Considering
that the ridge morphologymainlyresultsfrom an
erosionalprocessalso provide an explanationfor
the depressionobserved along most of the ridge
profiles,at a water depth about 135 m belowpresent sea level. This could be the result of a stillstand favouringthe action of ravinement(both by
wave and tidal scouring),this particulartype of
wave-cutterrace being only observablewhere the
sedimentswere not rernovedby subsequenttidal
erosion.
sandridgeappearsas
Finally,the Kaiser-l-Hind
a sedimentarybody resultingfrom remodellingby
tidal (or combined tidal/wave)processesof preexisting estuarine or deltaic lowstand deposits.
Seismicfaciessuggestthat sand is the dominant
constituentof this sedimentarybody.The timing of
GEO-ECO-MARINA,
A1997
Nationallnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Ronrania
Proc. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-MaineInteractions"in Malnas, Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
o+
GEO-ECO-MARINA,
41997
of Romania
Nationalinstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecology
lnteractions"
in Malnas,Romania,Oct.1-7,1996
Proc. lntern.Workshopon "Fluvial-Maine
L-
;ands)
)ogray well
r floor
fectly
but is
r00
t
T
U
o
tata
ith of
:ction
g unit
s dipangle
'0apicular
. The
snted
sand
ismic
;sible
sand
belt"
t50
x
U
F
E
F
U
r50 fr
F
Fig.8 Seismic(dip)sectionacrossthe "offshoresands"of Bourcart(1945).The uppersand unit (unit 15s) forms a positivetopography.Notesimilarunderlyingsand wedges(especially
is 4O.Positionin
unit 80s),whichwill be describedelsewhere.Verticalexaggeration
Fig.8.
hore
HC:
yon;
ition
GEO-ECA-MARINA,
41997
Nationallnstituteof Maine Gealogyand Geo-ecologyof Romania
Proc lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Marine
lnteractions''in Malnas,Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
e3 30
E3 t0
Et 50
Fig.9 Bathymetricmap (DigitalTerrainModel)of the centralpart of the Gulf of Lions.This map has been obtainedby compiling
Service(SHOM)originally
at the'l/20000scale,and surveysby IFREMERin 1994and 1995.
soundingsfromthe FrenchHydrographic
CS : cementedsands;WCT: Wave Cut Terrace.
GEO-ECA.MARINA,
U1997
Nationallnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Ramania
Proc. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Mainelnteractions"in Malnas,Romania.Oct.1-7, 1996
u3 36
1 . .I .
(off,
m0r/ suple).
both
lnes
bercatflecping
ding
Lat
rese
50s
)rre-
N42 44"
N42 44.-
30n'dge
ddi-
unit
pt0
km
ned
:as
deE3 32.
J00!_._r
I'::t :r I
E3 38
!t3 36.
f-
\-r---,'
\\ \
ro'5'z
E
T
B
F
iling
=.-r\ffi
\:\>\\805
100
I
I
F
l50m
iAr]:::ES:S
rsoH
3
200
Fig.10b Seismic (dip) sectionin the vicinityof the Aude canyon(positionin Fig.10a).Note thal the gentlydippingclinoformsare truncatedby lhe
(erosional)sea floor.
/1997
GEA.ECO.MARINA,
Nationatlnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Romania
lnteractions"ln Malnas, Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
Prac. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Marine
67
L-_
,?
be0ne
tof
6ne
cur)og0ssprirnds
*
.&
bb
.lnd. the
las
rine
eof
resive
olutrue
cli-
sur1b).
rpth
well
Ienthe
this
'ave
ofa
ses.
.:'
1000m ,
a
arn"
+s
r00
E
I
F
Ita
rtillrcial
the
,tn
rnd.
.-^
| )u
d
I
)res
the
unit
nay
ad0r,
'ing
ga
rvift
tes
rnd
ing
ms
ed
tnre,
he
raral
fo)e,
'. \ \\,
o'5'
\"
2'
B
wcT
100
E
F
o
L
lF -
--i--i---:
---'.........-.-.-..-.-----'--'-
---.-:-i
V.E - 40
r s oF
=
200
erostonal
Fig,11b (positionin Fig.10a)Seismicsectionacrossthe sandwedge(unit'15s)a; sparkersection.Notethe sub-horizontal
surfaceboundingthe bulkof the sandwedgeand ihe overlyingsandbody.
GEA-ECA.MARINA,2/1997
Nationallnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecalogyof Romania
Proc. Intern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Mainelnteractions"in Malnas.Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
GEO-ECO.MARINA,
A1997
National lnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Romania
Proc. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Marine
lnteractions"in Malnas,Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
L.
lno.
the
*-l
la3o
ion
(if
0m
ble
tm.
rtic
dle
'to
2b)
tce
rial
red
nic
I
I
20'7C km
ur:d.
nd
;a
rnd
id(es
act
ailles
'he
$,,
l 7 0 r ni
shelf breaK
t-200 m)
17 *,nr
NW
STRIKESECTION
nal
b2
)nur-
-*
}W,
,ne
,l
0ty
rer
ely
rr{
ed
8),
retve
lin
':41:+
tq
arris
roby
,2,
tff-
by
ift,
;8S
qF
tic
nd
tr-
its
)ly
Fig.12 Simpl;fiedarchitectureof sand ridges(a) In the SouthernNcrth Sea (Houbolt,1968),(b) in the CelticSea and (c) in the Gulf
of Lions.
,'Classical"tidal sand ridge structurefrom the SouthernNorth Sea (from Houbolt,1968).1. coarselag (palimpsestsediments'with
a;
(subaerialsurfaceof erosion+ ravinementsurface);3:
deposits);2: Erosionalunconformity
reworkecj
e$tuarine,and-nrarine
mixedfluryial,
5:
tidal
dunes
surface;
active
flooding
4:
rnaximum
sand ridge;
iransgressive
euaternarylovrstandwedges;2: Plioceneor earlyQuaternaryincisedvalleyfills, 3: cut and fill structures
b: CelticSea 1. pliocenelearly
relatedto euaternarylowstanddeltaicor estuarinesystems;4: incisedvalley(dueto eitheror bothfluvialincisiondufing relativesea-level
surfacefcrmedduringrelativesea levelrise;5: estuarine(?) mud and sand infili;6: offshore
fail (sequenceboundary)or tidal ravinement
dune (sandwave)activewhen tidal currentcomcycle,7 . Transgressive
marineerosionsurfacerelatedto a subsequenfglacio-eustatic
wavecurrents.
with presentdaytidal/internal
dunes(sandwaves)in equilibrium
bineswith storm;B: shelf breaktransgressive
The depositsbetweenthe presentsea lloorand the dashedline(strikesectionb2) havebeeneroded.
shorefaoesor deltajclobes;3. canyoninfill;4: regressiveerosionsurface,becorninga correlative
c, Gulf of Lions:1,2: Formerlorirstand
conformiiyin an oifshoredirection.Notethat it may becomeagainan erosionalsurfacein the vicinityof the shelf break becauseof en*
hancedrryaveactionandlor nrasswasting.5: regressivesurface<lferosion;this surfacecuts acrosstime lines,separatingsandy from
muddyfacies.6. Lowstandshorelinewith targescaleprogradingclinoforms(topsetsgenerallynot preserved);7. offshorernarineerosion
parasequence;
10: polygenicerosionsurface(subaerialerosion
dunesand/ortranigressive
surfaie; g: erosionaldunes;9: transgressive
surface+ offshoremarineerosionsuiface).Notetlre positiveiopographyof this offshore"sand body".N.B.:the erosionaland "transgressive"dunesgenerallydo not coexist;the formerare observedto the west,the latestto the eastof the studyarea.
\,4
U1997
GEO-ECO.MARINA,
Nationaltnsrituteaf Marine Geotagyand Geo^ocologyof Romania
in Malnas'Romania,Oct.l-7, 1996
lnteractions"
Proc. lntern.Workshapon "Fluvial-Maine
rT
al
t
ir
e
fi
s
e
s
tl
li
It
n
G
r
r
t
t
I
I
GEO.ECO-MARINA,A1997
Nationallnstituteof Maine Geologyand Geo-ecologyof Romania
Proc. lntern. Workshopon "Fluvial-Mainelnteractions"in Malnas,Romania,Oct.1-7, 1996
LL
posed
most
were
ttings.
in the
Celtic
I preng an
Iternal
egime
rtation
ucture
North
s and
nodel"
but a
lal"to
everal
I seaEven
)attern
iulf of
vstand
' sediidges.
d tidat
memformer
loubolt
rmedif sand
lposits
ves in
1994;
1 ) ,t h e
8) and
rs well
et al.,
ieldet
WAVE
i relict
,s.
I sand
ln with
lel for
tl seam fricbed is
ring of
en the
a (gels. lt is
rctthat
s e d i m e n t o l o gayn d p a l e o n t o l o g yT.u l s a , O k l a h o m a ,
SEPM,245-264.
BennE,S., TRrxrcsnux,A., Srou, A., MrssrAEN,
T., aruo
DE BArsr, M., 1994, Architectureand long-term
evolutionof a tidal sandbank:the MiddelkerkeBank,
SouthernNorthSea. MarineGeology.
Berthois,1974, Carte bathym6triquedu Golfe de Gascogne.Brest,CNEXO.
BouRceRr,J , 1945, Etude des s6dimentspliocdneset
quaternairesdu Roussillon.Bull. Serv. Carte G6ol.
France.45.395-476.
Bounlr-ler,J.F., aruoLouaRreu,8., 1995, Bathymetry
and physiographyof the western approachesmarg i n .l f r e m e r .
Bouvsse,P., Honu, R., LAPTERRE,
F., nruoLe LnruN,F.,
1 9 7 6 ,E t u d ed e s g r a n d sb a n c sd e s a b l ed u S u d - E s t
d e l a M e r C e l t i q u eM
. a r i n eG e o l o g y 2
, 0,251-275.
C n a p r u e RJ, . M . , 1 9 8 6 , R 6 s u l t a t sd e s m e s u r e sd ' o c 6 - temp6rature)
anographiephysique(courantom6trie
r 6 a l i s 6 e s o u s l a r e s p o n s a b i l i td6e l ' U B O l o r s d e l a
campagneONDINE 85, Universit6BretagneOccidentale.
D'OLIER
8 ., , 1 9 8 1 ,S e d i m e n t a r ey v e n t sd u r i n gF l a n d r i a n
sea-levelrise in the south-westcorner of the North
S e a , I n : N i o , E . D . , S c h 0 t t e n h e l mR, . T . E . ,a n d V a n
V e e r i n gT
, . C E . , e d s . ,H o l o c e n eM a r i n eS e d i m e n t a tion in the Nofth Sea Basin. Specialpub. of the InternationalAssociationof Sedimentolooists.
Oxford.
B l a c k w e l2
l ,2 1 - 2 2 7 .
DALRvMeLE,
R.W., '1992, Tidal depositionalsystems,In:
W a l k e r ,R . W . , a n d J a m e s ,N . P . ,e d s . , F a c i e sm o d els. responseto sea level change. St John's, Cana d a ,A s s o c i a t i o G
n 6ologique
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