The Neutron life cycle in a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Part 1

M J Rhoades
In this discussion we will be talking about the possible life cycle probabilities of a neutron
born from the fission of U-235 atoms in a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR). This is a complex
set of circumstances and is not easy to understand, but, if you follow me closely, I think you will
get the big picture of what goes on in a PWR. We will be discussing the fuel and core material
crossection of absorption, Moderation, (Part1) The six factor formula, slowing down length,
Prompt and delayed neutrons from fission, and a host of other things (part 2) that go on in a
neutrons life cycle. I will also add definitions as I go and as needed.

Why does all this matter? Well, here is the deal. You can take my word for it, or just watch it
unfold, but fission nuclear power will be making a comeback. It must happen as shrinking
supplies of fossil fuels unfold, fusion reactors are still in the dream stage, and alternative fuels
are a costly fools dream that at best can only help with the worlds power supply (This is only my
opinion, but you will find it to be true in the future} Other Countries are in the process of
pushing ahead with fission plants as the U.S. sits in a quagmire of political discourse. The safety
of fission plants continues to improve and now have staggering hours of safe operations. The
new generic fission plants that are coming on line will be proven even better performers in safe,
environmentally sound, and productively efficient electrical power output suppliers. So if you
would like to get a reactor operators job at one of these power plants you may want to listen up.

Why do we need neutrons? Well, it is one of the most efficient ways to get a U235 atom to
split into two or more fragments and give up energy in the form of radiation and fission
fragments causing heat to be generated. It really is that simple. Let's look at the basic diagram of
a neutron hitting the U335 atom and the results that follow.
-
β Particles
Fragment
atom 1 γ Gamma rays

Outgoing
Prompt
Neutrons

Incoming
Neutron
Fragment
atom 2
U-235 Atom
splits into Outgoing
𝜐 Neutrinos two or more
fragments
delayed
Neutrons
β- Particles
 In the basic drawing above you can see an incoming thermal neutron move in to the general
area of the nucleus, it is not affected by the electrostatic charge of the nucleus because it has a
neutral charge. Once it gets close enough, it is taken in by the strong nuclear force of the nucleus
and temporarily forms U-236. This causes the mother atom to become very unstable. This also
causes the critical energy level to exceed what the nucleus can handle. It fissions into two
daughter products with the release of 2-3 prompt fast neutrons, Gammas and neutrinos with other
particles released. The two daughter atoms are also unstable and can beta decay with the
accompanied release of delayed neutrons (Not a direct release from fission and usually happens
in less than a minute) these delayed neutrons are very important for control of the reactor. The
terms used above will be discussed in more detail later on in the paper. Below is an example of
how the fission might happen in a PWR written as a formula?
236
92𝑈
1 * 140
0 N + 92235U 55 Cs + 37
93
Rb + 3 01N

Before we continue this discussion any further, let's look at the history of the neutron and
some general information about how it interacts with matter. The credit for the discovery of the
Neutron (ɴ) was given to James Chadwick in 1932. Working in his Cavendish laboratory at
Cambridge University, He determined that experimental data that others had been working on
could not be caused by gamma radiation as they had asserted. This experiment involved the
bombardment of Beryllium with alpha particles, followed up by a piece of paraffin. It was found
that protons were being knocked out of the paraffin by what the other researchers were calling
high energy gamma rays. They had assumed that because the radiation could not be detected
with their detectors of the time, that it must be gamma. (No charge). Chadwick had problems
with this because the gammas would have to be in the 50 MeV range. So by careful observation,
he determined that a new particle, the Neutron, was the cause for the protons being knocked out
of the paraffin.

Neutron radiation is an indirect ionizing form. It has no charge, and therefore is very
penetrating. Its rest mass is 1.674297 x 10-27 kg and 1.008665 amu. The velocity for most given
MeV can be calculated using the 1/2 mv2 formula.

Ke = 1/2 mv2 Where: Ke = energy in joules

m = mass in Kg

v = velocity in meters/sec

For neutron energies greater than 50 MeV, consider the relativistic formula.

𝑚𝑐 2
E= Where: E = energy in joules
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
v = velocity in m/sec
m = the rest mass in Kg
c = the speed of light (2.99792 x 108 m/sec)
The velocity (Kinetic energy) for neutrons is generally categorized by the following:

Fast Neutrons = E > 10 keV (range from 10keV to 10MeV with the average at 2MeV)

Intermediate or Epithermal Neutrons = 1eV < E < 10 keV

Slow or Thermal Neutrons = E< 1eV

After the neutrons become thermal, (<.025 eV) the velocity can be calculated by using the
2𝑘𝑡
following formula : vp = where: vp = most probable velocity
𝑚

k = Boltzman's constant (1.38 x 10−23 j / kelven0

Which is 2200 m/sec @ 200c T = degrees kelvin

m = mass of n (1.66 x 10−24 grams)

Most Neutrons are born in nuclear reactors but there are some natural neutron processes that
occur outside the reactor. One, was discussed above by the alpha-Beryllium reaction used in
Chadwick's experiment; 24 He + 49 Be 6
12
C + 01N. Also, a photo Neutron can be
generated by a high energy gamma being absorbed by a nucleus causing the spontaneous
emission of a Neutron, and there is also spontaneous fission which will generate 2-3 neutrons.
Unless you are experimenting, or just unlucky, the only place you are going to find appreciable
amounts of neutron radiation is around an operating nuclear reactor.

With that said, let's get to Neutron interactions with matter. As I stated, most Neutrons are
born at 2 MeV average, but can be emitted across a broad spectrum of energies. The neutron has
no charge, and its path through matter is dependent on its energy and the medium through which
it passes. The intensity formula for the neutron (reducing it) and the gamma are the same. This
equation was derived from the differential equation for change in intensity for a change in
thickness of the material.

dI = I -Nσ dt
𝑑𝐼
= -Nσ dt
𝐼
𝐼𝑓 𝑑𝐼 𝑡
𝐼𝑜 𝐼
= -Nσ
𝑡𝑜
𝑑𝑡

ln (If)- ln (Io) = -Nσ (t - to)

 𝐼𝑓
ln = -Nσ t
𝐼𝑜

𝐼𝑓
= e-Nσ t
𝐼𝑜

If = Io e -Nσ t Because Nσ = µ Then substituting

If = Io e -µt Where: If = to the final neutron intensity in neutrons/sec/m2

Io = to the initial neutron intensity in neutrons/sec/m2
e = 2.71828
µ = the liner attenuation coefficient m-1
t = the thickness of the material

You will find the values of µ in the NIST (nist.gov) data base for the energy of the neutrons
under consideration. This is because the ability of the material to absorb neutrons is dependent
on the type of material and the energy of the neutron (ie the crossection for absorption). Note:
The NIST tables list the mass attenuation coefficients but all you have to do is multiply by the
density of the material and you end up with µ. As an additional note you will find values in
centimeters-1 also watch you dont end up mixing meters and centimeters. The formula for using
the mass attenuation coefficient is as follows.

−µ
If = Io e 𝜌𝑡 Where: If = Final number of neutrons passing through the material
𝜌
Io = Initial number of neutrons entering the material
e = 2.71828
ρ = the density in Kg / m3 or grams / cm3
µ = the linear attenuation coefficient in cm-1 or m-1

In order to be able to determine what the linear coefficient is, you first need to know the
different ways in which the neutron reacts with matter and then determine the total crossection of
absorption (Using the NIST tables) or if you have a chart of the nuclides (I recommend The one

from Knolls atomic power laboratory) you can read the total crossection (σtotal, they call it σa)
-1
directly in barns and convert it to cm . The second item you must know is the atom density. This
formula is:

𝜌𝑁𝑎𝑣
N= Where: N= atom density in atoms/cm3
𝑀
ρ = density in g/cm3
Nav = Avogadro's number (6.02 x 1023 atoms/ mole)
M = gram atomic weight in gram-atoms/mole
 And Nσtotal = µ We will work a sample problem using these formulas later in the paper.

A neutron can be attenuated (Or slowed) or absorbed in several ways, but basically, it is
broken down by two effects. That is, by absorption and scattering. Below is a chart of possible
interactions that will give you a better overall feel for what can happen to a neutron as it passes
through matter.

Types of interactions Note: All these

interactions take
place in a PWR
Scattering Absorption

Elastic
Inelastic
Neutral
Nuclear-
Electromagnetic Charged Fission ***
repulsion (n,2n)
(n,p) (n,F)
(n,γ)
Absorption (n,α) (n,3n)
(n,d )
etc.
etc.

In the above chart you will notice the items in prentices. In order for you to understand what
is implied, let's consider this notation for absorption. If a neutron, n, impinges and is absorbed by
a target nucleus A, with the release of particle p, and a final nucleus B, then it will be written as
A(n, p)B. For example;
5
B (n ,p) 5Be. This would be classified as a (n, p) reaction with resulting emission of a proton.
With scattering, the neutron is technically not absorbed as a neutron continues on (No Change in
nucleus) so this notation is not needed.

* Scattering. Let's consider for are first scattering type, elastic. Elastic scattering occurs when
the incident neutron is repulsed by the nuclear forces of an atom's nucleus, and is scattered at
some angle from the original approach. See figure 7 for a visualization of this effect:
 Figure 7. Elastic scattering

There is no energy transferred into nuclear excitation. Momentum and kinetic energy of the
system are conserved. There is some transfer of kinetic energy from the neutron to the target
nucleus. So the loss of energy of the neutron equals the momentum gained by the nucleus. This
is sometimes called potential scattering. The other form of elastic scattering is when the neutron
is absorbed into the nucleus of the target atom and a neutron is then emitted from the excited
nucleus. This is sometimes called resonance elastic scattering.

For inelastic scattering, the neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus, forming a compound
nucleus. The nucleus will then emit a neutron of lower energy than the incident neutron. The
excited nucleus of the target atom will then return to the ground state by gamma emission. See
figure 8 for a visualization of the effect.

figure 8: Inelastic scattering of a neutron

 Absorption reactions can take several different forms. The first one to examine will be the
charge particle ejection which is designated "charge" on the chart above. A neutron is absorbed
into the target atom. A compound nucleus is formed, followed by the ejection of an alpha, beta,
proton, or deuteron particle.

The electromagnetic interaction, also called radiative capture is where a neutron enters the
nucleus of a target atom forming a compound nucleus and a new atomic mass of A + 1. A
gamma ray is emitted to establish stability.

The neutral interaction occurs when the neutron enters the target nucleus and 2 or more
neutrons are emitted. This is called neutron multiplication.

The final absorption type is fission, in which the neutron enters the target nucleus and the
splitting of the nucleus occurs, with various daughter particles and gamma emission plus two to
three neutrons. This event usually occurs only in fissile material and is not a biological concern.

In all of the above interactions the neutron is slowed down and will eventually be absorbed, or,
the neutron will break down into a proton and electron. A free neutron will decay with a half life
of about 10.3 minutes. In each case the energy will be deposited in the medium by producing
direct ionizing radiation or; produce gammas, which will then create direct ionizing radiation.

As with gamma radiation, the neutron, because of it neutral charge is a very penetrating
radiation and must create charged particles to finally dissipate their energy. Also, as I stated
above, the intensity formula for the gamma and the neutron are the same. ( If = I0 e-µ t ) The only
difference is the way that µ is determined. For neutrons we have to look for the cross section for
absorption for each of the reactions discussed above.

Recall that Nσtotal = µ, and that, N was the number of atoms/cm3, and σ was the cross section in
cm2/atom. (by the way, this is a measure called barns which is equal to 10-24cm2) For neutrons,
the following cross sections are required for σtotal:

σtotal = σscattering + σabsorption Where:

σscattering = σelastic + σinelastic

σabsorption = σelectro magnetic + σcharged + σneutral + σfission
These values can all be obtained from tables provided by NIST, and by looking in the neutron
tables. The neutron cross sections are very temperature dependent and if you are dealing with
high temperatures, the cross sections must be corrected by the following formula:

𝑇0
σ = σ0 where: σ = cross section corrected for temperature
𝑇
σ0 = cross section at reference temperature (680F,200C)
 T0 = reference temperature in Kelvin
T = temperature for which corrected value is being calculated.

Now that we learned all this stuff, let's do a sample problem and pick something in a PWR
core that is used all the time. Say a control rod material 1/2 inch thick; of Cadmium 113, with a
neutron flux of 1010 neutrons/sec/cm2 We want to calculate the crossection for absorption, the
atom density, to find µ, and then calculate the neutron intensity drop across the control rod. This
would be just one of the life cycles involving some of the neutrons. First of all let's find the
crossection for absorption. I am going to use my chart of the nuclides to determine this value
because the knolls charts give the effective crossection for a fission reactor which includes the
energy spectrum for a fission reactor. This saves hours of work by not having to find the value
for each energy level and then averaging the values from 2 Mev to thermal levels, and it already
includes all the types of interactions (What could be more handy?)

For Cadmium- 113 σtotal (σa on the chart) = 2.52 x 103 barn 1 barn = 10-24 cm2
So, (2.52 x 103 barns) (10-24cm2/barn) = 2.52 x 10-21 cm2
To correct for temperature from 680F to core operating temperature 5250F

𝑇𝑜 293
σ = σo = 2.52 x 10-21 = 1.846 x 10-21cm2 = σ
𝑇 546

To convert Fo to kelvin 5/9 Fo + 255.37

The density of Cadmium is 8.64g/m3 (so, using the atom density equation above)
𝒈 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔
𝜌 𝑁𝑎𝑣 𝟖.𝟔𝟒 𝟑 (𝟔.𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 )
𝒎 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
N= = = 4.603 x 1022 atoms/cm3
𝑀 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆

And Nσtotal = µ
Then (4.603 x 1022 atoms/cm3) (1.846 x 10-21cm2) =84.97cm-1 = µ

Moving now to the intensity formula

If = Io e-u t
( -84.97 x 1.27)
If = (1 x 1010 neutrons cm2/sec) (e ) = 1.47 x 10-35 neutrons
/cm2/sec = If
As you can see by this example problem, if the control rods actually had 1/2 inch thick of
Cadmium in them, essentially no neutrons would emerge on the other side of the rod. But this
example shows you how to work with crossection problems and understand that all core
materials affect the neutron life cycle. So, from now on when I talk about crossection you will
understand what I am talking about.

Before we move on to the neutron life cycle, I want to discuss the moderator for PWR. Water
is our moderator in a PWR (plain water) and there are several things you need to know about it.
First, the reason it is called a moderator is because it moderates the speed of the neutrons in that
it slows them down. We need to slow them down because U-235 has a large crossection of
absorption for thermalized (025ev) neutrons and we need that for fission.

Secondly, we need a substance that slows them down rapidly and in step changes of energy.
Why rapidly? Because we dont want them to leak out of the core. The ability for water to slow
down neutrons can be shown by the following formula: (This is the stopping power formula.)

4𝑚𝑀
Qmax = E Where: Qmax = energy transferred
𝑚 +𝑀 2
m = mass of the incident particle
M = mass of the moderator material
E = energy of the incident particle
What this formula shows is that in impact between two bodies of equal mass will yield the
maximum transfer of energy, and with H2O, the hydrogen proton is the same mass (About). So
with water, the minimum amount of impacts are required to thermalize the neutron (About 20 to
40 should do the trick and this takes about 11 inches of water. This is a scattering interaction.
Why in step changes? Because we dont want that pesky U-238 from absorbing them before they
can become thermalized, and by going in steps we can miss the resonance peaks that U-238
presents in crossection. Remember that U-238 does not fission with neutron absorption unless
certain nucleus conditions exist.

The third reason we like water for our moderator is that it has a negative reactivity coefficient.
This is because when water heats up, it expands, its molecules move further apart, and is less
likely to thermalize neutrons. Thus, it provides a built in safety factor. If reactor power increases
rapidly the water gets hotter and reactor power is brought back down. It self regulates so to
speak. On the other hand if the load is increased the water cools down and adds positive
reactivity and reactor power increases to compensate. Pretty cool huh.

The fourth reason we like water, is that boron dissolves into it readily and boron is a reactivity
control agent useful for extending core life. It has a high crossection for absorption of neutrons,
can take the place of control rod movements, and give a better neutron flux distribution over core
life. There are other reasons for using water, but that's outside the purpose of this paper.

In part 2, we will go in depth into the six factor formula, (which is the neutron life cycle)
reactor period, K, Keff, ∆𝐾, and a host of more items involved in the neutron life cycle. I know
this is a lot to chew on, but you will need it for your ROs exams, and this is why I broke it down
into two parts.