Introduction To Structural Design

Reinforced Concrete Design STEEL.
com
Fifth Edition
Introduction
SYLLABUS, MAJOR
TOPICS & COMPUTERS
• A. J. Clark School of Engineering •Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
FALL 2002
a By
Dr . Ibrahim. Assakkaf
ENCE 355 - Introduction to Structural Design

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park
INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 1
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ENCE 355 – Introduction to Structural

Design (3 credit)
Q MWF 9:00 am – 9:50 am, EGR 2112
1
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
INSTRUCTOR:
Name: Dr. Ibrahim A. Assakkaf
Office Hours: MWF 10:00 am - 12:00 am and by appointment
Room: 0305, Engineering Classroom Building (EGR)
Center for Technology and Systems
Management (CTSM)
Telephone: (W) 301-405-3279
Email: assakkaf@eng.umd.edu
URL: http://ctsm.umd.edu/assakkaf
http://www.cee.umd.edu/assakkaf
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
TEACHING ASSISTANT:
Name: Dr. Maged Sidki Morcos
Office Hours: MWF 12:00 pm – 1:00 pm
Room: TBA
Telephone: (301) 276-1000, Rm. 253
Email: m_sidki@hotmail.com
2
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
TEXTBOOKS:
1. “Reinforced Concrete Design,” 5th Edition, Spiegel,
L. and Limbrunner, G. F., 2003, Prentice Hall.
2. “Structural Steel Design,” 3rd Edition, McCormac, J.
and Nelson, J., Jr., 2003, Prentice Hall.
3. “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
(318-02) and Commentary (318-02),” American
Concrete Institute (ACI).
4. “LRFD Manual of Steel Construction,” 3rd Edition,
American Institute for Steel Construction (AISC).
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
REFERENCES:
1. “Design of Concrete Structures,” 12th
Edition, Nilson, A. H., 1997, McGraw
Hill.
2. “ Steel Structures,” 3rd Edition, Salmon,
C., G. and Johnson, 1990, Harper and
Raw.
3
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
GRADING:
Homework 20%
Exam I 25%
Exam II 25%
Final Exam 30%
Quizzes & Attendance (±).
100%
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
PREREQUISITES:
• ENCE 300
• Permission of the Department
GENERAL COURSE DESCRIPTION (UM

SCHEDULE OF CLASSES, FALL 2002):
Structural design of members for buildings and
bridges subjected to tensions, compression, shear and
bending. Materials: structural steel and reinforced
concrete. Design of welded and bolted connections.
Placement of reinforcing bars in concrete members.
4
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS:
Professional presentation of homework assignments is
required. Professional presentation consists of neat
and organized solution of problems on one side of
8.5"x11" papers. Any homework not complying with
professional standards will not be graded and will be
assigned zero credit. The homework assignments are
due one week after they are assigned. Homework will
be assigned as the material is covered and will be
collected every Monday at the beginning of the lecture
period, starting on Monday 9/9. Assignments turned
in late will be docked 10% for each day it is late past
the original due date.
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS (cont’d):

Solutions will be available from the TA and on the
class website after the problems are returned. No
assignment will be accepted after the answers have
been posted. Students are encouraged to discuss and
formulate solutions to the problems by working in
teams. However, assignments must be completed and
submitted individually. Simply copying the answers
from another student or from a solutions manual is not
acceptable and will not be tolerated.
5
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Guidelines for homework are given below:
1. Use good quality paper, such as engineering graph paper or
college-ruled paper, any color, with no spiral edges
2. Write on only one side of the paper
3. Either pen or pencil is acceptable
4. Include your name, section, and page number (e.g. 1/3 means 1
of 3) on each sheet
5. Staple all pages together in the upper left corner
6. Neatly box all answers, and include appropriate units for
numerical answers
7. Show all work (e.g. no work means no credit will be given)
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

If the above guidelines are not followed, the TA will
either reject the assignment outright, for extreme
cases, or deduct points for items that do not
conform to the specifications.
6
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
EXAMS AND QUIZZES:

All students must take all exams and quizzes including
the final exam. Only extenuating circumstances will be
accepted as an excuse for missing an exam. The
student must notify the instructor of the reason for
absence as soon as possible. Health related excuses
require medical reports and the signature of a
physician that provided treatment. You are
encouraged to go over Chapter 4 of the Undergraduate
Catalogue for the University policies, or visit
http://www.inform.umd.edu/ugradcat/chapter4/attenda
nce.html
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
COURSE WEBSITE: Students are encourage to access

course web site at http://www.ajconline.umd.edu to
download course materials such as homework sets and
solutions. Timely information will also be posted on
the web site. At initial login, use your wam account
name as the username, and your SID as the password.
You are advised to change your password after your
first login. Report any problem with the course web
site to the instructor. For technical problems of the
web site, contact the Instructional Technologies staffs
at 0123 Martin Hall.
7
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Schedule for Lectures

Week Lec. Date Section Topic Homework
1 1 W, 9/4 Handout Introduction to the Course
2 F, 9/6 Handout Structural Design and Analysis, Code Specifications Handout
2 PART I – REINFORCED CONCRETE
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
SL* Chapter 1 – Materials & Mechanics of Bending
3 M, 9/9 1.1 – 1.4 Concrete, ACI Building Code, Cement and Water, Aggregates 1-1
1.5 Concrete in Compression 1-2
4 W, 9/11 1.6 – 1.8 Concrete in Tension, Reinforcing Steel, and Beams 1-3 1-5 1-10
SL* Chapter 2 – Rectangular Reinforced Concrete
Beams and Slabs: Tension Steel Only
5 F, 9/13 2.1 – 2.2 Introduction, Methods of Analysis and Design
2.3 – 2.4 Behavior Under Load, Strength Design Methods Assumption
3 6 M, 9/16 2.5 – 2-6 Flexural Strength of Rectangular Beams, Equivalent Stress 2-1a 2-2
2.7 Balanced, Overreinforced, and Underreinforced Beams
2.8 Reinforcement Ratio Limitations and Guidelines 2-5
7 W, 9/18 2.9 Strength Requirements
2.10 Rectangular Beam Analysis for Moment (Tension Only) 2-7
2.13 One-Way Slabs 2-11
8 F, 9/20 2.14 –2.16 Rectangular Beam Design for Moment (Tension Only) 2-14 2-28
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Schedule for Lecture (cont’d)

4 SL* Chapter 3 – Reinforced Concrete Beams: T-Beams
and Doubly Reinforced Beams
9 M, 9/23 3.1 – 3.2 Introduction, T-Beams Analysis 3-1 3-5
10 W, 9/25 3.3, 3.5, 3.6 Development of T-Beam As, max, T-Beam Design for moment 3-6 3-12
11 F, 9/27 3.6 – 3.7 Summary of T-Beams Analysis and Design
5 12 M, 9/30 3.8 – 3.11 Doubly Reinforced Beams, Doubly RB Analysis 3-16
13 W, 10/2 3.12 – 3.14 Doubly Reinforced Beam Design for Moment 3-22
SL* Chapter 4 – Shear in Beams
14 F, 10/4 4.1 – 4.2 Introduction, Shear Reinforcement Design Requirements 4-1 4-4
6 15 M, 10/7 4.3 – 4.4 Shear Analysis Procedure, Stirrups Design Procedure 4-5 4-12
SL* Chapter 5 – Development, Splices, and Simple-
Span Bar Cutoffs
16 W, 10/9 5-1 – 5.2 Development Length, Tension Bars 5-1 5-2
17 F, 10/11 5.3 – 5.4 Development Length, Compression Bars, Standard Hooks 5-7
7 18 M, 10/14 5.9 Simple-Span Cutoffs and Bends 5-12
SL* Chapter 9 – Columns
19 W, 10/16 9.1 –9.3 Introduction, Strength (small eccentricity), Code Requirements
20 F, 10/18 9.4 – 9.5 Analysis of Short Columns, Design of Small Columns 9-3 9-9
8
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

8 21 M, 10/21 9.7 – 9.11 The Load-Moment Relationship, Analysis (large eccentricity) 9-11
PART II – STRUCTURAL STEEL
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
*
MN Chapter 1 – Introduction to Structural Steel Design
22 W, 10/23 1.1 – 1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages, Early uses, Steel Sections
1.8 – 1.21 Modern Structural Steels, Uses, Failure, and Computers
MN* Chapter 2 – Specifications, Loads, and
Methods of Design
23 F, 10/25 2.1 – 2.4 Specifications and Building Codes, Loads, Dead & Live Loads
2.5 – 2.6 Environmental Loads, Load & Resistance Factor Design 2-1
9 24 M, 10/28 *** EXAM I ***
25 W, 10/30 2.7 – 2.10 Load and Resistance Factors, Reliability and LRFD 2-2
2.11 – 2.12 Advantages of LRFD, Computer Example 2-4 2-10
MN* Chapter 3 – Analysis of Tension Members
26 F, 10/1 3.1 – 3.3 Introduction, Design Strength, Net Areas 3-2 3-8
10 27 M, 11/4 3.4 – 3.5 Effect of Staggered Holes, Effective Net Areas 3-10 3-14 3-20 3-24
28 W, 11/6 3.6 – 3.7 Connecting Elements for Tension Members, Block Shear 3-27 3-30 3-34
MN* Chapter 4 – Design of Tension Members
29 F, 11/8 4.1 – 4.3 Selection of Sections, Built-up Tension Members Rods and 4-3 4-23
4.4 – 4.5 Bars Pin-connected Members, Design for Fatigue Loads
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

11 MN* Chapter 5 – Introduction to Axially Loaded
Compression Members
30 M, 11/11 5.1 – 5.3 General, Residual Stress, Sections Used for Columns
31 W, 11/13 5.4 – 5.5 Development of Column Formulas, Euler Formula 5-2 5-4
32 F, 11/15 5.6 End Restraints and Effective Lengths of Columns 5-6 5-10
5.7 Stiffened and Unstiffened Elements
12 33 M, 11/18 5.8 – 5.9 Long, Short, and Intermediate Columns, Column Formulas 5-15 5-17
5.10 – 5.11 Maximum Slenderness Ratios, Example Problems
34 W, 11/20 MN* Chapter 6 – Design of Axially Loaded
Compression Members
6.1 – 6.4 Introduction, LRFD Design Tables, Built-up Columns 6-2 6-8
35 F, 11/22 6.5 Built-up Columns w/ components in contact with each other 6-22
6.7 Built-up Columns w/ components not in contact with each other
13 MN* Chapter 8 – Introduction to Beams
36 M, 11/25 8.1 – 8.4 Types of Beams, Sections, Stresses, Plastic Hinges 8-2
37 W, 11/27 8.5 – 8.7 Elastic Design, Plastic Modulus, Theory of Plastic Analysis 8-4 8-11
38 F, 11/29 ********* NO CLASS, Thanksgiving Recess *********
9
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

14 39 M, 12/2 8.8 – 8.9 The Collapse Mechanism, Virtual-Work Method 8-22 8-28
8.10 Location of Plastic Hinge for Uniform Loading 8-31
40 W, 12/4 8.11 – 8.12 Continuous Beams, Building Frames 8-37
MN* Chapter 9 – Design of Beams for Moments
9.1 – 9.3 Introduction, Yielding Behavior, Design of Beams (Zone 1) 9-1 9-4 9-10
41 F, 12/6 *** EXAM II ***
15 42 M, 12/9 9.4 – 9.5 Lateral Support of Beams, Inelastic Buckling (Zone 2) 9-12 9-16
9.6 Moment Capacities
43 W, 12/11 9.7 – 9.9 Elastic Buckling (Zone 3), Design Charts, Noncompact 9-24
Sections
44 F, 12/13 Review
16 T, 12/19 All material *** FINAL EXAM - 8-10 AM, EGR 2112 ***
Course Syllabus
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Course Objective
– Introduce the concept of Design of
structural members for building and
bridges subjected to tensions,
compression, shear and bending.
– Materials: structural steel and reinforced
concrete.
10
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
PART I
Concrete Design and Analysis
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine

and coarse aggregates, and water.
Q Water is the key ingredient for chemical
reaction for curing.
Add Water
Cement + Aggregates = Concrete
11
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Materials and Mechanics of Bending

– Concrete Strength
b b
x · 1
x σ
C·
2
d N.A.
d-x
Fx
n As
(a) (b) (c)
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Reinforcing Steel
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Major Topics
Mechanics of Bending
Pure Bending: Prismatic members

subjected to equal and opposite couples
acting in the same longitudinal plane
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q RECTANGULAR R/C CONCRETE

BEAMS: TENSION STEEL ONLY
24-mm diameter
500 mm
Dead and Live Loads
225 mm M
13
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reinforced Concrete Beams: T-Beams

and Doubly Reinforced Beams
24-mm diameter
500 mm
225 mm
T-Beam Doubly Reinforced
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Shear in Beams
8000 lb
– Design Requirements
2000 lb/ft
B C D
A x
11,000 lb 12 ft 4 ft 8 ft
21,000 lb
11,000
8,000 lb
V (lb) (+) (+)
5.5 ft
(-)
13,000 lb
30,250
M (ft -lb) (-)
(-)
12,000
64,000
14
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Development Length, Splices, and

Simple Span Bar Cutoffs
Cutoff
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reinforced Concrete Columns
15
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
PART II
Steel Design and Analysis
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Introduction to Structural Steel Design

Q Specifications, Loads, and Methods of
Design
ASIC American Institute of Steel Construction
16
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Analysis and Design of Tension

Members
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Introduction to the Design of Axially

Loaded Compression Members
17
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Introduction to the Analysis and Design

of Beams for Moments
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Introduction to the Analysis and Design

of Beams for Moments
Dead and Live Loads
18
Computers and Software

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Computers Evolution Era (Chapra &

Canale 1988)
– Zero Generation - Manual & Mechanical
(pre 1951)
– First Generation – Vacuum tubes (1951 –
1958)
– Second Generation – Transistors (1958 –
1964)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Canale 1988)
– Third Generation – Integrated circuits
(1964 – 1971)
– Fourth Generation – Very large scale
integration (1971 – present)
• Mainframes, Supercomputers
• Personal Computers, Microcomputers, and
Minicomputers
19

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Canale 1988)
– Fifth Generation (1990?)
• Parallel Processing
• Artificial intelligence

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q High-level Languages
– FORTRAN (introduced by IBM in 1957)
• FORTRAN = FORmula TRANslation
• Developed for the IBM 704 Computer
• Developed by John Backus and a team of 13
other programmers
– BASIC
– Pascal
– Others
20

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Software Packages
– MATLAB
– MathCad
– Spreadsheet
• MS Excel
• Quattro Pro
– Specialized Structural Packages
• GTSTRUDLE
• ETABS
• SAP & INSTEP32 Design Software
• etc
Major Topics
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Be Proud To Be An
Engineer
21
Reinforced Concrete Design STEEL.com
Fifth Edition
Introduction
Structural Design and Analysis,

and Code Specifications
FALL 2002
b
By
Dr . Ibrahim. Assakkaf

INTRODUCTION b. Structural Design & Analysis, & Code Specifications Slide No. 1
Structural Design
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
“Structural design can be defined as a

mixture of art and Science, combining
the engineer’s feeling for the behavior
of a structure with a sound knowledge
of the principles of statics, dynamics,
mechanics of materials, and structural
analysis, to produce a safe economical
structure that will serve its intended
purpose.” (Salmon and Johnson 1990)
1
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Engineering structural systems are of

variety that they defy any attempt to
enumerate them.
Q The many problems which arise in their
design have prompted engineers to
specialize in the design of particular
structure or groups of related structures.
Q A complete design requires the
coordinated efforts of several branches
of engineering.
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Civil Engineering Structures

– Among the structures that are design by
civil engineers are
• Buildings
• Bridges
• Transmission Towers
• Dams
• Highway Pavements
• Aircraft Landing Runways (strips)
• Retaining Walls
2
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Eiffel Tower
Paris – 1899
984 ft. high
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Sears Tower
Chicago - 1974
1450 ft.high
3
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
RHINE BRIDGE, COLOGNE-

COLOGNE-RODENKIRCHEN, (1946-
(1946-47), SPAN 94.5-
94.5-378-
378-94.5 m
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
4
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Hoover Dam
Arizona-
Arizona-Nevada Border
Near Las Vegas
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Transmission Towers
5
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Highway & Aircraft

Landing Strip
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Retaining Walls
6
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The design of the previous groups of

structures require the coordination of
various disciplines in engineering, and
is too large for convenient study as a
unit.
Q In this course, we will focus on the
design of the individual structural
elements or members that make up the
whole structural system.
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Such members or elements include the

following:
– Beams
– Columns
– Trusses
– Shear Structural Elements
– Steel Rods
– Connection Elements
7
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Structural Elements
– Bending Structures
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Compression Structures
8
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Trusses
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Tension Structures
9
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Engineering Systems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Shear Structures
10
Analysis Versus Design

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Structural Analysis:
– Structural Analysis is the prediction of the
performance of a given structure under
prescribed loads and/or other effects, such
as support movements and temperature
change.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Structural Design:
– Structural design is the art of utilizing
principles of statics, dynamics, and
mechanics of materials to determine the
size and arrangement of structural
elements under prescribed loads and/or
other effects.
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Design Procedure
– Design procedure consists of two parts:
• Functional Design
• Structural Framework Design
– Functional design ensures that intended
results are achieved such as adequate
working area, elevators, stairways, etc.
– Structural framework design is the
selection of the arrangement and sizes of
structural elements so that service loads
may be carried.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1: Analysis
– Determine the maximum flexural stress
produced by a resisting moment Mr of
+5000 ft⋅lb if the beam has the cross
section shown in the figure.
2′′
6′′
2′′
6′′

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1: Analysis (cont’d)

First, we need to locate the neutral axis
from the bottom edge:
2′′
yC =
(1)(2 × 6) + (2 + 3)(2 × 6) = 72 = 3′′
2× 6 + 2× 6 24
5′′ y ten = 3′′ ycom = 6 + 2 − 3 = 5′′ = ymax
C
· 3′′ Max. Stress =
M r ymax
Ix
6′′
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Find the moment of inertia Ix with respect
to the x axis using parallel axis-theorem:
6(2) 2(6)
3 3
+ (6 × 2)(2) + + (2 × 6)(3 − 1)
2 2
Ix =
2′′ 12 12
= 4 + 48 + 36 + 48 = 136 in 4
5′′
C
(5 ×12)(5)
· 3′′
Max. Stress (com) =
136
= 2.21 ksi
2′′
6′′

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– An alternative way for finding the moment
of inertia Ix with respect to the x axis is as
follows:
2′′
6(3) 2(5)  2(1)3 
3 3
Ix = + − 2  = 136
3 3  3 
5′′
C
· 3′′
2′′
6′′
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2: Design
A pair of channels fastened back-to-back
will be used as a beam to resist a bending
moment Mr of 60 kN · m. If the maximum
flexural stress must not exceed 120 MPa,
select the most economical channel
section listed in Appendix B of the
textbook.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2: Design (cont’d)

M
σ= , However, we have two channels, hence
S
M M
σ= ⇒ S=
2S 2σ
60 × 103
S= = 250 ×10 −6 m 3 = 250 ×103 mm3
2(120 ×106 )
From a design table :

Select C254 × 30 channel
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
(cont’d)
Select
Loads
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The objective of a structural engineer is

to design a structure that will be able to
withstand all the loads to which it is
subjected while serving its intended
purpose throughout its intended life
span.
16
Loads
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Types of Loads
1. Dead loads
2. Live loads
3. Impact
4. Wind loads
5. Snow loads
6. Earthquake loads
7. Hydrostatic and soil pressure
8. Thermal and other effects
Decision Making in Engineering

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Best Decision
– Full understanding of alternative solution
procedures
• Unbiased Solution
• Highly precise
• Cost effective
• Have minimal environmental consequences
17
Decision Making in Engineering

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Typical Approach to an Engineering

Solution
– Identify the problem
– State the objective
– Develop alternative solutions
– Evaluate the alternatives, and
– Use the best alternative
Engineering Design
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Design of Engineering Systems

– Design of engineering systems is usually a
trade-off between maximizing safety and
minimizing cost.
– A design procedure that can accomplish
both of these objective is highly desirable,
but also difficult.
18
Engineering Design
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Deterministic design procedures (i.e., ASD

or WSD) do not provide adequate
information to achieve the optimal use of
the available resources to maximize safety
and minimize cost.
– On the other hand, probabilistic-based
design can provide the required
information for optimum design.
– Probability, statistics, and reliability tools
can help achieving the optimal design.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Probability-based Design and

Analysis of Engineering Systems
Q Need for Reliability Evaluation
– The presence of uncertainty in engineering design
and analysis has always been recognized.
– Traditional approaches simplify the problem by
considering the uncertain parameters to be
deterministic.
– Traditional approaches account for the uncertainty
through the use of empirical safety factor.
– This factor is based on past experience but does
not absolutely guarantee safety or performance.
19
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Reliability-Based Design (RBD)
– RBD requires the consideration of:
• Loads
• Structural Strength
• Methods of Reliability Analysis (i.e., FORM)
– Two primary approaches for RBD:
• Direct Reliability-based Design
• Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Probability Based-design Approach Versus
Deterministic Approach
Rn m m
≥ ∑ Li φRn ≥ ∑γ i Li
FS i=1 i =1
ASD LRFD
• According to ASD, one factor of safety (FS) is used that
accounts for the entire uncertainty in loads and strength.
• According to LRFD (probability-based), different partial
safety factors for the different load and strength types are
used.
20
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD)
– General Form
m
φRn ≥ ∑γ i Lni
i =1
Where
φ = strength reduction factor
γi = load factor for the ith load component out of n components
Rn = nominal or design strength (stress, moment, force, etc.)
Lni = nominal (or design) value for the ith load component out
of m components

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Partial Safety Factors
– Different building codes use different
partial safety factors for both the strength
and the load effects.
– For example the ACI building code uses
the following dead and live load factors
φRn = U = 1.4 D + 1.7 L
and the following strength factors:
0.90 for bending 0.85 for shear & torsion
0.7 bearing on concrete.
21
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Partial Safety Factors
– On the other hand, the AISC LRFD Manual
of steel construction uses the following
dead and live load factors
φRn = U = 1.2 D + 1.6 L
and the following strength factors:
0.90 for bending 0.85 for columns
0.75 bolts in tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Calculation of Partial Safety Factors
φ R ≥ γ 1 L1 + γ 2 L 2
Given Selected Output
Information Values Values
R
Rn
COV (R)
R
L1
Dist. (R)
β φ
COV (L1) FORM
FORM
Dist. (L1) L2 γ1
COV (L2) L1 γ2
Dist. (L2)
22
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q LRFD Advantages
– Provides a more rational approach for new
designs and configurations.
– Provides consistency in reliability.
– Provides potentially a more economical
use of materials.
– Allows for future changes as a result of
gained information in prediction models,
and material and load characterization
– Code Calibration.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Several design codes have recently
been revised to incorporate probabilistic
design and analysis
– AISC LRFD (1994)
– ACI (318-02)
– AASHTO
– API
– ABS
– Other structural and marine codes
23
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

LRFD-based Partial Safety Factors
Design Specifications and Building
Codes
ACI American Concrete Institute
NFPA National Forest Products Association
AASHTO American Association of State Highway
Officials
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For the purpose of this course, the
following two codes will be used:
“Building Code Requirements for Structural 1
Concrete (318-
(318-02) and Commentary (318-
(318-02),”
ACI American Concrete Institute
“LRFD Manual of Steel Construction,” 3rd 2

Edition
24
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Building Codes
Q Building codes are usually revised, updated,
and reissued periodically.
Q The codes themselves have no legal status.
Q They have been incorporated into the
building codes of almost all states
throughout the United States.
Q However, when so incorporated, they have
official sanctions, become legal documents,
and considered part of the law controlling
design and construction in a particular area.
25
Reinforced Concrete Design Fifth Edition
CHAPTER
MATERIALS AND
MECHANICS OF BENDING
Part I – Concrete Design and Analysis
By
1a
FALL 2002 Dr . Ibrahim. Assakkaf

CHAPTER 1a. MATERIALS AND MECHANICS OF BENDING Slide No. 1
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine

and coarse aggregates, and water.
Q Water is the key ingredient for chemical
reaction for curing.
Add Water
Cement + Aggregates = Concrete
1
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete Ingredients
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Cement
– Cement is a material that has the adhesive
and cohesive properties necessary to bond
inert aggregates into a solid mass of
adequate strength and durability.
Q Aggregates
– The bulk of the concrete mix consists of
the fine and coarse aggregates.
2
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete Strength
– The resulting concrete strength and
durability are a function of the proportions
of the mix as well as other factors, such as
the the concrete placing, finishing, and
curing history.
– Compressive strength of concrete is
relatively high.
– However, its tensile strength is small as
compared with its compressive strength.
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete Strength (cont’d)

– Hence, steel reinforcing rods, which have
high tensile strength and compressive
strength, are used in combination with
concrete.
– The steel will resist the tension.
– While the concrete will resist the
compression.
3
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Reinforced Concrete Beam
y
M
Compressive Stess
Neutral Axis x
Tensile Stress
Figure 1
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Figure 2
Dead and Live Loads
4
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

M = 35 kip ⋅ in
4 in. 12 in.
4 in. 5 in.
6 in.
6 in.
5 in. 6 in.
6 in. Figure 3
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Figure 4
b b
x · 1
x σ
C·
2
d N.A.
d-x
Fx
n As
(a) (b) (c)
5
Concrete
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

–Concrete is very weak in tension, so

it will crack below the neutral surface
and the steel rods will carry the entire
tensile load.
–The upper part of the concrete beam
will carry the compressive load.
The ACI Building Code

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI = American Concrete Institute

– The design and construction of concrete
buildings is controlled by
“ Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete (ACI 318-02) and
Commentary (318R-02)”
– The code itself has no legal status,
however, it has been incorporated into the
building code of almost all states.
– When incorporated, it has official sanction.
6
Cement and Water

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Hydraulic Cement:
– Water is added to hydraulic cement for the
chemical reaction of hydration to take
place.
– In the process of hydration, the cement
sets and bonds the fresh concrete into one
mass.
– Portland Cement
Calcium and Aluminum Silicates
Limestone materials provide Calcium Dioxide, CaO
Clays provides Silicon dioxide, SiO2, and Aluminum
Oxide, AL2O3
Cement and Water

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Cement is marketed in bulk or in 94-lb

(1-ft3) bags
Q Water Cement Ratio:

– The ratio of the amount of water to the
amount of cement by weight
7
Cement and Water

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The ratio can be expressed in terms of

gallons of water per bag of cement.
Q Requirements
– For complete hydration of cement in a
mix, a water/cement ratio of
• 0.35 to 0.40, or
• 4 to 4.5 gal.bag
is required.
Aggregates
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Aggregates occupy approximately 70%

to 75% of the volume of the hardened
mass.
Q The more densely the aggregate can
packed, the better are the strength and
durability.
Q Types of Aggregates:
– Fine: sand (pass No. 4 sieve)
– Coarse: particles (retained in No. 4 Sieve)
8
Concrete in Compression
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q As was mentioned earlier, compressive

strength of concrete is relatively high.
Q The compressive strength of concrete is
'
denoted by f c .
'
Q Units commonly used for f c :
– Pounds per square inch (psi)
– Kips per square inch (ksi)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Compression Tests and Stress-Strain

Diagram
Compression Ave. Axial Stress
Compressive
Tensile
Ave. Axial Strain
Figure 5
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete Compressive Strength

Figure 6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The curves of Fig. 6 represent the result of
compression tests on 28-day standard
cylinders for varying design mix.
'
– f c is not the stress that exists in the
specimen at failure but rather which occurs
at a strain of 0.002 in/in.
'
– 28-day concrete strength f c range from
2500 to 9000 psi, with 3000 to 4000 psi
being common for reinforced structures,
and 5000 to 6000 psi for pre-stressed
concrete members.
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Concrete strength varies with time, and the
specified concrete strength is usually that
strength that occurs 28 days after the
placing of concrete.
– A typical strength-time curve for normal
stone concrete is shown in Fig. 7.
– Generally, concrete attains approximately
70% of its 28-day strength in 7 days, and
approximately 85% to 90% in 14 days.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

f c'
Figure 7
Compressive Strength (psi)
5000
4000
5 years
6 months
3000
28 days
2000
1000
Time
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Modulus of Elasticity
– In review of Fig. 8a, the initial slope of the
curve varies, unlike that of steel (Fig 8b),
and only approximates a straight line.
– For steel, where stresses are below the
yield point and the material behaves
elastically, the stress-strain plot will be a
straight line.
– The slope of the straight line for steel is the
modulus of elasticity.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Elastic
region
Stress
Fy
εy Strain (in/in)
(a) Concrete (b) Steel

Figure 8
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– For concrete, however, the straight-line
portion of the curve is very short, if it exists
at all.
– Therefore, there exists no constant value
of the modulus of elasticity for a given
concrete since the stress-strain ratio is not
constant.
– Even, if a straight line is assumed, the
modulus of elasticity would be different for
concrete of different strengths.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
At low and moderate stresses, up

'
to about 0.5 f c , concrete is
commonly assumed to behave
elastically.
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Empirical Expressions for the Modulus of

Elasticity (by ACI Code)
For a unit weight wc of concrete between 90
and 155 lb/ft3:
Ec = wc1.5 33 f c′ (1)
where
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression (psi)
wc = unit weight of concrete (lb/ft3)
f c' = compressive strength of concrete (psi)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Empirical Expressions for the Modulus of

Elasticity (by ACI Code)
For a unit weight wc taken as 144 lb/ft3:
Ec = 57,000 f c′ (2)
where
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression (psi)
wc = unit weight of concrete (lb/ft3)
f c' = compressive strength of concrete (psi)
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
What the modulus of elasticity Ec for
concrete having a unit weight of 150 pcf
and a compressive strength of 5 ksi?
Using Eq. 1,
Ec = wc1.5 33 f c′
= (150)1.5 (33) 5000 = 4,286,826 psi
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Creep
– Concrete under load, exhibits a
phenomenon called creep.
– This a property by which concrete
continues to deform over long periods of
time while under a constant load.
– Creep occurs at a decreasing rate over a
period of time and may cease after several
years.
– Higher strength concrete exhibits less
creep.
15
CHAPTER
MATERIALS AND
MECHANICS OF BENDING
By
1b

CHAPTER 1b. MATERIALS AND MECHANICS OF BENDING Slide No. 1
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete tensile stresses occur as a

result of shear, torsion, and other
actions, and in most cases member
behavior changes upon cracking.
Q It is therefore important to be able to
predict, with reasonable accuracy, the
tensile strength of concrete.
Q The tensile and compressive strengths
of concrete are not proportional, and an
increase in compressive strength is
accompanied by smaller percentage
increase in tensile strength.
1
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The tensile strength of normal-weight

concrete in flexure is about 10% to 15%
of the compressive strength.
Q There are considerable experimental
difficulties in determining the true tensile
strength of concrete.
Q The true tensile strength of concrete is
difficult to determine.
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q One common approach is to use the

modulus of rupture fr.
Q The modulus of rupture is the maximum
tensile bending stress in a plain
concrete test beam at failure.
Neutral Axis
Max. Tensile
Stress
2
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Code Recommendation

For normal-weight concrete, the ACI Code
recommends that the modulus of rupture fr
be taken as
f r = 7.5 f c′ (1)
where fr in psi.
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Cracking Moment, Mcr

– The moment that produces a tensile stress
just equal to the modulus of rupture is
called cracking moment Mcr.
Q The Split-Cylinder Test
– The split-cylinder test has also been used
to determine the tensile strength of
lightweight aggregate concrete.
– It has been accepted as a good measure
of the true tensile strength.
3
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The Split-Cylinder Test (cont’d)

– This test uses a standard 6-in.-diameter,
12 in.-long cylinder placed on its in a
testing machine (see Fig. 1).
– A compressive line load is applied
uniformly along the length of the cylinder.
– The compressive load produces a
transverse tensile stress, and the cylinder
will split in half along the diameter when it
tensile strength is reached.
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Schematic for Split-

Cylinder Test
Figure 1
4
Concrete in Tension
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Splitting Tensile Strength, fct

The tensile splitting stress can be
calculated from the following formula:
2P
f ct = (2)
πLD
where
fcr = splitting tensile strength of concrete (psi)
P = applied load at splitting (lb)
L = length of cylinder (in.)
D = diameter of cylinder (in.)
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Steel is a high-cost material compared

with concrete.
Q It follows that the two materials are best
used in combination if the concrete is
made to resist the compressive stresses
and the steel the tensile stresses.
Q Concrete cannot withstand very much
tensile stress without cracking.
5
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reinforced Concrete Beam

Figure 2
b b
Compression. x · 1
x σ
C·
2
d N.A.
Tension
d-x
Fy
n As
(a) (b) (c)
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q It follows that tensile reinforcement must

be embedded in the concrete to
overcome the deficiency.
Q Forms of Steel Reinforcement
– Steel Reinforcing Bars
– Welded wire fabric composed of steel wire.
– Structural Steel Shapes
– Steel Pipes.
6
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reinforcing Bars (rebars)

– The specifications for steel reinforcement
published by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) are
generally accepted for steel used in
reinforced concrete construction in the
United States and are identified in the ACI
Code.
7
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reinforcing Bars (rebars)

– These bars are readily available in straight
length of 60 ft.
– The bars vary in designation from
No. 3 through No. 11

– With additional bars:
No. 14 and No. 18
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. ASTM Standard - English Reinforcing Bars

Diameter Area Weight
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
Note: Metric designations are in brackets
8
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 2. ASTM Standard - Metric Reinforcing Bars

Diameter Area Mass
Bar Designation
mm mm2 kg/m
#10 [#3] 9.5 71 0.560

#13 [#4] 12.7 129 0.994
#16 [#5] 15.9 199 1.552
#19 [#6] 19.1 284 2.235
#22 [#7] 22.2 387 3.042
#25 [#8] 25.4 510 3.973
#29 [#9] 28.7 645 5.060
#32 [#10] 32.3 819 6.404
#36 [#11] 35.8 1006 7.907
#43 [#14] 43.0 1452 11.38
#57 [#18] 57.3 2581 20.24
Note: English designations are in brackets
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Yield Stress for Steel

– Probably the most useful property of
reinforced concrete design calculations is
the yield stress for steel, fy.
– A typical stress-strain diagram for
reinforcing steel is shown in Fig. 3a.
– An idealized stress-strain diagram for
reinforcing steel is shown in Fig. 3b.
9
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 3
Elastic Elastic
region region
Stress
Stress
Fy Fy
εy Strain εy Strain
(a) As Determined by Tensile Test (b) Idealized
Reinforcing Steel
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Modulus of Elasticity for Steel

– The modulus of elasticity for reinforcing
steel varies over small range, and has
been adopted by the ACI Code as
E = 29,000,000 psi = 29,000 ksi
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Beams: Mechanics of Bending

Review
Q Introduction
– The most common type of structural
member is a beam.
– In actual structures beams can be found in
an infinite variety of
• Sizes
• Shapes, and
• Orientations

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q Introduction
Definition
A beam may be defined as a member whose
length is relatively large in comparison with
its thickness and depth, and which is loaded
with transverse loads that produce significant
bending effects as oppose to twisting or axial
effects
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Pure Bending: Prismatic members

subjected to equal and opposite couples
acting in the same longitudinal plane

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q Flexural Normal Stress
For flexural loading and linearly

elastic action, the neutral axis passes
through the centroid of the cross section
of the beam
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q The elastic flexural formula for normal
stress is given by
Mc
fb = (3)
I
where
fb = calculated bending stress at outer fiber of the cross section
M = the applied moment
c = distance from the neutral axis to the outside tension or
compression fiber of the beam
I = moment of inertia of the cross section about neutral axis

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q By rearranging the flexure formula, the
maximum moment that may be applied
to the beam cross section, called the
resisting moment, MR, is given by
Fb I
MR = (4)
c
Where Fb = the allowable bending stress
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q Example 1
Determine the maximum flexural stress
produced by a resisting moment M of
+5000 ft-lb if the beam has the cross
section shown in the figure.
2′′
6′′
2′′
6′′

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q Example 1 (cont’d)
First, we need to locate the neutral axis
from the bottom edge:
y
2′′
x yC =
(1)(2 × 6) + (2 + 3)(2 × 6) = 72 = 3′′
2× 6 + 2× 6 24
5′′ y ten = 3′′ ycom = 6 + 2 − 3 = 5′′ = ymax = c
C
· 3′′ Max. Stress = f b =
Mc
2′′ I
6′′
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Find the moment of inertia I with respect to
the x axis using parallel axis-theorem:
y
6(2) 2(6)
3 3
2′′ I= + (6 × 2)(2 ) +
2
+ (2 × 6)(3 − 1)
2
x 12 12
= 4 + 48 + 36 + 48 = 136 in 4
5′′
C
(5 ×12)(5)
· 3′′
Max. Stress (com) =
136
= 2.21 ksi
2′′
6′′

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q Internal Couple Method (cont’d)
– The procedure of the flexure formula is
easy and straightforward for a beam of
known cross section for which the moment
of inertia I can be found.
– However, for a reinforced concrete beam,
the use of the flexure formula can be
somewhat complicated.
– The beam in this case is not homogeneous
and concrete does not behave elastically.
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
– In this method, the couple represents an
internal resisting moment and is composed
of a compressive force C and a parallel
internal tensile force T as shown in Fig. 4.
– These two parallel forces C and T are
separated by a distance Z, called the the
moment arm. (Fig. 4)
– Because that all forces are in equilibrium,
therefore, C must equal T.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
y P
Centroidal axis
w
Neutral axis
C c
Z c yC c
x
y
T dA dy
Figure 4
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
– The internal couple method of determining
beam stresses is more general than the
flexure formula because it can be applied
to homogeneous or non-homogeneous
beams having linear or nonlinear stress
distributions.
– For reinforced concrete beam, it has the
advantage of using the basic resistance
pattern that is found in a beam.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
Q Example 2
Repeat Example 1 using the internal
couple method.
y
2′′
x C
5′′
C Z
· 3′′
N.A
T
2′′
6′′
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
– Because of the irregular area for the
tension zone, the tensile force T will be
broken up into components T1, T2, and T3.
– Likewise, the moment arm distance Z will
be broken up into components Z1, Z2, and
Z3, and calculated for each component
tensile force to the compressive force C as
shown in Fig. 5.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Review
2′′ ftop
5′′ Z1 Z2
C Z3
·
T1
3′′
2′′ T3
T2
6′′ fbott
fmid
Figure 5
18
2′′
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
ftop
Example 2
(cont’d) C
5′′ Z1 Z2
C Z3
·
1′′ T1
3′′
2′′ T3
T2
6′′ fbott
fmid
1
C = f avg × area = f top [(5)(2)] = 5 f top From similar triangles:
2
1 1 f mid 1
T1 = f avg × area = f mid [(1)(2)] = f mid = f bott =
2 3 f bott 3
T2 = f avg × area = f mid [(2 )(6 )] = 12 f mid = 4 f bott
1
 f − f mid  ∴ f mid = f bott
T3 = f avg × area =  bott [(2)(6 )] = 6 f bott − 6 f mid 3
 2 
2′′
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
ftop
Example 2
(cont’d) C
5′′ Z1 Z2
C Z3
·
1′′ T1
3′′
2′′ T3
T2
6′′ fbott
fmid
C = T = T1 + T2 + T3
5 f top =
1
f bott + 4 f bott + 6 f bott − 6 f mid 5
3 f top = f bott
1 25
3
5 f top = f bott + 4 f bott + 6 f bott − 2 f bott = f bott
3 3
19
2′′
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
ftop
Example 2
(cont’d) C
5′′ Z1 Z2
C Z3
·
1′′ T1
3′′
2′′ T3
T2
6′′ fbott
fmid
2 2
Z1 = (5) + (1) = 4 in.
3 3 M ext = M R
5000(12 ) = Z1T1 + Z 2T2 + Z 3T3
2 16
Z 2 = (5) + 2 = in.
3 3
2 2 17 60,000 = Z1T1 + Z 2T2 + Z 3T3
Z 3 = (5) + 1 + (2) = in.
3 3 3
2 ′′
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
ftop
Example 2
(cont’d) C
5′′ Z1 Z2
C Z3
· 1′′ T1
3′′
2 ′′ T3
T
6 ′′ fbott
fmid
2
1  16 17 136
60,000 = 4 f bott  + (4 f bott ) + (4 f bott ) = f bott
3  3 3 3
Therefore,
f bott = 1,323.53 psi (Tension)
The maximum Stress is compressive stress :
5 5
f max = f top = f bott = (1,323.53) = 2,205.88 psi = 2.21 ksi (Com)
3 3
20
CHAPTER
RECTANGULAR R/C
CONCRETE BEAMS:
TENSION STEEL ONLY
By
2a

CHAPTER 2a. RECTANGULAR R/C BEAMS: TENSION STEEL ONLY Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Bending moment produces bending

strains on a beam, and consequently
compressive and tensile stresses.
Q Under positive moment (as normally the
case), compressive stresses are
produced in the top of the beam and
tensile stresses are produced in the
bottom.
Q Bending members must resist both
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Stresses in Beam
y P b a w
Figure 1
x
b a
y P
h
MR τ
dA σ
∆x
x
+y
O
V
R
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Sign Convention Figure 2
V V
M M (b) Positive Shear (clockwise)
L.H.F R.H.F M M
V V
(a) Positive Shear & Moment
(c) Positive Moment
(concave upward)
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Concrete Flexural Members

– Types:
• Beam
• Wall
• Slab
• Etc.
– These concrete members must resist both
tensile and compressive stresses.
– Because concrete is weak in tension,
embedded steel bars are placed in the
tension zone.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 3
MR
4 in. 12 in.
4 in. 5 in.
6 in.
6 in.
5 in. 6 in.
6 in.
3
Methods of Analysis and Design

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Elastic Design
– Elastic design is considered valid for the
homogeneous plain concrete beam as long
as the tensile stress does not exceed the
modulus of rupture fr.
– Elastic design can also be applied to a
reinforced concrete beam using the
working stress design (WSD) approach.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q WSD Assumptions
1. A plain section before bending remains
plane after bending.
2. Stress is proportional to strain (Hooke’s
Law).
3. Tensile stress for concrete is considered
zero and reinforcing steel carries all the
tension.
4. The bond between the concrete and steel
is perfect, so no slip occurs.
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Strength Design Method

– This method is the modern approach for
the analysis and design of reinforced
concrete.
– The assumption are similar to those
outlined for the WSD with one exception:
• Compressive concrete stress is approximately
proportional to strain up to moderate loads. As
the load increases, the approximate
proportionality ceases to exit, and the stress
diagram takes a shape similar to the concrete
stress-strain curve of the following figure.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Figure 1
5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Comparison between the Two Methods

WSD or ASD USD
Q Working (service) loads are QService loads are amplified
used and a member is designed using partial safety factors.
based on an allowable QA member is design so that its
compressive bending stress, strength is reduced by a
normally 0.45 f c′ reduction safety factor.
QCompressive stress pattern is QThe strength at failure is
assumed to vary linearly from commonly called the ultimate
zero at the neutral axis. strength
QFormula: QFormula:
m
Rn m
FS i =1 i =1
ASD LRFD
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(1) At very small loads:

Stresses Elastic and
Section Uncracked Reinforced Concrete Beam
b ε c (comp.) f c (comp.)
d N.A.
h
ε s (tens.) f s (tens.)
ε c (tens.) f c (tens.)
Stresses are below modulus of rupture.
6
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
A rectangular beam, as shown
in Fig. 1, has the dimensions b b
= 10 in.,h = 25 in., and d = 23
in., and is reinforced with three
No. 8 bars. The concrete
cylinder strength f c′ is 4000 psi,
and the tensile strength in h d
3 No. 8 bars
bending (modulus of rupture) is
475 psi. The yield point of the
steel fy is 60,000 psi.
Determine the stresses caused
by a bending moment M = 45
ft-kips. Assume the unit weight
for concrete is 144 lb/ft3.
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Area for No. 8 bar = 0.79 in 2 (see Table 1)
10 in
Therefore, As = 3(0.79 ) = 2.37 in 2
The modulus of elasticity for

Concrete can be calculated from
25 in 23 in
Ec = w1c .5 33 f c′ 3 No. 8 bars
= (144 ) (33) 4,000 = 3,606,514 psi

1.5
Therefore,
Es 29,000,000
n= = = 8.04 ≈ 8
Ec 3,606,514
7
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Transformed Section
10 in 10 in
25 in 23 in 25 in 23 in
3 No. 8 bars
n As (n –1) As
Ac – As = n As – As = (n – 1) As = (8-1) (2.37) = 16.59 in2
8
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Neutral axis location & moment of inertia
(25)(10) 25 + 16.59(23) 10 in
y= 2 = 13.15 in
(25)(10) + 16.59
10(13.15) 10(25 − 13.15)
3 3
y
+ 16.59(25 − 13.15 − 2)
2
I= + 23 in
3 3
25 in N.A
= 14,736.1 in 4
– Stresses
Mc (45 ×12 ×1000 )(13.15)
fc = = = 481.9 psi
I 14,736.1 (n –1) As
Mc (45 ×12 ×1000)(25 − 13.15)
f ct = = = 434.2 psi < 475 psi OK
I 14,736.1
fs = n
Mc
=8
(45 ×12 ×1000)(25 − 13.15 − 2) = 2,887.6 psi
I 14,736.1
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(2) At moderate loads:

Stresses Elastic and
Section Cracked Reinforced Concrete Beam
b ε c (comp.) f c (comp.)
d N.A.
h
• Tensile stresses of concrete will be exceeded.

• Concrete will crack (hairline crack), and steel bars will resist tensile stresses.
• This will occur at approximately 0.5 f c′ .
9
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reinforced Concrete Beam Formula

The neutral axis for a concrete beam is
found by solving the quadratic equation:
1 2
bx + nAs x − nAs d = 0 (1)
2
b b
x · 1
x
2
·
C
d
d-x
n As
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
A concrete floor slab is reinforced by
diameter steel rods placed 1 in. above the
lower face of the slab and spaced 6 in. on
centers. The modulus of elasticity is 3×106
psi for concrete used and 30 ×106 psi for
steel. Knowing that a bending moment of
35 kip⋅in is applied to each 1-ft width of the
slab, determine (a) the maximum stress in
concrete and (b) the stress in the steel.
10
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
M = 35 kip ⋅ in
4 in. 12 in.
4 in. 5 in.
6 in.
6 in.
5 in. 6 in.
6 in.
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
12 in.
Q Example 2 (cont’d) 4 in. 5 in.
– Transformed Section
• Consider a portion of the slab 12 in. wide, in
5
which there are two 8 - in diameter rods having a
total cross-sectional area
12 in.   5 2 
π   
As = 2   8   = 0.614 in 2
x N.A.
4 in. ·C 4
Es 30 × 106
4-x n= = = 10
Ec 3 × 106
nAs = 10(0.614 ) = 6.14 in 2
11
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Neutral Axis
• The neutral axis of the slab passes through
the centroid of the transformed section. Using
Quadratic Eq. 1:
Formula
1 2
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
bx + nAs x − nAs d = 0
x= 2
2a
1 x = 1.575 in
(12)x 2 + 6.14 x − 6.14(4) = 0
2
x1 = 1.575 take
6 x 2 + 6.14 x − 24.56 = 0
x2 = −2.599
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Moment of Inertia
• The centroidal moment of inertia of the
transformed section is
12 in.
1.575 N.A.
4 in. ·C I=
12(1.575)
3
3
+ 6.14(2.425) = 51.7 in 4
2
2.425
6.14 in2
12
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Maximum stress in concrete:
My 35(1.575)
σc = − =− = −1.066 ksi (C)
I 51.7
Stress in steel:
My 35(− 2.425)
σ s = −n = −(10) = +16.42 ksi (T)
I 51.7
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(3) With further load increase:

Flexural Strength
ACI Approach Reinforced Concrete Beam
f c (comp.)
b ε c (comp.)
d N.A.
h
• Stress curve above N.A. will be similar to the stress-strain curve of Fig. 1.
• Concrete has cracked, and the process is irreversible.
• Steel bar has yielded and will not return to its original length.
13
Behavior Under Load

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Figure 1
Strength Design Method

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Assumptions
Q Strength Design
– If the distribution of concrete compression
stresses at or near ultimate load (Fig. 2),
had a well- defined and invariable shape-
parabolic – it would be possible to derive a
completely rational theory of ultimate
bending stress.
– This theory has been well established and
incorporated in the ACI Manual.
– The basic assumptions follows.
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Assumptions
Flexural Strength
ACI Approach Reinforced Concrete Beam
f c (comp.)
b ε c (comp.)
d N.A.
h
Figure 2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Assumptions
Q Basic Assumption:
1. A plane section before bending remains
plane after bending.
2. Stresses and strain are approximately
proportional up to moderate loads
(concrete stress ≤ 0.5 f c′ ). When the
load is increased, the variation in the
concrete stress is no longer linear.
3. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected
in the design of reinforced concrete
beams.
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Assumptions
Q Basic Assumption (cont’d):
4. The maximum usable concrete
compressive strain at the extreme fiber is
assumed equal to 0.003 (Fig. 3)
5. The steel is assumed to be uniformly
strained to the strain that exists at the
level of the centroid of the steel. Also if
the strain in the steel εs is less than the
yield strain of the steel εy, the stress in
the steel is Es εs. If εs ≥ εy, the stress in
steel will be equal to fy (Fig. 4)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Assumptions
Q Basic Assumption (cont’d):
6. The bond between the steel and concrete
is perfect and no lip occurs.
0.003 Elastic
region Figure 4
Figure 3
Stress
fy
εy Strain
εy Strain Idealized Stress-Strain Curve
16
CHAPTER
RECTANGULAR R/C
CONCRETE BEAMS:
TENSION STEEL ONLY
By
2b

CHAPTER 2b. RECTANGULAR R/C BEAMS: TENSION STEEL ONLY Slide No. 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Flexural Strength of Rectangular

Beams
Q Ultimate Moment (Strength)
– The ultimate moment for a reinforced
concrete beam can be defined as the
moment that exists just prior to the failure
of the beam.
– In order to evaluate this moment, we have
to examine the strains, stresses, and
forces that exist in the beam.
– The beam of Fig. 1 has a width of b, an
effective depth d, and is reinforced with a
steel area As.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Ultimate Strength
Flexural Strength Reinforced Concrete Beam
ACI Approach ε c (0.003 as a limit )
b f c′
NC
N.A.
h d
NT
εs ≥ ε y f s = f y as a limit
Figure 1
Strain Stress Force
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Possible Values for Concrete Strains
due to Loading (Modes of Failure)
1. Concrete compressive strain is less than
0.003 in./in. when the maximum tensile
steel unit equal its yield stress fy as a
limit.
2. Maximum compressive concrete strain
equals 0.003 in./in. and the tensile steel
unit stress is less than its yield stress fy.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Notes on Concrete Compressive Stresses
– The ultimate compressive stress for
concrete does not occur at the outer fiber.
– The shape of the curve is not the same for
different-strength concretes.
– The shape of the curve will also depend on
the size and dimensions of the beam.
– The ultimate compressive stress of concrete
develops at some intermediate level near,
but not at, the extreme outer fiber.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Nominal Moment Strength
– The forces NC and NT, and the distance Z
separated them constitute an internal
resisting couple whose maximum value is
termed nominal moment strength of the
bending member.
– As a limit, this nominal strength must be
capable of resisting the actual design
bending moment induced by the applied
loads.
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Nominal Moment Strength (cont’d)
– The determination of the moment strength
is complex because of
• The shape of the compressive stress diagram
f c′
above the neutral axis
• Not only is NC difficult to evaluate but also its
location relative to the tensile steel is difficult to
establish
f s = f y as a limit
Stress
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q How to Determine the Moment
Strength of Reinforced Concrete
Beam?
– To determine the moment capacity, it is
necessary only to know
1. The total resultant compressive force NC
in the concrete, and
2. Its location from the outer compressive
fiber, from which the distance Z may be
established.
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q How to Determine the Moment Strength
of Reinforced Concrete Beam? (cont’d)
– These two values may easily be
established by replacing the unknown
complex compressive stress distribution by
a fictitious (equivalent) one of simple
geometrical shape (e.g., rectangle).
– Provided that the fictitious distribution
results in the same total NC applied at the
same location as in the actual distribution
when it is at the point of failure.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Mathematical Motivation
– Consider the function
f (x ) = y = 2 x (1)
– Plot of this function is shown in Fig. 2 for x
ranges from 0 to 4, and y from 0 to 4.
– The area under the curve will be
determined analytically.
– Note that in real situation this area will be
the equivalent,for example, to compressive
force NC for concrete per unit length.
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Mathematical Motivation (cont’d)
Area under the Curve NC per unit length
y fc
4 in Area 4 in
x x′ x x′
x c
4 in 4 in
A NC
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams
Q Mathematical
Motivation (cont’d) y
( )
4 4 4 1
A = ∫ ydx = ∫ 2 x dx = 2 ∫ x dx = 10.7 in 2 2
0 0 0
~ ~
x=
∫ x dA =
∫ x dA
∫ dA 10.7 4 in y x′
4
∫ x dA = ∫ x( ydx )
~ x
4 in
0
( )
4 4 3 dx
= ∫ x 2 x dx =2∫ x 2 dx =25.6 A
0 0
25.6
Therefore, x = = 2.4 in.
10.7
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams y
Actual Curve
Q Mathematical
Motivation (cont’d)
4 in Area = 10.7
– Objective
x x′
• Our objective is to
find a fictitious or x
4 in
equivalent curve y A
results in the same
Equivalent Simple Curve
total area A applied at
the same location as
the actual curve. Area = 10.7
4 in
• Find x’ and y’ y′
x′ x′
x
4 in
A
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams y
Actual Curve
Q Mathematical
Motivation (cont’d)
4 in Area = 10.7
– Calculations of x′and y′
x x′
x′ = 4 − x = 4 − 2.4 = 1.6 in. x
4 in
Area = 2 x′y′ y A
Area 10.7 Equivalent Simple Curve
y′ = = = 3.34 in.
2 x′ 2(1.6)
4 in Area = 10.7
y′
x′ x′
x
4 in
A
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Beams f
Actual Stress Distributionc
Q Mathematical Motivation
(cont’d) f c′ Area = 10.7
– If we are dealing with a
concrete compressive x x′
c
stress distribution and we c
let x′ = a / 2 ,then y NC per unit length
y′ = 0.84 f c′ Equivalent Stress Distribution
a
and
a = 2 x′ = β1c = 2(1.6) = 3.2 in. f c′ Area = 10.7
a a y′
Then, 2 2
3.2 c
β1 = = 0.80 c
4 NC per unit length
Equivalent Stress Distribution

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q As we saw in our previous mathematical

example, any complicated function can
be replaced with an equivalent or
fictitious one to make the calculations
simple and will give the same results.
Q For purposes of simplification and
practical application, a fictitious but
equivalent rectangular concrete stress
distribution was proposed.
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q This rectangular stress distribution was

proposed by Whiney (1942) and
subsequently adopted by the ACI Code
Q The ACI code also stipulates that other
compressive stress distribution shapes
may be used provided that they are in
agreement with test results.
Q Because of its simplicity, however, the
rectangular shape has become the
more widely stress distribution (Fig. 2).

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Whitney’s Rectangular Stress Distribution

f c′ 0.85 f c′
a
Figure 2
2
a N C = 0.85 f c′ab
N.A
d
a
Z =d−
2
fy fy
N C = As f y
Rectangular
Actual Compressive Equivalent Compressive Internal Couple
Stress Block Stress Block
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Whitney’s Rectangular Stress

Distribution
– According to Fig. 2, the average stress
distribution is taken as
Average Stress = 0.85 f c′
– It is assumed to act over the upper area on

the beam cross section defined by the
width b and a depth a as shown in Fig. 3.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Distribution
0.85 f c′
Figure 3
b
a
c a 2
N C = 0.85 f c′ab
N .A.
Z
As NT = As f y
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Distribution
– The magnitude of a may determined by
a = β1c (2)
Where
C = distance from the outer fiber to the neutral axis
β1 = a factor dependent on concrete strength, and is given by
0.85 for f c′ ≤ 4,000 psi

β1 = 1.05 − 5 ×10- 5 f c′ for 4,000 psi < f c′ ≤ 8,000 psi (3)
0.65 for f c′ > 8,000 psi


ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Determine the nominal
moment Mn for a beam 10 in.
of cross section shown,
where = 4,000 psi. N.A.
25 in.
Assume A615 grade 60 23 in.
steel that has a yield
strength of 60 ksi and a
modulus of elasticity =
29 × 106 psi.
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
0.85 f c′
10′′ εc a
2
a N C = 0.85 f c′ab
c
N.A
23′′
a
Z =d−
2
3 #8 bars
N C = As f y
εs

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Therefore, As = 3(0.79 ) = 2.37 in 2 (Also see Table A-2 Text)
Assume that fy for steel exists subject later check.

10 in.
NC = N S
0.85 f c′ab = As f y N.A.
25 in.
As f y 2.37(60)
a= = = 4.18 in. 23 in.
0.85 f c′b 0.85(4 )(10)
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
10 in.
Calculation of Mn N.A.
25 in.
 a  a 23 in.
M n = N C  d −  = NT  d − 
 2  2
 a  a
M n = 0.85 f c′ab d −  = As f y  d − 
 2  2
Based on steel :
 4.18 
M n = 2.37(60) 23 −  = 2,973.4 in. - kips
 2 
2,973.4
= = 247.8 ft - kips
12
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Check if the steel reaches its yield point
before the concrete reaches its ultimate
strain of 0.003:
• Referring to the next figure (Fig. 4), the neutral
axis can be located as follows:
Using Eqs. 2 and 3 :
β1 = 0.85
a = β1c
Therefore,
a 4.18
c= = = 4.92 in.
β1 0.85

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 4
0.85 f c′
10′′ 0.003 a
2
a N C = 0.85 f c′ab
c
N.A
23′′ d a
Z =d−
2
3 #8 bars
N C = As f y
εs
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
By similar triangles in the strain diagram,
the strain in steel when the concrete strain
is 0.003 can be found as follows:
0.003 ε 0.003
= s
c d −c
d −c 23 − 4.92 c
ε s = 0.003 = 0.003 = 0.011 in./in.
c 4.92
The strain at which the steel yields is d = 23′′
fy 60,000
εy = = = 0.00207 in./in.
Es 29 × 106
Since εs (= 0.011) > εy (= 0.00207) OK
εs
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Balanced, Overreinforced, and

Underreinforced Beams
Q Strain Distribution
0.003 Elastic
region Figure 6
Figure 5
Stress
fy
εy Strain
εy Strain Idealized Stress-Strain Curve
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Strain Distribution
0.003
fy
εy =
E
Underreinforced N.A.
Balanced N.A.
Overreinforced N.A.
εy
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Balanced Condition:
εs = εy and εc = 0.003
Q Overreinforced Beam
εs < εy, and εc = 0.003. The beam will have more steel
than required to create the balanced condition. This is
not preferable since will cause the concrete to crush
suddenly before that steel reaches its yield point.
Q Underreinforced Beam
εs > εy, and εc = 0.003. The beam will have less steel
than required to create the balanced condition. This is
preferable and is ensured by the ACI Specifications.
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Reinforcement Ratio Limitations

and Guidelines
Q Although failure due yielding of the steel
is gradual with adequate warning of
collapse, failure due to crushing of the
concrete is sudden and without warning.
Q The first type (Underreinforced beam) is
preferred and ensured by the
specifications of the ACI.
Q The ACI code stipulates that
As ≤ 0.75 Asb (4)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

and Guidelines
Q Steel Ratio
– The steel ratio (sometimes called
reinforcement ratio) is given by
b As
ρ= (5)
N.A.
bd
h d
ACI stipulates that

As
ρ max = 0.75 ρ b (6)
or Asmax = 0.75 Asb
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

and Guidelines
Q Example 2
Determine the amount of 10 in.
steel required to create a
balanced condition for the N.A.
25 in.
beam shown, where = 4,000 23 in.
psi. Assume A615 grade 60
steel that has a yield strength
of 60 ksi and a modulus of
elasticity = 29 × 106 psi. Also
check the code requirement
for ductile-type beam.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

and Guidelines
Therefore, As = 3(0.79 ) = 2.37 in 2 10 in.
The strain at which the steel yields is

N.A.
fy 25 in.
60,000
εy = = = 0.00207 in./in. 23 in.
Es 29 × 106
In reference to the strain diagram of Fig. 7,

and from similar triangles,
cb d − cb
=
0.003 0.00207
18

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
and Guidelines
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
and Guidelines
Q Example 2 (cont’d) Figure 7
0.85 f c′
10′′ 0.003 a
2
a N C = 0.85 f c′ab
cb
N.A
23′′
a
Z =d−
d − cb 2
3 #8 bars
N C = As f y
0.00207
Strain
19

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
and Guidelines
cb 23 − cb
=
0.003 0.00207 10 in.
From which,
cb = 13.6 in. N.A.
25 in.
Using Eqs. 2 and 3 : 23 in.
β1 = 0.85 bbcause f c′ = 4,000 psi
a = β1c = 0.85(13.6) = 11.6 in.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

and Guidelines
N Cb = 0.85 f c′ab b = 0.85(4 )(11.6 )(10 ) = 394.4 kips
N Cb = NTb = Asb f y
Therefore, 10 in.
N 394.4
Asb = Cb = = 6.57 in 2
fy 60 N.A.
25 in.
Hence, required steel for balanced 23 in.
condition = 6.57 in2
From Eq. 6,
Asmax = 0.75 Asb = 0.74(6.57 ) = 4.93 in 2 > As = 2.37 in 2 OK
20
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

and Guidelines
Q Steel Ratio Formula for Balanced Beam
Instead of using laborious techniques for
determining the balanced steel of beam,
the following formula can be used to
determine the steel ratio ρb at the balance
condition:
0.85 f c′β1  87,000 
ρb = (7)
fy  f + 87,000 
 y 
where
f c′ = compressive strength of concrete (psi)
fy = yield strength of steel (psi)
β1 = factor that depends on f c′ as given by Eq. 3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

and Guidelines
Q Lower Limit for Steel Reinforcement
– The ACI Code establishes a lower limit on
the amount of tension reinforcement. The
code states that where tensile
reinforcement is required , the steel area
As shall not be less than that given by
3 f c′ 200 (8)
As , min = bw d ≥ bw d
fy fy
Note that for rectangular beam bw = b
21
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

and Guidelines (Table A-5 Text)
 3 f c′ 200  Recommended Design Values
f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
 f y f y  ρb k (ksi)
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
Table 1. 4,000
5,000
0.0050
0.0053
0.0372
0.0436
0.0180
0.0225
0.6438
0.8047
Design Constants 6,000 0.0058 0.0490 0.0270 0.9657
Fy = 50,000 psi
3,000 0.0040 0.0206 0.0108 0.4828
4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
22
CHAPTER
RECTANGULAR R/C
CONCRETE BEAMS:
TENSION STEEL ONLY
By
2c

CHAPTER 2c. RECTANGULAR R/C BEAMS: TENSION STEEL ONLY Slide No. 1
Strength Requirements
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The basic criterion for strength design

may be expressed as
Strength furnished ≥ Strength required (1)
Q All members and all sections of

members must be proportioned to meet
this criterion.
Q Eq. 1 can be thought of as a supply and
a demand.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The supply is considered as the

strength furnished, while the demand as
the strength required.
Q The required strength may be
expressed in the forms of design loads
or their related moments, shears, and
forces.
Q Design loads may be defined as service
loads multiplied by their appropriate
factors.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Eq. 1 can be expressed in a more

compact general form as
m
φRn ≥ ∑γ i Lni (2)
i =1
Where
of m components
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Eq. 2 is the basis for Load and

Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) for
Structural Members.
Q This equation uses different partial
safety factors for the strength and the
load effects.
Q The load factors are usually amplifying
factors (>1), while the strength factors
are called reduction factors (<1).
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Strength Factor
– The strength reduction factor φ provide for
the possibility that small adverse variation
in material strength, workmanship, and
dimensions may combine to result in
undercapacity.
Q Load Factors
– The load factors γ’s attempt to assess the
possibility that prescribed service loads
may be exceeded. Obviously, a live load is
more apt to be exceeded than a dead load,
which is largely fixed by the weight.
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Code Provisions

– In assigning strength reduction factors, the
degree of ductility and the importance of
the member as well as the degree of
accuracy with which the strength of the
member can be established are
considered.
– The ACI Code provides for these variables
by using the following φ factors as provided
in Table 1.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. Strength Reduction Factors

Type of Loading φ
Bending 0.90
Shear and Torsion 0.85
Compression members (spirally reinforced) 0.75
Compression Members (tied) 0.70
Bearing on Concrete 0.70
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Code Provisions

– When word design is used throughout the
ACI Code, it indicates that the load factors
are included.
– The subscript u is used to indicate design
loads, moments, shears, and forces.
– For example, the design load wu = 1.4wDL + 1.7 wLL
and the required or design moment
strength for dead and live loads is
M u = 1.4M DL + 1.7 M LL
where 1.4 and 1.7 are the load factors.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Requirements for Dead and Live

Loads
– For dead and live loads, the ACI Code
specifies design loads, design shears, and
design moments be obtained from service
loads by the using the relation
U = 1.4D +1.7L (3)
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Requirements for Strength

– The ACI Code stipulates that the strength
(moment, shear, force) furnished shall
meet the following requirements
φRn ≥ 1.4D +1.7L (4)

Where
φ = strength reduction factor as provided in Table 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Rectangular Beam Analysis for

Moment
Q The analysis of a reinforced concrete
beam implies that we know precisely
what comprises the section of the
beam.
Q The following data are known:
1. Tension bar size or number (or As).
2. Beam width (b).
3. Effective depth (d) or total depth (h).
4. Compressive strength of concrete ( f c′ ).
5. Yield strength of steel (fy).
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q Variables that need to be found or
answered include the following:
1. Find the strength φ Mn.
2. Check the adequacy of a given beam, or
3. Find an allowable load that the beam can
carry.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q Example 1
Determine if the simply supported beam
shown in Fig. 1 is adequate as governed
by the ACI Code. The prescribed loads are
as follows:
wD = 0.80 kip/ft (excludes beam weight)
wL = 0.80 kip/ft
Assume that the compressive strength of
concrete is 4,000 psi, while the yield
strength of steel is 60,000 psi.
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
12 kips 12 in.
wD + wL
20 in.
17.5 in.
4-#9
bars
10 ft 10 ft
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Area for No. 9 bar = 1.00 in 2 (see Table 2 or Table A - 2 Text)
Therefore, As = 4(1.00) = 4.00 in 2
Next we need to find the maximum and minimum
Reinforcement for this beam as specified by the ACI .
ρ max = 0.75 ρ b
Asmax = 0.75 Asb
ACI Code
0.85 f c′β1  87,000  0.85(4 )(0.85)  87 

ρb = =   = 0.02851
fy  f + 87,000  60  60 + 87 
 y 
Therefore, ρ max = 0.75 ρ b = 0.75(0.02851) = 0.0214
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q Example 1 (cont’d) 12 in.
3 f c′ 200
As , min = bw d ≥ bw d ACI
fy fy 20 in.
17.5 in.
4-#9
3 4,000
As , min = (12)(17.5) ≥ 200 (12)(17.5) bars
60,000 60,000
As , min = 0.664 ≥ 0.700
Therefore, take As , min = 0.70 in 2
Calculate the steel ratio ρfor this beam:

As 4
ρ= = = 0.0191
bd 12(17.5)
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Since ρ= 0.0191 < ρmax = 0.0214, failure

by yielding is assured. 20 in.
17.5 in.
Also, As = 4.00 in > 0.70 in OK
2 2
4-#9
bars
Note that ρmax = 0.75 ρb = 0.0214 can be obtained directly

from from Table 3 (Table A-5 Text).
Also note that As,min can be obtained from Table 3 (Table
A-5 Text) as follows
As,min = 0.0033 b d = 0.0033 (12)(17.5) = 0.693 ≈.70 in2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment Table A-5 Textbook
f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
4,000 0.0050 0.0372 0.0180 0.6438
5,000 0.0053 0.0436 0.0225 0.8047
Table 3 6,000 0.0058 0.0490
Fy = 50,000 psi
0.0270 0.9657

4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
Values used in 6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
the example. 3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
N C = NT
0.85 f c′ba = As f y 20 in.
4(60 )
17.5 in.
As f y 4-#9
a= = = 5.88 in.
0.85(4 )(12 )
bars
0.85 f c′b
a 5.88
Z =d− = 17.5 − = 14.6 in.
2 2
Therefore, M n = As f y Z = 0.85 f c′baZ
3,504
M n = 4(60)(14.6) = 3,504 in - kips = ft - kips
12
Hence, M n = 292 ft - kips (based on Steel)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment 12 kips
Q Example 1 (cont’d) wD + wL
– Service Loads:
The beam weight is to be calculated:
Beam weight = Volume × 0.150 kip/ft 10 ft 10 ft
 20 12  kip 
Weight =  ft × ft ×1ft   0.15  = 0.25 kip /ft
 12 12  ft 
Total uniform dead load, wD = 0.25 + 0.80 =1.05 kips/ft
Total uniform dead load, wL = 0.80 = kips/ft
Using Eq. 3 U = 1.4D +1.7L ACI Code
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q Example 1 (cont’d) ACI Code
wu = 1.4wD + 1.7 wL φRn ≥ 1.4D +1.7L
= 1.4(1.05) + 1.7(0.80) = 2.83 kips/ft
Pu = 1.7 PL = 1.7(12) = 20.4 kips
wu L2 Pu L 2.83(20) 12(20)
2
Mu = + = + = 243.5 ft - kips
8 4 8 4
Check ACI Code Requirement:
φRn ≥ (1.4M D +1.7M L = Mu )
[0.9Mn = 0.9(292) = 262.8 ft - kips] > [Mu = 243.5 ft - kips] OK
Therefore the beam is adequate
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q Example 1 (cont’d) Pu = 12 (1.7) = 20.4 kips
wu = 2.83 kips/ft
– Alternative way for finding Mu
wu = 1.4wD + 1.7 wL
= 1.4(1.05) + 1.7(0.80) = 2.83 kips/ft
10 ft 10 ft
38.5 k 38.5 k
The factored maximum moment 38.5 k 10.2 k

can be obtained from the
Shear V
moment diagram directly: 10.2 k 38.5 k
243.5 ft-k
M u = 243.5 ft - kips
Moment M
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Introduction to Slabs
Q Slabs are considered specialized type

of bending members.
Q They are used both in structural steel
and reinforced concrete construction.
Q Types of Slabs:
– One-way Slab
– Two-way Slab
• Flat Slab
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Typical Structure (1)
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Typical Structure (2)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Floor-Column Systems
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q One-Way Slab
– A one-way slab can be defined as a
structural reinforced concrete slab
supported on two opposite sides so that
the bending occurs in one direction only,
that is, perpendicular to the supported
edges.
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q One-Way Slab
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Two-Way Slab
– A two-way slab can be defined as a
structural reinforced concrete slab
supported along four edges so that the
bending occurs in two directions
perpendicular to each other.
– However, If the ratio of the lengths of the
two perpendicular sides is in excess of 2,
the slab may be assumed to act as a one-
way slab with bending primarily occurring
in the short direction.
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Flat Slab
– A specific type of two-
way slab is categorized
as a flat slab. A flat
slab may be defined as
a concrete slab
reinforced in two or
more directions,
generally without
beams or girders to
transfer the loads to the
supporting members.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
One-Way Slab: Analysis for

Moment
Q In this course, we are concerned
primarily with one-way slab that is
assumed to be a rectangular beam with
width b = 12 in. as shown in Fig. 1.
Q When loaded with uniformly distributed
load, the slabs deflects so that it has
curvature, and therefore bending
moment, in only one direction (Fig. 1).
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q One-Way Slab Design
Figure 1
12′′
Analyze this strip

as a beam
The procedure for finding φMn for one-way slab is almost identical to
that of a beam.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q ACI Code Requirements for Slabs
– Minimum Steel Area, As,min:
• For grade 40 or 50 steel:
As = 0.0020bh (5a)
• For grade 60 steel:
As = 0.0018bh (5b)
– Concrete protection:
• Concrete protection for reinforcement in slabs
must be not less than 0.75 in.
• For surfaces exposed to weather and ground,
min. protection is 2 in (#6 to #18) and 1.5 in (#5)
18
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Q Example 2
– The one-way slab shown spans 12 ft from
center of the support to the center of
support. Calculate φMn and determine the
service live load (psf) that the slab may
carry. Use f c′ = 3,000 psi and fy = 40,000
psi. Section A-A
A
8′′
A ″
3
12 ft clear #8 @ 6” o.c
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
– Analyze a 12-in wide strip of slab:
– For f c′ = 3,000 psi and fy = 40,000 psi
ρ max = 0.0278 from Table 3 (Table A - 5 Text)
b = 12 in.
As , min = 0.0020(12)(8) = 0.19 in 2
As = 2(0.79) = 1.58 in 2 > 0.19 in 2 OK 8
d = 8 − 0.75 − 0.5 = 6.75 in. 3″ #8 @ 6” o.c

clear
A 1.58
ρ= s = = 0.0195 < 0.0278 OK
bd 12(6.75)
As f y 1.58(40 )
a= = = 2.07 in.
0.85 f c′b 0.85(3)(12 )
19
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment Table A-5 Textbook
f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
4,000 0.0050 0.0372 0.0180 0.6438
5,000 0.0053 0.0436 0.0225 0.8047
Table 3 6,000 0.0058 0.0490
Fy = 50,000 psi
0.0270 0.9657

4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
Values used in 6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
the example. 3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
20
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment
a 2.07
Z =d− = 6.75 − = 5.72 in.
2 2
1.58(40)(5.72 )
M n = As f y Z = = 30.13 ft - kips
12
Therefore,
φM n = 0.9(30.13) = 27.1 ft - kips
wu L2
M u = φM n = 27.1 =
8
27.1(8) 27.1(8)
wu = = = 1.51 k/ft
L2 (12)2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment ACI Code
φRn ≥ 1.4D +1.7L
wu = 1.4 wD + 1.7 wL
8(12)
wD = weight of slab = (0.150) = 0.10 k/ft
144
1.51 = 1.4(0.10) + 1.7 wL
1.7 wL = 1.51 − 1.4(0.10 )
Hence,
1.51 − 1.4(0.1)
wL = = 0.806 k/ft = 806 psf
1.7
21
CHAPTER
RECTANGULAR R/C
CONCRETE BEAMS:
TENSION STEEL ONLY
By
2d

CHAPTER 2d. RECTANGULAR R/C BEAMS: TENSION STEEL ONLY Slide No. 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Rectangular Beam Design for

Moment (Tension Only)
Q In a general sense, the design
procedure for a rectangular cross
section of a reinforced beam basically
requires the determination of three
quantities.
Q The compressive strength of concrete f c′
and the yield strength fy of steel are
usually prescribed.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q The three quantities that need to be
determined in a design problem for
rectangular reinforced concrete beam
are:
– Beam Width, b
– Beam Depth, d
– Steel Area, As.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Theoretically, a wide shallow beam may
have the same φMn as a narrow deep
beam.
Q However, practical considerations and
code requirements will affect the final
selection of these three quantities.
Q There is no easy way to determine the
best cross section, since economy
depends on much more than simply the
volume of concrete and amount of steel.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Simplified Design Formulas
– Using the internal couple method
previously developed for beam analysis,
modifications may be made whereby the
design process may be simplified.
– The resistance moment is given by
φM n = φN c Z = φN T Z (1)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

 a
φM n = φ (0.85 f c′)ba d −  (2)
 2
where
As f y
a= (3)
(0.85 f c′)b
The use of these formulas will now be simplified
through the development of design constants,
Which will eventually be tabulated.
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

As
ρ= therefore As = ρbd (4)
bd
Substituting Eq. 4 into Eq. 3, yields
As f y ρbdf y ρdf y
a= = = (5)
(0.85 f c′)b (0.85 f c′)b 0.85 f ′
Let’s define the variable ω (omega) as
fy
ω=ρ (6)
f c′
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Substituting ω of Eq. 6 into Eq. 5, yields
ρdf y ωd
a= = (7)
0.85 f ′ 0.85
Substituting for a of Eq. 7 into Eq. 2, gives
 a ωd  ωd 
φM n = φ (0.85 f c′)ba d −  = φ (0.85 f c′)b  d− (8)
 2 0.85  2(0.85) 
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eq. 8 can be simplified and rearranged to give
φM n = φbd 2 f c′ω (1 − 0.59ω ) (9)
Let’s define the coefficient of resistance k as
k = f c′ω (1− 0.59ω ) (10)

Tables A-7 through A-11 of the Textbook give the
value of k in ksi for values of ρ (i.e., 0.75ρb) and
various combinations of f c′ and fy.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Sample Coefficient of Resistance Vs.
Steel Ratio
f c′ = 3 ksi f y = 40 ksi f c′ = 4 ksi f y = 60 ksi
ρ k ρ k
0.0010 0.0397 0.0010 0.0595
0.0011 0.0436 0.0011 0.0654
0.0012 0.0475 0.0012 0.0712
0.0013 0.0515 0.0013 0.0771
0.0014 0.0554 0.0014 0.0830
0.0015 0.0593 0.0015 0.0888
0.0016 0.0632 0.0016 0.0946
0.0017 0.0671 0.0017 0.1005
0.0018 0.0710 0.0018 0.1063
0.0019 0.0749 0.0019 0.1121
0.0020 0.0787 0.0020 0.1179
0.0021 0.0826 0.0021 0.1237
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The general analysis expression for φMn
may be written as
φM n = M u = φbd 2 k (in. - kips) (11a)
or
φbd 2 k
φM n = M u = (ft - kips) (11b)
12
NOTE: Values of k are tabulated in ksi
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Note that Eq. 11 can also be used to
simplify the analysis of a reinforced
beam having a rectangular cross
section.
Q The following example was presented in
Chapter 2c of the lecture notes (Ex. 1)
and the beam was analyzed based on a
lengthy procedure. However, now this
beam will be analyzed based on Eq. 11.
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Example 1
Find the nominal flexural strength and
design strength of the beam shown.
f c′ = 4,000 psi 12 in.
f y = 60,000psi
20 in.
17.5 in.
Four No. 9 bars provide As = 4.00 in2 4-#9
bars
As 4.00
ρ= = = 0.0190
bd 12(17.5)
(ρ min = 0.0033) < (ρ = 0.0190) < (ρ max = 0.0214) OK
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment (Tension Only) Table A-5 Textbook
f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
4,000 0.0050 0.0372 0.0180 0.6438
5,000 0.0053 0.0436 0.0225 0.8047
Table 1 6,000 0.0058 0.0490
Fy = 50,000 psi
0.0270 0.9657

4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
Values used in 6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
the example. 3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– From Table 2 (Table A-10 , Text), with fy =
60,000 psi, f c′ = 4,000 psi, and ρ = 0.0190,
the value of k = 0.9489 ksi is found .
– Using Eq. 11b, the nominal and design
strengths are respectively
bd 2 k 12(17.5) (0.9489 )
2
Mn = = = 291 ft - kips
12 12
φM n = 0.9(291) = 262 ft - kips
Which are the same values obtained in the example of Ch.2c notes.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

ρ k
0.0185 0.9283
0.0186 0.9323
0.0187 0.9363
Table 2 0.0188 0.9403
Part of Table A-10 0.0189 0.9443
0.0190 0.9489
of Textbook 0.0191 0.9523
0.0192 0.9563
0.0193 0.9602
0.0194 0.9642
0.0195 0.9681
0.0196 0.9720
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q ACI Code Requirements for Concrete
Protection for Reinforcement
– For beams, girders, and columns not
exposed to weather or in contact with the
ground, the minimum concrete cover on
any steel is 1.5 in.
– For slabs, it is 0.75 in.
– Clear space between bars in a single layer
shall not be less than the bar diameter, but
not less 1 in.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Stirrups
– Stirrups are special form of reinforcement
that primarily resist shear forces that will be
discussed later.
Tie steel
#3 stirrup
d h ″
1
1 clear (typical)
2
3-#9 bars
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Procedure for Rectangular RC

Beam Design for Moment
Q A. Cross Section (b and h) Known;
Find the Required As:
1. Convert the service loads or moments to
design Mu (including the beam weight).
2. Based on knowing h, estimate d by using the
relationship d = h – 3 in. (conservative for
bars in a single layer). Calculate the required k
from
Mu (12)
k=
φbd 2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

3. From Tables A-7 through A-11 of your
textbook, find the required steel ratio ρ.
4. Compute the required As:
As = ρbd (13)
Check As,min by using Table A-5 of textbook.
5. Select the bars. Check to see if the bars can
fit into the beam in one layer (preferable).
Check the actual effective depth and compare
with the assumed effective depth. If the
actual effective depth is slightly in excess of
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

the assumed effective depth, the design
will be slightly conservative (on the safe
side). If the actual effective depth is less
than the assumed effective depth, the
design is on the unconservative side and
should be revised.
6. Sketch the design showing the details of
the cross section and the reinforcement
exact location, and the stirrups, including
the tie bars.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q B. Design for Cross Section and
Required As:
1. Convert the service loads or moments to
design Mu. An estimated beam weight may
be included in the dead load if desired. Make
sure to apply the load factor to this additional
dead load.
2. Select the desired steel ratio ρ. (see Table A-5
of textbook for recommended values. Use the
ρ values from Table A-5 unless a small cross
section or decreased steel is desired).
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

3. From Table A-5 of your textbook (or from
Tables A-7 through A-11), find k .
4. Assume b and compute the required d:
Mu
d= (14)
φb k
If the d/b ratio is reasonable (1.5 to 2.2), use

these values for the beam. If the d/b ratio is
not reasonable, increase or decrease b and
compute the new required d
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

5. Estimate h and compute the beam weight.
Compare this with the estimated beam weight
if an estimated beam weight was included.
6. Revise the design Mu to include the moment
due to the beam’s own weight using the latest
weight determined. Note that at this point,
one could revert to step 2 in the previous
design procedure, where the cross section is
known.
7. Using b and k previously determined along
with the new total design Mu, find the new
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Required d from
Mu
d= (14)
φb k
Check to see if the d/b ratio is reasonable.

8. Find the required As:
As = ρbd (15)
Check As,min using Table A-5 of textbook.
9. Select the bars and check to see if the bars
can fit into a beam of width b in one layer
(preferable).
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

10. Establish the final h, rounding this upward to
the next 0.5 in. This will make the actual
effective depth greater than the design
effective depth, and the design will be
slightly conservative (on the safe side).
11. Sketch the design showing the details of
the cross section and the exact locations
of the reinforcement and the stirrups,
including the tie bars.
13
Beam Design Examples

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Design a rectangular reinforced concrete
beam to carry a service dead load moment
of 50 ft-kips (which includes the moment
due to the weight of the beam) and a
service live load moment of 100 ft-kips.
Architectural considerations require the
beam width to be 10 in. and the total depth
h to be 25 in. Use f c′ = 3,000 psi and fy =
60,000 psi.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Following procedure A outlined earlier,
1. The total design moment is
M u = 1.4 M D + 1.7 M L
= 1.4(50) + 1.7(100) = 240 ft - kips
2. Estimate d:
d = h − 3 = 25 − 3 = 22 in.
Mu 240(12)
required k = = = 0.6612 ksi
φbd 0.9(10)(22)
2 2
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
3. From Table 3 (Table A-8 Textbook), for k =
0.6612 and by interpolation,
ρ = 0.01301
From Table 1 (Table A-5 Textbook),
ρ max = 0.0161
4. Required As = ρbd = 0.01301(10) (22) = 2.86 in2
Check As, min. From Table 1 (Table A-5 Text),
As , min = 0.0033bw d = 0.0033(10)(22) = 0.73 in 2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2 (cont’d) Table 3 (Table A-8 Textbook)

– By interpolation:
ρ k
0.6608 0.0130 0.0124 0.6355
0.6612 ρ 0.0125 0.6398
0.6649 0.0131 0.0126 0.6440
0.0127 0.6482
0.6608 0.0130 0.0128 0.6524
0.6612 ρ 0.0129 0.6566
0.6649 0.0131 0.013 0.6608
0.0131 0.6649
Therefore,
0.0132 0.6691
0.6612 - 0.6608 ρ − 0.0130 0.0133 0.6732
=
0.6649 - 0.6608 0.0131 − 0.0130 0.0134 0.6773
ρ = 0.01301 0.0135 0.6814
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table A-5 Textbook

f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
4,000 0.0050 0.0372 0.0180 0.6438
5,000 0.0053 0.0436 0.0225 0.8047
Table 1 6,000 0.0058 0.0490
Fy = 50,000 psi
0.0270 0.9657

4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
Values used in 6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
the example. 3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
5. Select the bars;
In essence, the the bar or combination od
bars that provide 2.86 in2 of steel area
will be satisfactory. From Table 4
2 No. 11 bars: As = 3.12 in2
3 No. 9 bars: As = 3.00 in2
4 No. 8 bars: As = 3.16 in2
5 No. 7 bars: As = 3.00 in2
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 4. Areas of Multiple of Reinforcing Bars (in2)
Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The width of beam required for 3 No. 9
bars is 9.5 in. (see Table 5), which is
satisfactory. Note that beam width b = 10
in.
Check the actual effective depth d: #9 bar.
Actual d = h – cover – stirrup – db/2 See Table A-1
#3 bar for stirrup.
See Table A-1 for 1.128
Diameter of bar. 25 − 1.5 − 0.38 − = 22.6 in.
2
The actual effective depth is slightly higher than
the estimated one (22 in.). This will put the beam on
The safe side (conservative).
17

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 5. Minimum Required Beam Width, b (in.)
Number Bar number
of bars # 3 and #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
2 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.0
3 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.5 11.0
4 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
5 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.5 13.0 14.0 15.5 16.5
6 12.0 12.5 13.5 14.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5
7 13.5 14.5 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.5 20.5 22.5
8 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 21.0 23.0 25.0
9 16.5 17.5 18.5 20.0 21.0 23.0 25.5 28.0
10 18.0 19.0 20.5 21.5 23.0 25.5 28.0 31.0
Table A-3 Textbook

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 6. Reinforced Steel Properties Table A-1 Textbook
Bar number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18
Unit weight 0.376 0.668 1.043 1.502 2.044 2.670 3.400 4.303 5.313 7.650 13.60
per foot (lb)
Diameter (in.) 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.128 1.270 1.410 1.693 2.257
2
Area (in ) 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56 2.25 4.00
6. Final Sketch
Tie steel
#3 stirrup
25′′ ″
1
1 clear (typical)
2
3-#9 bars
10′′
18

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
Design a simply supported rectangular
reinforced beam with tension steel only to
carry a service load of 0.9 kip/ft and
service live load of 2.0 kips/ft. (the dead
load does not include the weight of the
beam.) The span is 18 ft. Assume No. 3
stirrups. Use f c′ = 4,000 psi and fy =
60,000 psi

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
A
A
In this problem we have to determine
h, b, and As. This is called “free design”. h=?
This problem can solved according to As = ?
The outlines of Procedure B presented
earlier. For complete solution for this
problem, please see Example 2-8 of your b=?
Textbook.
19
CHAPTER
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
By
3a

CHAPTER 3a. R/C BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS Slide No. 1
Introduction to T-Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reinforced concrete structural systems

such as floors, roofs, decks, etc., are
almost monolithic, except for precast
systems.
Q Forms are built for beam sides the
underside of slabs, and the entire
construction is poured at once, from the
bottom of the deepest beam to the top
of the slab.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Beam and Girder System

– This system is composed of slab on
supporting reinforced concrete beams and
girder..
– The beam and girder framework is, in turn,
supported by columns.
– In such a system, the beams and girders
are placed monolithically with the slab.
– The typical monolithic structural system is
shown in Fig. 1.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Beam and Girder Floor System

Slab
Beam
Spandrel beam
Girder
Column
Figure 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Common Beam and Girder Layout
Girder
Column
Girder Column Beam
Beam
Figure 2
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Positive Bending Moment

– In the analysis and design of floor and roof
systems, it is common practice to assume
that the monolithically placed slab and
supporting beam interact as a unit in
resisting the positive bending moment.
– As shown in Fig. 3, the slab becomes the
compression flange, while the supporting
beam becomes the web or stem.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q T-Beam as Part of a Floor System

Effective Flange Width b
Slab
hf
Flange
d
Web or Stem
As
Supporting Beam
for Slab bw
Figure 3 Beam Spacing
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q T-Beam
– The interacting flange and web produce
the cross section having the typical T-
shape, thus the T-Beam gets its name.
Q Negative Bending Moment
– It should be noted that when the the T-
Beam is subjected to negative moment, the
slab at the top of the stem (web) will be in
tension while the bottom of the stem is in
compression. This usually occurs at
interior support of continuous beam.
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Code Provisions for T-Beams

1. The effective flange width must not
exceed
a. One-fourth the span length
b. bw + 16hf
c. Center-to-center spacing of the beam
The smallest of the three values will control
2. For beam having a flange on one side only,

the effective overhanging flange width must
5
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Code Provisions for T-Beams

Not exceed one-twelfth of the span
length of the beam, nor six times the
slab thickness, nor one-half of the clear
distance to the next beam.
3. For isolated beam in which the T-shape is
used only for the purpose of providing
additional compressive area, the flange
thickness must not be less than one-half
of the width of the web, and the total
flange width must not be more than four
times the web width.
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q T-Beam Versus Rectangular Beam

– The ductility requirements for T-beams are
similar to those for rectangular beams.
– The maximum steel ratio ρ shall not
exceed 0.75ρb.
– However, this steel ratio is not the same
value as that tabulated for rectangular
beams because of the T-shaped
compressive area.
6
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Formulas for Balanced T-Beam

These formulas can be used to find Asb. It
will be illustrated in Example 1:
87,000
cb = d
f y + 87,000 (1)
ab = β1cb
[
N Cb = 0.85 f c′ bh f + bw (ab − h f ) ]
See Fig. 4 for definitions of variables
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 4
b εc 0.85 f c′
hf a NC
c
N.A.
d
NT
bw εs
7
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Minimum Steel Ratio for T-Beams

– The T-beam is subjected to positive
moment:
• The steel area shall not be less than that given
by
3 f c′ 200 (2)
As , min = bw d ≥ bw d
fy fy
Note that the first expression controls if
f c′ > 4440 psi
ACI Code
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Minimum Steel Ratio for T-Beams

– The T-beam is subjected to negative
moment:
• The steel area As shall equal the smallest of the
following expression:
6 f c′ 3 f c′ (3)
As , min = smallest of bw d or bw d
fy fy
ACI Code
8
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Notes on the Analysis of T-Beams

– Because of the large compressive in the
flange of the T-beam, the moment strength
is usually limited by the yielding of the
tensile steel.
– Therefore, it safe to assume that the
tensile steel will yield before the concrete
reaches its ultimate strain.
– The ultimate tensile force may be found
from
N T = As f y (4)
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Notes on the Analysis of T-Beams

– In analyzing a T-beam, there might exist
two conditions:
1. The stress block may be completely within
the flange.
2. The stress block may cover the flange and
extend into the web.
– These two conditions will result in what
are termed: a rectangular T-beam and a
true T-beam, respectively.
9
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Stress Block Completely within the

Flange (Rectangular T-Beam)
b
εc 0.85 f c′
hf a NC
N.A.
d
NT
bw εs
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Stress Block Cover Flange and Extends

into Web (True T-Beam)
b εc 0.85 f c′
hf a NC
N.A.
d
NT
bw εs
10
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
The T-beam shown
in the figure is part b = 32′′
of a floor system.
h f = 2′′
Determine the
practical moment d = 12′′
strength φMn if fy =
60,000 psi (A615 3 #9
grade 60) and f c′ = (As = 3 in2)
3,000 psi. bw = 10′′

Beams 32 in. o.c.
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Since the span length is not given, we
determine the flange width in terms of the
flange thickness and beam spacing:
bw + 16h f = 10 + 16(2) = 42 in.
Beam spacing = 32 in. o.c.
Therefore,
Use b = 32 in. (smallest of the two)
11
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Find NT assuming that the steel has
yielded:
NT = As f y = 3(60) = 180 kips
If the flange alone is stressed to 0.85 f c′ ,
then the total compressive force would be
N T = 0.85 f c′h f b = 0.85(3)(2 )(32) = 163.2 kips
Since 180 > 163, the beam should be

analyzed as true T-beam, and the stress
block will extend into the web (Fig. 5)
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
b = 32′′ εc 0.85 f c′
h f = 2′′
a NC
d = 12′′ N.A.
Z
3 #9
(As = 3 in2) NT
εs
bw = 10′′
Figure 5
12
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The remaining compression is therefore
Remaining Compression = NT − N Cf
NT − N Cf = 0.85 f c′bw (a − h f )
NT − N Cf
a − hf =
0.85 f c′bw
NT − N Cf 180 − 163.2
a= + hf = + 2 = 2.66 in.
0.85 f c′bw 0.85(3)(10)
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Check As, min using Eq. 3 or Table 1
From Table 1 (also Table A - 5 Text) :

As ,min = 0.0033bw d = 0.0033(10)(12) = 0.40 in 2
(A s = 3.0 in 2 ) > (As ,min = 0.4 in 2 ) OK
– In order to find the internal couple, we have
to find the couple arm Z:
y=
∑ Ay
∑A
13
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(Table A-5 Text)

f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
Table 1. 4,000
5,000
0.0050
0.0053
0.0372
0.0436
0.0180
0.0225
0.6438
0.8047
Fy = 50,000 psi
3,000 0.0040 0.0206 0.0108 0.4828
4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
32′′ 0.85 f c′
y
A1 2′′
a = 2.66 NC
A2
12′′
Z
NT
10′′
Using a reference axis at the top:
y=
∑ Ay = [32(2)](1) + [10(0.66)](2 + 0.33) = 1.12 in
∑A 32(2 ) + 10(0.66)
14
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Z can be computed as follows:
Z = d − y = 12 − 1.12 = 10.88 in.
Therefore,
180(1.88)
M n = NT Z = = 163.2 ft - kips
12
Thus the paratical moment is
φM n = 0.9(163.2 ) = 147 ft - kips
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Alternately, the nominal moment can be found as follows:
32′′ 0.85 f c′
NCf
A1 2′a′ = 2.66
A2 NCw
12′′ Zf
Zw
NT
10′′ NT = N Cf + N Cw , or
N Cw = N T − N Cw = 180 − 163.2 = 16.8 ft - Kips
M n = Z f N Cf + Z w N Cw
1
= [(12 - 1)163.2 + (12 − 2 − 0.33)(16.8)] = 163.1 ft - kips
12
15
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Check assumption for ductile failure:
From Eq. 1
87,000 87
cb = d= (12) = 7.10 in.
f y + 87,000 60 + 87
ab = β1cb = 0.85(7.1) = 6.035 in.
[
N Cb = 0.85 f c′ bh f + bw (ab − h f ) ]
= 0.85(3)[32(2) + 10(6.035 − 2)]
= 266.09 kips = NTb
T-Beam Analysis
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
NTb 266.09
Asb = = = 4.44 in 2
fy 60
As ,max = 0.75 Asb
= 0.75(4.44)
= 0.33
(A s ) (
= 3.0 in 2 < As ,max = 4.44 in 2 ) OK
16
CHAPTER
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND
By
3b

CHAPTER 3b. R/C BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS Slide No. 1
Development of T-Beam As,max

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Basic Relationships
(a)
87,000 (1)
cb = d
f y + 87,000
From Fig. 1:
cb d d d
= = =
0.003 0.003 + ε s fy fy
0.003 + 0.003 +
Es 29 ×106
0.003 87,000
cb = d= d
fy 87,000 + f y
0.003 +
29 ×106
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1
b 0.85 f c′
0.003 a
2
ab N C = 0.85 f c′ab
cb
hf N.A
d ab
Z =d−
d − cb 2
3 #8 bars
εs N C = As f y
bw Strain

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q (b) ab = 0.85cb (where β1 = 0.85) (2)
Q [
(c) N Cb = 0.85 f c′ bh f + bw ab − h f ( )] (3)
Q (d) N Cb = N Tb = Asb f y (4)
Q (e) As ,max = 0.75 Asb (5)
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Combining Eqs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and
solving for As, max, the following expression
is obtained:
0.638  β  87,000   
= f c′h f b + bw  b  d  −1 (6)
 87,000 + f   
As ,max
fy   h f  y   
Substituting for various combinations of f c′

and fy, As,max expressions result as listed in
Table 1 (Table 3-1 Text)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. Expressions for As,max (T-Beams)

f c′ (psi) fy (psi) As,max (in2)
  0.582  
40,000 0.0478h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
3,000
  0.503  
60,000 0.0319h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
  0.582  
40,000 0.0638h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
4,000
  0.503  
60,000 0.0425h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Maximum Steel Reinforcement (ACI)

– The maximum steel reinforcement as
governed by the ACI Code can be
obtained using Table 1.
– If As exceeds As,max, then the beam should
be analyzed using As,max as an effective
steel area.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
– Find the practical moment strength φMn for
the T-beam in the floor system shown.
The beam span is 31 ft-6 in. Use fy =
60,000 psi and f c′ = 4,000 psi. Check the
steel to ensure that it is within allowable
limits.
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
″
1
5
2
32′′ #3 stirrup
3-#9
3-#9
15′′
8′ − 0′′ (typ.)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Determine b: As = 6.0 in 2 (6 No. 9 bars, See Table 2)
span 31.5(12)
= = 94.5 in.
4 4
16h f + bw = 16(5.5) + 15 = 103 in.
Beam spacing = 8(12) = 96 in.
Therefore, use b = 94.5 in.
For As,min, CHECK:
As ,min = 0.0033(bw )(d ) = 0.0033(15)(32 ) = 1.58 in 2 < 6.0 in 2 OK

See Table 3
5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1 (cont’d) Table A-5 Textbook

f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
4,000 0.0050 0.0372 0.0180 0.6438
5,000 0.0053 0.0436 0.0225 0.8047
Table 3 6,000 0.0058 0.0490
Fy = 50,000 psi
0.0270 0.9657

4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
Value used in 6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
the example. 3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
6

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Check beam ductility by comparing As,max
with actual As:
From Table 1 (Table 3-1, Text)
  0.503  
As ,max = 0.0425h f b + bw  − 1 
  h f  

= 0.0425(5.5)94.5 + 15
 0.503
(32) − 1  = 28.8 in 2
  5.5 
Since (As = 6 in2) < As,max =28.8 in2 OK
The beam meets the ductility requirements,
and the steel yields at the ultimate moment.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Determine if the beam can be analyzed as a
rectangular T-beam or true T-beam:
N T = As f y = 6(60 ) = 360 kips
N Cf = 0.85 f c′bh f = 0.85(4 )(94.5)(5.5) = 1,767.2 kips
Since (NCf = 1,767.2 k) > (NT = 360 k), the beam can be
analyzed as a rectangular T-beam (simple analysis).
For flexure: As f y 6(60 )
a= = = 1.12 in.
0.85 f c′b 0.85(4 )(94.5)
a 1.12
Z = d − = 32 − = 31.44 in.
2 2
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
φM = φA f Z =
(0.9)(6)(60)(31.44) = 849 ft - kips
n s y
12
Alternative method for finding φMn:

As 6
ρ= = = 0.002
bd 94.5(32 )
For ρ= 0.002, go to Table 4 (Table A-10, Text) and find the
Required k :
required k = 0.1179
0.9(94.5)(32 ) (0.1179 )
2
φM n = φbd 2 k = = 856 ft - kips
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

ρ k
0.0010 0.0595
0.0011 0.0654
0.0012 0.0712
Table 4. 0.0013 0.0771
Coefficient of Resistance 0.0014 0.0830
0.0015 0.0888
0.0016 0.0946
0.0017 0.1005
Value used in 0.0018 0.1063
the example. 0.0019 0.1121
0.0020 0.1179
0.0021 0.1237
8
T-Beam Design (For Moment)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Quantities that need to be determined

in the design of a T-beam are:
1. Flange Dimensions: b
– Effective Width, b
– Thickness, hf
2. Web Dimensions:
hf
– Width, bw
d
– Height
3. Area of Tension Steel, As Steel bars
bw

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q In normal situations, the flange

thickness is determined by the design of
the slab, and the web size is determined
by the shear and moment requirements
at the end of the supports for
continuous beam.
Q Column size sometimes dictate web
width.
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI code dictates permissible effective

flange width, b.
Q The flange itself generally provides
more than sufficient compression area;
therefore the stress block usually lies
completely in the flange.
Q Thus, most T-beam are only wide
rectangular beams with respect to
flexural behavior.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Design Method
– The recommended design method
depends whether the beam behaves as a
rectangular T-beam or a true T-beam.
– For rectangular-T-Beam behavior, the
design procedure is the same as for the
tensile reinforced rectangular beam.
– For true-T-beam behavior, the design
proceeds by designing a flange component
and a web components and combining the
two.
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Design the T-beam for the floor system
shown in the figure. The floor has a 4-in.
slab supported by 22-ft-span-length beams
cast monolithically with the slab. Beams
are 8 ft-0 in. on center and have a web
width of 12 in. and a total depth = 22 in.; fy
= 60,000 psi (A615 grade 60) and f c′ =3000
psi. Service loads are 0.125 ksf live load
and 0.2 ksf dead load. The given dead
load does not include the weight of the
floor system.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
4′′
22
12′′
8′ − 0′′ (typ.)
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Determine the Design Moment Mu:
slab weight =
(8 ×12)(4) (0.150) = 0.4 k/ft
144
Stem (or web) weight =
(12)(22 − 4) (0.150) = 0.225 k/ft
144
Total = 0.625 k/ft
service DL = (8)(0.2 ) = 1.6 k/ft
service LL = (8)(0.125) = 1.0 k/ft
U = 1.4D +1.7L ACICode
wu = 1.4(0.625 + 1.6) + 1.7(1) = 4.815 k/ft

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2 (cont’d) wu
wu L2 4.815(22 )
2
Mu = = = 291 ft - kips
8 8
22 in. 22 in.
e am =
of B
Span
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Assume an effective depth d = h – 3
d = 22 − 3 = 19 in.
Find the effective flange width, b:
1 1 Controls
span length = (22 ×12 ) = 66 in.
4 4
bw + 16h f = 12 + 16(4 ) = 76 in.
beam spacing = 8 ×12 = 96 in.
Therefore, use b = 66 in. (smallest)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Find out what type of beam to be used for
design analysis, i.e., Is it a rectangular T-
beam or a true T-beam?
b = 66′′
Assumed
22′′ 19′′ h f = 66′′
 hf 
φM nf = φ (0.85 f c′)bh f  d − 
 2 
0.9(0.85)(3)(66 )(4 )  4 12′′
= 19 −  = 858.3 ft - kips
12  2
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Because (φMnf = 858.3 ft-k) > (Mu = 291 ft-k), therefore
a < hf, and the total effective flange need not be
completely used in compression.
The beam can be analyzed as rectangular T-beam
Design a rectangular beam:

Mu 291×12
required k = = = 0.1628 ksi
φbd 0.9(66 )(19 )
2 2
required ρ = 0.0028 From Table 5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

ρ k
0.0020 0.1172
0.0021 0.1229
0.0022 0.1286
Table 5. 0.0023 0.1343
0.0025 0.1456
0.0026 0.1512
0.0027 0.1569
Value used in 0.0028 0.1625
the example. 0.0029 0.1681
0.0030 0.1736
0.0031 0.1792
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Calculate the required steel area:
required As = ρbd = 0.0028(66)(19 ) = 3.51 in 2
Select the steel bars:
Use 3 #10 bars ( As = 3.81 in 2 ) From Table 2
Table 6
Minimum bw = 10.5 in. < 66 in. OK
Check the effective depth, d: Diameter of #10 bar
See Table 7
Diameter of #3 Stirrup
1.27
See Table 7 d = 22 − 1.5 − 0.375 − = 19.49 in.
2
19.49 in. > 19 in. OK

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Number Bar number
of bars # 3 and #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
2 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.0
3 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.5 11.0
4 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
5 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.5 13.0 14.0 15.5 16.5
6 12.0 12.5 13.5 14.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5
7 13.5 14.5 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.5 20.5 22.5
8 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 21.0 23.0 25.0
9 16.5 17.5 18.5 20.0 21.0 23.0 25.5 28.0
10 18.0 19.0 20.5 21.5 23.0 25.5 28.0 31.0
Table A-3 Textbook

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Alternative Method for finding required As:
As f y As (60 )
a= = 0.3565 As
0.85 f c′b 0.85(3)(66 )
a 0.3565 As
Z =d− = 19 −
2 2
 0.3565 As 
φM n = M u = 291× 12 = φAs f y Z = 0.9 As (60 )19 − 
 2 
or,
9.6255 As2 − 1026 As + 3492 = 0 (Quadratic Eq.)
From which,
As = 3.52 in 2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Check As,min from Table 3 (Table A-5, Text):
As ,min = 0.0033bw d
= 0.0033(12 )(19 ) = 0.75 in 2
(A s ) (
= 3.81 in 2 > As ,min = 0.75 in 2 ) OK
Check As,min from Table 1 (Table 3-1, Text):
  0.503     0.503(19.49)  
As ,max = 0.0319h f b + bw  d − 1  = 0.0319(4)66 + 12 − 1 
  fh     4 
= 10.64 in 2 > (As = 3.81 in 2 ) OK
17

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
4,000 0.0050 0.0372 0.0180 0.6438
5,000 0.0053 0.0436 0.0225 0.8047
Table 3 6,000 0.0058 0.0490
Fy = 50,000 psi
0.0270 0.9657

4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
Value used in 6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
the example. 3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

  0.582  
40,000 0.0478h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
3,000
  0.503  
60,000 0.0319h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
  0.582  
40,000 0.0638h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
4,000
  0.503  
60,000 0.0425h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
18

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Final Detailed Sketch of the Design:
Tie steel bars
#3 stirrup
22′′ ″
1
1 clear (typical)
2
3-#10 bars
12′′
19
CHAPTER
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND
By
3c

CHAPTER 3c. R/C BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS Slide No. 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Procedure for Analysis of T-Beams

For Moments
1. Establish the effective flange width, b
based on ACI criteria.
2. Check As,min. Use Table 1 (Table A-5,
Textbook).
3. Check the ACI Code ductility
requirements using the proper
expression for As,max from Eq. 1 or
Table 2 (Table 3-1, Textbook). As,max
must be larger than actual As.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Table A-5 Textbook
f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
 f y f y  ρb k (ksi)
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
4,000 0.0050 0.0372 0.0180 0.6438
Table 1 5,000 0.0053 0.0436 0.0225 0.8047
6,000 0.0058 0.0490 0.0270 0.9657
Design Constants Fy = 50,000 psi
3,000 0.0040 0.0206 0.0108 0.4828
4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
  0.582  
40,000 0.0478h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
3,000   0.503  
0.0319h f b + bw  d − 1 
60,000   h f  
  0.582  
40,000 0.0638h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
4,000   0.503  
60,000 0.0425h f b + bw  d − 1 
  h f  
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Q The check the ductility of a T-beam, the
following equation can be used for
various combinations of f c′ and fy
0.638  β  87,000   
As ,max = f c′h f b + bw  b  d  − 1  (1)
fy  h f  87,000 + f  
  y   
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
4. Compute the total tension in the steel:
N T = As f y
5. Compute the magnitude of the
compression that the flange its is
capable of furnishing:
N Cf = 0.85 f c′bh f
6. If NT > NCf, the beam will behave as a
true T-beam, and the remaining
compression, which equals NT - NCf
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
will be furnished by additional web
area. If NT < NCf, the beam will behave
as a rectangular beam of width b.
Rectangular T-Beam
7. Compute the actual steel ratio in order
to find k :
As
ρ=
bd
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
8. Consult the proper Table 3, (Tables A-
7 to A-11, Text) and find the required
k for the ρvalue from step 7.
9. Compute the practical moment
capacity φMn of the beam cross
section:
φM n = φbd 2 k
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Table A-10 Textbook
Sample Values ρ k
0.0010 0.0595
0.0011 0.0654
0.0012 0.0712
Table 3. 0.0013 0.0771
0.0015 0.0888
0.0016 0.0946
0.0017 0.1005
0.0018 0.1063
0.0019 0.1121
0.0020 0.1179
0.0021 0.1237
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
True T-Beam
7. Determine the depth of the
compressive stress block:
NT − N Cf
a= + hf
0.85 f c′bw
8. (a) Locate the centroid of the total
compressive area referenced to top of
the flange using the relationship
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
y=
∑ Ay
∑A
From which
Z =d−y
Compute the practical moment
capacity φMn of the beam:
φM n = φN C Z or φNT Z
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Or
(b) Calculate φMn using a summation
of internal couples contributed by the
flange and the web:
  hf    a − hf  
φM n = φ  N Cf  d −  + (NT − N Cf )d − h f   
  2    2  
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Q Example 1: T-Beam Analysis
Determine the practical moment capacity
φMn for the T-beam in the floor system
shown. The beam span is 24 in. Use fy =
60,000 psi and f c′ = 3,000 psi. Check the
steel to ensure that it is within allowable
limits according to the ACI Code.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Q Example 1: T-Beam Analysis (cont’d)
4′′
24′′
3-#9
3-#9
10′′
5′ − 0′′ (typ.)
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Procedure for Design of T-Beams

For Moments
1. Compute the design moment Mu.
2. Assume that the effective depth d is
equal to h – 3 in.
3. Establish the effective flange width based
on ACI criteria.
4. Compute the practical moment strength
φMnf assuming that the total effective
flange is in compression:
 h 
φM nf = φ (0.85 f c′)bh f  d − f 
 2 
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
5. If φMnf > Mu the beam will behave as
rectangular T-beam of width b.
Otherwise, the beam will behave as a
true T-beam.
Rectangular T-Beam
6. Design as a rectangular beam with b
and d as known values. Compute the
required k : Mu
required k =
φbd 2
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
7. From the tables in Appendix A of
textbook (see Table 3), determine the
required ρ for the required k of step 6.
8. Compute the required As:
required As = ρbd
9. Select bars and check the beam width.
Check the actual d and compare it with
the assumed d. If the actual d is
slightly in excess of the assumed d,
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
the design will be slightly conservative.
If the actual d is less than the
assumed d, the design may be on the
nonconservative side (depending on
the steel provided) and should be
more closely investigated for possible
revision.
Textbook).
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
11. Check the ACI ductility requirement
using the proper expression for As,max
from Table 2 (Table 3-1 Text) or Eq. 1.
Note that As,max must be larger than
actual As.
12. Sketch the design.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
True T-Beam
6. Using an estimated df = h – 3 in. and
Zf = df – hf/2, determine the steel area
As required for the flange couple:
φM nf
required Asf =
φf y Z f
7. Design the web couple as a
rectangular reinforced concrete beam
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
having a total depth hw = h – hf using
an estimated dw = hw – 3 in. and a
beam width of bw. Design for an
applied moment Mu - φ Mnf.
Determine required k , required ρ,
and required Asw.
8. Total required Asw = Asf + Asw.
9. Select the bars. Bars must fit into
beam width bw. Check d as in step 9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
of the rectangular T-beam design.
Textbook).
11. Check As,max. Use Table 2 (Table 3-1,
Textbook) or Eq. 1.
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Q Example: T-Beam Design
Design a T-beam having a cross section
shown in the figure. Assume that the
effective flange width given is acceptable.
The T-beam will carry a total design
moment Mu of 340 ft-kips. Use f c′ = 3,000
psi and fy = 60,000 psi. Use 1.5-in. cover
and No. 3 stirrups.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

For Moments
Q Example: T-Beam Design (cont’d)
27′′
″
1
3
2
22′′
12′′
12
CHAPTER
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND
By
3d

CHAPTER 3d. R/C BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS Slide No. 1
Doubly Reinforced Beams

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Introduction
– If a beam cross section is limited because
of architectural or other considerations, it
may happen that concrete cannot develop
the compression force required to resist
the given bending moment.
– In this case, reinforcing steel bars are
added in the compression zone, resulting
in a so-called doubly reinforced beam,
that is one with compression as well as
tension reinforcement. (Fig. 1)
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Introduction (cont’d)
Figure 1. Doubly Reinforced Beam
d′ b
As′
h d
As

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The use of compression reinforcement has
decreased markedly with the use of
strength design methods, which account
for the full strength potential of the
concrete on the compressive side of the
neutral axis.
– However, there are situations in which
compressive reinforcement is used for
reasons other than strength.
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– It has been found that the inclusion of
some compression steel has the following
advantages:
• It will reduce the long-term deflections of
members.
• It will set a minimum limit on bending loading
• It act as stirrup-support bars continuous
through out the beam span.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Another reason for placing reinforcement in
the compression zone is that when beams
span more than two supports (continuous
construction), both positive and negative
moments will exist as shown in Fig. 2.
– In Fig. 2, positive moments exist at A and
C; therefore, the main tensile
reinforcement would be placed in the
bottom of the beam.
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
A C
B
Moment
+ + +
Diagram - -
Figure 2. Continuous Beam

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– At B, however, a negative moment exists
and the bottom of the beam is in
compression. The tensile reinforcement,
therefore, must be placed near the top of
the beam.
4
Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Condition I: Tension and Compression

Steel Both at Yield Stress
– The basic assumption for the analysis of
doubly reinforced beams are similar to
those for tensile reinforced beams.
– The steel will behave elastically up to the
point where the strain exceeds the yield
strain εy. As a limit f s′= fy when the
compression strain ε s′ ≥ εy.
– If ε s′ < εy, the compression steel stress will
be f s′ = ε s′ Es.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Steel Both at Yield Stress (cont’d)
– If, in a doubly reinforced beam, the tensile
steel ratio ρ is equal to or less than ρb, the
strength of the beam may be approximated
within acceptable limits by disregarding the
compression bars.
– The strength of such a beam will be
controlled be tensile yielding, and the lever
arm of the resisting moment will be little
affected by the presence of comp. bars.
5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– If the tensile steel ratio ρ is larger than ρb, a
somewhat elaborate analysis is required.
– In Fig. 3a, a rectangular beam cross
section is shown with compression steel As′
placed at distance d ′ from the compression
face and with tensile steel As at the
effective depth d.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

d′ εc = 0.003
0.85 f ′ Figure 3 c
b
N C 2 = As′ f s′
As′ c ε s′
a N C1 = 0.85 f c′ab
N.A
d  a
Z1 =  d −  Z2 = d − d ′
 2
As N T 1 = As1 f y
εs N T 2 = As 2 f y
Cross Section Strain at Ultimate Concrete-Steel Steel-Steel
Moment Couple Couple
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Notation for Doubly Reinforced Beam:
As′ = total compression steel cross-sectional area
d = effective depth of tension steel
d ′ = depth to centroid of compressive steel from compression fiber
As1 = amount of tension steel used by the concrete-steel couple
As2 = amount of tension steel used by the steel-steel couple
As = total tension steel cross-sectional area (As = As1 + As2)
Mn1 = nominal moment strength of the concrete-steel couple
Mn2 = nominal moment strength of the steel-steel couple
Mn = nominal moment strength of the beam
εs = unit strain at the centroid of the tension steel
ε s′ = unit strain at the centroid of the compressive steel

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Method of Analysis:
• The total compression will now consist of two
forces
NC1, the compression resisted by the concrete
NC2, the compression resisted by the steel
• For analysis, the total resisting moment of the
beam will be assumed to consist of two parts or two
internal couples: The part due to the resistance of
the compressive concrete and tensile steel and the
part due to the compressive steel and additional
tensile steel.
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The total nominal capacity may be derived
as the sum of the two internal couples,
neglecting the concrete that is displaced by
the compression steel.
– The strength of the steel-steel couple is
given by (see Fig. 3)
M n 2 = NT 2 Z 2 (1)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

d′ εc = 0.003
b
N C 2 = As′ f s′
As′ c ε s′
a N C1 = 0.85 f c′ab
N.A
d  a
Z1 =  d −  Z2 = d − d ′
 2
As N T 1 = As1 f y
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

M n 2 = As 2 f y (d − d ′) assuming f s = f y
N C 2 = N T 2 ⇒ As′ f s′ = As 2 f y ⇒ As′ = As 2
Therefore,
M n 2 = As′ f y (d − d ′) (2)
– The strength of the concrete-steel couple is
given by
M n1 = N T 1Z1 (3)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

 a
M n1 = As1 f y  d −  assuming f s = f y
 2
As = As1 + As 2 ⇒ As1 = As − As 2
since As 2 = As′ , then
As1 = As − As′
Therefore
 a
M n1 = ( As − As′ ) f y d −  (4)
 2
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Nominal Moment Capacity
From Eqs. 2 and 4, the nominal moment
capacity can be evaluated as
M n = M n1 + M n 2
(5)
 a
= ( As − As′ ) f y d −  + As′ f y (d − d ′)
 2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Determination of the Location of Neutral
Axis:
a
c=
β1
N T = N C1 + N C 2
As f y = (0.85 f c′)ab + As′ f y
Therefore,
( As − As′ ) f y As1 f y
a= =
0.85 f c′b 0.85 f c′b
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Location of Neutral Axis c
( As − As′ ) f y As1 f y (6)
a= =
0.85 f c′b 0.85 f c′b
a ( As − As′ ) f y
c= = (7)
β1 0.85β1 f c′b
NOTE: if f c′ ≤ 4,000 psi, then β1 = 0.85, otherwise see next slide

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The value of β1 may determined by
0.85 for f c′ ≤ 4,000 psi (8)


β1 = 1.05 − 5 ×10- 5 f c′ for 4,000 psi < f c′ ≤ 8,000 psi
0.65 for f c′ > 8,000 psi

11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Code Ductility Requirements

– The ACI Code limitation on ρ applies to
doubly reinforced beams as well as to
singly reinforced beams.
– Steel ratio ρ can be determined from
As1
ρ= (9)
bd
– This value of ρ shall not exceed 0.75ρb as
provided in Table 1 (Table A-5, Textbook)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(Table A-5 Text)

f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
ρb k (ksi)
 f y f y 
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
Table 1. 4,000
5,000
0.0050
0.0053
0.0372
0.0436
0.0180
0.0225
0.6438
0.8047
Fy = 50,000 psi
3,000 0.0040 0.0206 0.0108 0.4828
4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
Fy = 75,000 psi
3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Compute the 1
″
11′′ 2
practical moment 2
capacity φMn for 2−#10
the beam having #3 stirrup
a cross section ″ 20′′
1
as shown in the 1 clear (typ)
figure. Use f c′= 2 3−#9
3,000 psi and fy = 3−#9
60,000 psi.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Determine the values for As′ and As:
From Table 2 (A-2, Textbook),
As′ = area of 2 #10 = 2.54 in 2
As = area of 6 #9 = 6.0 in 2
We assume that all the steel yields:
f s′ = f y and f s = f y
Therefore,
As 2 = As′ = 2.54 in 2
As1 = As − As 2 = 6.0 − 2.54 = 3.46 in 2
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
d′ εc = 0.003
0.85 f c′ Figure 3
b
N C 2 = As′ f s′
As′ c ε s′
a N C1 = 0.85 f c′ab
N.A
d  a
Z1 =  d −  Z2 = d − d ′
 2
As N T 1 = As1 f y
(a) (b) (c) (d)
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
From Eq. 6 (concrete-steel couple):
( As − As′ ) f y As1 f y 3.46(60)
a= = = = 7.40 in.
0.85 f c′b 0.85 f c′b 0.85(3)(11)
From Eq. 7 (note that f c′< 4,000 psi, thus β1 =

0.85):
a 7.40
c= = = 8.71 in.
β1 0.85

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Check assumptions for yielding of both the
compressive and tensile steels:
From Fig. 3b:
ε s′ 0.003 0.003(c − d ′) 0.003(8.71 − 2.5)
= ⇒ ε s′ = = = 0.00214
c − d′ c c 8.71
Also
εs 0.003 0.003(d − c ) 0.003(20 − 8.71)
= ⇒ εs = = = 0.00389
d −c c c 8,71
fy 60,000
εy = = = 0.00207 > [ε s′ = 0.00214 and ε s = 0.00389] OK
Es 29 × 106
Therefore, the assumptions are valid
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
From Eq. 8:
M n = M n1 + M n 2
 a
= ( As − As′ ) f y d −  + As′ f y (d − d ′)
 2
 7.4 
= 3.46(60 )20 − + 2.54(60 )(20 − 2.5) = 6,050.9 in - k
 2 
6,050.9
Mn = ft - kips = 504.2 ft - kips
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The practical moment capacity is evaluated
as follows:
φM u = 0.9(504.2 ) = 454 ft - kips
Check ductility according to ACI Code:

As1 3.46 From Table 1
ρ= = = 0.0157
bd 11(20)
Since ( ρ = 0.0157) < ( ρ max = 0.0161) OK
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Condition II: Compression Steel Below

Yield Stress
– The preceding equations are valid only if
the compression steel has yielded when
the beam reaches its ultimate strength.
– In many cases, however, such as for wide,
shallow beams reinforced with higher-
strength steels, the yielding of compression
steel may not occur when the beam
reaches its ultimate capacity.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Yield Stress
– It is therefore necessary to to develop
more generally applicable equations to
account for the possibility that the
compression reinforcement has not yielded
when the doubly reinforced beam fails in
flexure.
– The development of these equations will
be based on
ε s′ < ε y (10)
17

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Yield Stress
– Development of the Equations for
Condition II
• Referring to Fig. 3,
N T = N C1 + N C 2 (11)
As f y = (0.85 f c′)ba + f s′As′
• But (12)
a = β1c
• and  0.003(c − d ′) (13)
f s′ = ε s′ Es =   Es
 c 

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Yield Stress
d′ εc = 0.003
b
N C 2 = As′ f s′
As′ c ε s′
a N C1 = 0.85 f c′ab
N.A
d  a
Z1 =  d −  Z2 = d − d ′
 2
As N T 1 = As1 f y
(a) (b) (c) (d)
18

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Yield Stress
• Substituting Eqs 12 and 13 into Eq. 11, yields
 0.003(c − d ′) 
As f y = (0.85 f c′)bβ1c +   Es As′ (14)
 c 
• Multiplying by c, expanding, and rearranging, yield
(0.85 f c′bβ )1 c 2 + (0.003Es As′ − As f y )c − 0.003d ′Es As′ = 0 (15)
• If Es is taken as 29 × 103 ksi, Eq. 15 will take the

following form:

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Yield Stress
The following quadratic equation can be
used to find c when ε s′ < ε y :
(0.85 f c′bβ1 ) c 2 + (87 As′ − As f y ) c − 87d ′As′ = 0 (16)
a b c
Analogous to:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
19

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Compute the practical
″
moment φMn for a 2
1
beam having a cross 2
section shown in the 11′′

figure. Use f c′ = 5,000 2−#8
psi and fy = 60,000 psi. #3 stirrup
″ 20′′
1
1 clear (typ)
2
See Textbook for complete 3−#11

solution for this example.
20
CHAPTER
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND
By
3e

CHAPTER 3e. R/C BEAMS: T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS Slide No. 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Procedure for Design of Doubly

Reinforced Beams for Moment
1. Assume that d = h – 4 in.
2. Establish the total design moment Mu.
3. Check if a doubly reinforced beam is
necessary. From tables for coefficient
of resistance (Table 1, Tables A-7 to
A-11, Textbook), obtain the maximum
k and compute maximum φMn for a
singly reinforced beam:
maximum φM n = φbd 2 k
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Table A-10 Textbook
Sample Values ρ k
0.0010 0.0595
0.0011 0.0654
0.0012 0.0712
Table 1. 0.0013 0.0771
0.0015 0.0888
0.0016 0.0946
0.0017 0.1005
0.0018 0.1063
0.0019 0.1121
0.0020 0.1179
0.0021 0.1237
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

4. If φMn < Mu, design the beam as a
doubly reinforced beam. If φMn ≥ Mu,
the beam can be designed as a beam
reinforced with tension steel only.
For a Doubly Reinforced Beam
5. Provide a concrete-steel couple
having the steel ratio
ρ = 0.9 ρ max = 0.9(0.75 ρ b )
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

with this value of ρ, enter the
appropriate table and determine k .
6. Determine the moment capacity of the
concrete-steel couple:
φM n1 = φbd 2 k
Find the steel required for the
concrete-steel couple:
required As1 = ρbd
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

7. Find the remaining moment that must
be resisted by the steel-steel couple:
required φM n 2 = M u − φM n1
8. Considering the steel-steel couple,
find the required compressive force in
the steel (assume that d ′= 3 in.):
φM n 2
NC 2 =
φ (d − d ′)
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

9. Since NC2 = As′ f s′, compute f s′ so that
may eventually be determined. This
can be accomplished by using the
neutral-axis location of the concrete-
steel couple and checking the strain
in the compression steel with εy. Thus
As1 f y
a=
0.85 f c′b
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

a fy fy
c= εy = =
β1 Es 29 ×106
0.003(c − d ′)
ε s′ =
c
If ε s′ ≥ εy, the compressive steel has
yielded at the ultimate moment and
f s′ = fy. If ε s′ ≥ εy, then calculate
f s′ = ε s′ Es
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

10. Since NC2 = As′ f s′ ,
NC 2
required As′ =
f s′
11. Determine the required As2:
f s′As′
As 2 =
fy
12. Find the total tension steel required:
As = As1 + As 2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

13. Select the compressive steel, As′ .
14. Select the tensile steel, As. Check the
required beam width. Preferably,
place the bars in one layer.
15. Check the actual d and compare it with
the actual d. If the actual d is slightly
in excess of the assumed d, the
design will be slightly conservative (on
the safe side). If the actual d is less
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

than the assumed d, the design may
be on the unconservative side and an
analysis and possibly revision should
be considered.
16. Sketch the detailed design.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Example 1
Design a rectangular reinforced concrete
beam to resist a total design moment Mu of
780 ft-kips (this includes the moment due
to the weight of the beam). The beam size
is limited to 15 in. maximum width and 30
in. maximum overall depth. Use f c′ = 3000
psi and fy = 60,000 psi. If compressive steel
is required, make d ′= 2.5 in.
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Assume that d = 30 – 4 = 26 in.
Given:
f c′ = 3 ksi, f y = 60 ksi, and M u = 780 ft - kips
– For singly reinforced beam:
• Max ρ=0.0161 (Table 2, Table A-5, Text)
• Therefore, k = 0.7831 ksi (Table 3, Table A-8,
Text)
0.9(15)(26) (0.7831)
2
φM n1 = φbd k =2
= 595.6 ft - kips
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

f c′ (psi )  ≥  ρmax = 0.75 ρb
 f y f y  ρb k (ksi)
Fy = 40,000 psi
3,000 0.0050 0.0278 0.0135 0.4828
Table 2 4,000
5,000
0.0050
0.0053
0.0372
0.0436
0.0180
0.0225
0.6438
0.8047
Fy = 50,000 psi
3,000 0.0040 0.0206 0.0108 0.4828
4,000 0.0040 0.0275 0.0144 0.6438
5,000 0.0042 0.0324 0.0180 0.8047
6,000 0.0046 0.0364 0.0216 0.9657
Fy = 60,000 psi
3,000 0.0033 0.0161 0.0090 0.4828
4,000 0.0033 0.0214 0.0120 0.6438
Value used 5,000 0.0035 0.0252 0.0150 0.8047
6,000 0.0039 0.0283 0.0180 0.9657
in example Fy = 75,000 psi
3,000 0.0027 0.0116 0.0072 0.4828
4,000 0.0027 0.0155 0.0096 0.6438
5,000 0.0028 0.0182 0.0120 0.8047
6,000 0.0031 0.0206 0.0144 0.9657
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Table 3. Steel Ratio Versus Coefficient of Resistance
for f c′ = 3,000 psi and fy = 60,000 psi
ρ k ρ k ρ k
0.0082 0.4446 0.0118 0.6098 0.0154 0.7567
0.0083 0.4494 0.0119 0.6141 0.0155 0.7605
0.0084 0.4542 0.0120 0.6184 0.0156 0.7643
0.0085 0.4590 0.0121 0.6227 0.0157 0.7681
0.0086 0.4638 0.0122 0.6270 0.0158 0.7719
0.0087 0.4686 0.0123 0.6312 0.0159 0.7756
0.0088 0.4734 0.0124 0.6355 0.0160 0.7794
0.0089 0.4781 0.0125 0.6398 0.0161 0.7831
0.0090 0.4828 0.0126 0.6440 0.0162 0.7868
0.0091 0.4876 0.0127 0.6482 0.0163 0.7905
Values used in example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Since (φMn = 595.6 ft-k) < (Mu = 780 ft-k)
Design the beam as doubly reinforced
For concrete-steel couple:
Use ρ= 0.9 (ρmax) = 0.9 (0.0161) = 0.0145
Therefore,
k = 0.7216 ksi (from Table 4, Table A-8, Text)
and
0.9(15)(26 ) (0.7216 )
2
φM n1 = φbd 2 k = = 549 ft - kips
12
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Table 4. Steel Ratio Versus Coefficient of Resistance
for = 3,000 psi and fy = 60,000 psi
ρ k ρ k ρ k
0.0104 0.5477 0.0140 0.7017 0.0176 0.8374
0.0105 0.5522 0.0141 0.7057 0.0177 0.8409
0.0106 0.5567 0.0142 0.7097 0.0178 0.8444
0.0107 0.5612 0.0143 0.7137 0.0179 0.8479
0.0108 0.5657 0.0144 0.7177 0.0180 0.8514
0.0109 0.5702 0.0145 0.7216 0.0181 0.8548
0.0110 0.5746 0.0146 0.7256 0.0182 0.8583
0.0111 0.5791 0.0147 0.7295 0.0183 0.8617
0.0112 0.5835 0.0148 0.7334 0.0184 0.8651
0.0113 0.5879 0.0149 0.7373 0.0185 0.8685
Values used in example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

required As1 = ρbd = 0.0145(15)(26) = 5.66 in 2
required φM n 2 = M u − φM n1 = 780 − 549 = 231 ft - kips
d ′ = 2.5 in. (given)
– Therefore, the required force for the steel-
steel couple is
φM n 2 12 × 231
NC 2 = = = 131 kips
φ (d − d ′) 0.9(26 − 2.5)
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Check compression steel stress:
As1 f y 5.66(60)
a= = = 8.88 in.
0.85 f c′b 0.85(3)(15)
– Thus, c can be calculated as follows:
a 8.88
a = β1c ⇒ c = = = 10.45 in.
β1 0.85 See Eq. 1 (next slide)
– and
0.003(c − d ′) 0.003(10.45 − 2.5)
ε s′ = = = 0.00228
c 10.45
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The value of β1 may be determined from the
following equation:
0.85 for f c′ ≤ 4,000 psi


β1 = 1.05 − 5 ×10- 5 f c′ for 4,000 psi < f c′ ≤ 8,000 psi (1)
0.65 for f c′ > 8,000 psi

10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The yield strain of steel can be computed
as
fy 60,000
εy = = = 0.00207
Es 29 ×106
– Since ( ε s′ = 0.00228) > (εy = 0.00207), the

compressive steel has yielded at the
ultimate moment and
f s′ = fy.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Since NC2 = As′ f s′ = As′ fy,
N 131
required As′ = C 2 = = 2.18 in 2
fy 60
– Select steel bars:
• Use 2 #10 ( As′ = 2.54 in2) for compression
rebars.
As = As1 + As 2 = 5.66 + 2.18 = 7.84 in 2
• Use 8 #9 (As = 8.00 in2) for tension rebars in
two layers.
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Check the ACI Code requirements for
minimum width of 4 #9 bars in one layer:
From Table 6, min b = 12.0 in < 15 in. OK
Actual d = 30 − 1.5 − 0.375 − 1.128 − 0.5 = 26.5 in.
Dia. #3 stirrup Dia. #9 bar Half spacing between layers
(actual d = 26.5′′) > (assumed d = 26.0′′) OK
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Number Bar number
of bars # 3 and #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
2 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.0
3 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.5 11.0
4 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
5 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.5 13.0 14.0 15.5 16.5
6 12.0 12.5 13.5 14.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5
7 13.5 14.5 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.5 20.5 22.5
8 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 21.0 23.0 25.0
9 16.5 17.5 18.5 20.0 21.0 23.0 25.5 28.0
10 18.0 19.0 20.5 21.5 23.0 25.5 28.0 31.0
Table A-3 Textbook
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

1.27
Actual d ′ = 1.5 + 0.375 − = 2.51 in. OK
2
Dia. #3 stirrup
Half Dia. of #10 bar
– Check steel ductility:
As1 8.00 − 2.54
ρ = = 0.0137
bd 15(26.5)
(ρ = 0.0137 ) < (ρ max = 0.0161) OK
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Final Detailed Sketch:
b
2−#10 bars
″
1
#3 stirrup 1
2
CLR (Typ.)
30′′
4−#9 bars 1′′ CLR

4−#9 bars
14
CHAPTER
SHEAR IN BEAMS
By
4a

CHAPTER 4a. SHEAR IN BEAMS Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The previous chapters dealt with the

flexural strength of beams.
Q Beams must also have an adequate
safety margin against other types of
failure such as shear, which may be
more dangerous than flexural failure.
Q The shear forces create additional
tensile stresses that must be
considered.
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Shear Failure
– Shear failure of reinforced concrete beam,
more properly called “diagonal tension
failure”, is difficult to predict accurately.
– In spite of many years of experimental
research and the use of highly
sophisticated computational tools, it is not
fully understood.
– If a beam without properly designed for
shear reinforcement is overloaded to
failure, shear collapse is likely to occur
suddenly.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. Shear Failure (Nilson, 1997)
(a) Overall view, (b) detail near right support.
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Shear Failure (cont’d)

– Figure 1 shows a shear-critical beam
tested under point loading.
– With no shear reinforcement provided, the
member failed immediately upon formation
of the critical crack in the high-shear region
near the right support.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
When are the shearing effects so large that

they cannot be ignored as a design
consideration?
– It is somehow difficult to answer this
question.
– Probably the best way to begin answering
this question is to try to approximate the
shear stresses on the cross section of the
beam.
3
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Suppose that a beam is constructed by
stacking several slabs or planks on top of
another without fastening them together.
– Also suppose this beam is loaded in a
direction normal to the surface of these
slabs.
– When a bending load is applied, the stack
will deform as shown in Fig. 2a.
– Since the slabs were free to slide on one
one another, the ends do not remain even
but staggered.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(a) Unloaded Stack of Slabs (b) Unglued Slabs loaded
Figure 2a
4
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Each of the slabs behaves as independent
beam, and the total resistance to bending of
n slabs is approximately n times the
resistance of one slab alone.
– If the slabs of Fig. 2b is fastened or glued,
then the staggering or relative longitudinal
movement of slabs would disappear under
the action of the force. However, shear
forces will develop between the slabs.
– In this case, the stack of slabs will act as a
solid beam.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(c) Glued Slabs Unloaded (d) Glued Slabs loaded
Figure 2b
5
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The fact that this solid beam does not
exhibit this relative movement of
longitudinal elements after the slabs are
glued indicates the presence of shearing
stresses on longitudinal planes.
– Evaluation of these shearing stresses will
be discussed in the next couple of
viewgraphs.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Theoretical Background
– The concept of stresses acting in
homogeneous beams are usually covered
in various textbooks of mechanics of
materials (strength of materials).
– It can be shown that when the material is
elastic, shear stresses can be computed
from
VQ (1)
v=
Ib
v = shear stress Q = statical moment of area about N.A.
V = external shear force b = width of the cross section
I = moment of inertia about neutral axis
6
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Also, when the material is elastic, bending
stresses can be computed from
Mc
f = (2)
I
f = bending stress
M = external or applied moment
c = the distance from the neutral axis to out fiber of
the cross section
I = moment of inertia of the cross section about N.A.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– All points in the length of the beam, where
the shear and bending moment are not
zero, and at locations other than the
extreme fiber or neutral axis, are subject to
both shearing stresses and bending
stresses.
– The combination of these stresses
produces maximum normal and shearing
stresses in a specific plane inclined with
respect to the axis of the beam.
7
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The distributions of the bending and shear
stresses acting individually are shown in
Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6. Mc
y P f =
I Centroidal axis
w
Neutral axis
FC c
c yC c
x
y
FT dA dy
R Vr
Figure 3. Bending Stress
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 4. Bending Stress

Mc
f =
I
8
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5. Vertical Shearing Stress
VQ
v=
Ib
Max Stress
V
N.A
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 6. Vertical Shearing Stress
VQ
v=
Ib
9
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Principal Planes
– The combination of bending moment and
shearing stresses is of such a nature that
maximum normal and shearing shearing
stresses at a point in a beam exist on
planes that are inclined with the axis of the
beam.
– These planes are commonly called
principal planes, and the stresses that act
on them are referred to as principal
stresses.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Principal Planes
– Plane State of Stress σy
σy
τ yx
τ yz τ xy τ xy
τ zy σx σx
τ zx σx
τ xz τ xy
σz
τ yx
σy
10
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Principal Planes
– Plane State of Stress
σy
Components: τ yx
A
τ xy
Normal Stress σx θ
σx σx
Normal Stress σy
Shearing Stress τxy τ xy A
Shearing Stress τyx

τ yx
σy
τ xy = τ yx
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Principal Stresses
– The principal stresses in a beam subjected
to shear and bending may be computed
using the following equation:
f f2
f pr = ± + v2 (3)
2 4
fpr = principal stress
f = bending stress computed from Eq. 2
v = shearing stress computed from Eq. 1
11
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Orientation Principal Planes

– The orientation of the principal planes may
be calculated using the following equation:
1  2v 
α= tan −1   (4)
2  f 
– Note that at the neutral axis of the beam,
the principal stresses will occur at a 450
angle.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q State of Stress at the Neutral Axis of a

Homogeneous Beam
vyx
w vxy
N.A.
vxy
vyx
(a) Beam under Uniform Loading (b) Stresses on Unit Element
Figure 7. Shear Stress Relationship
12
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Homogeneous Beam
– Diagonal Tension Figure 8
vyx D A vyx
vxy vxy
vxy vxy
vyx vyx
B
C This plane is subject This plane is subject
to tension to compression
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Homogeneous Beam
– Diagonal Tension
• Plane A-B is subjected to compression
• While Plane C-D is subjected to tension.
• The tension in Plane C-D is historically called
“diagonal tension”.
• Note that concrete is strong in compression but
weak in tension, and there is a tendency for
concrete to crack on the plane subject to
tension.
• When the tensile stresses are so high, it is
necessary to provide reinforcement.
13
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Diagonal Tension Failure

– In the beams with which we are concerned,
where the length over which a shear failure
could occur (the shear span) is in excess
of approximately three times the effective
depth, the diagonal tension failure would
be the mode of failure in shear.
– Such a failure is shown in Figs. 1 and 8.
– For longer shear spans in plain concrete
beams, cracks due to flexural tensile
stresses would occur long before cracks
due to diagonal tension.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Diagonal Tension Failure

Shear Span
Portion of span in which
Shear stress is high
Figure 8. Typical Diagonal Tension Failure
14
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. Shear Failure (Nilson, 1997)
(a) Overall view, (b) detail near right support.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Basis of ACI Design for Shear

– The ACI provides design guidelines for
shear reinforcement based on the vertical
shear force Vu that develops at any given
cross section of a member.
– Although it is really the diagonal tension for
which shear reinforcing must be provided,
diagonal tensile forces (or stresses) are not
calculated.
– Traditionally, vertical shear force has been
taken to be good indicator of diagonal
tension present.
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Shear Reinforcement Design

Requirements
Q Web Reinforcement
– The basic rationale for the design of the
shear reinforcement, or web reinforcement
as it usually called in beams, is to provide
steel to cross the diagonal tension cracks
and subsequently keep them from opening.
– In reference to Fig. 8, it is seen that the
web reinforcement may take several forms
such as:

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Q Web Reinforcement (cont’d)
1. Vertical stirrups (see Fig. 9)
2. Inclined or diagonal stirrups
3. The main reinforcement bent at ends to
act as inclined stirrups (see Fig. 10).
– The most common form of web
reinforcement used is the vertical stirrup.
– This reinforcement appreciably increases
the ultimate shear capacity of a bending
member.
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– Vertical Stirrups
Vertical Stirrups
L L
2 2
Figure 9. Types of Web Reinforcement

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– Bent-up Longitudinal Bars
Bent-up bar
L L
2 2
Figure 9. Type of Web Reinforcement
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Q ACI Code Provisions for Shear
Reinforcement
For member that are subject to shear and
flexure only, the amount of shear force that
the concrete (unreinforced for shear)can
resist is
Vc = 2 f c′bw d (5)
Note, for rectangular beam bw = b

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Reinforcement
– The design shear force Vu results from the
application of factored loads.
– Values of Vu are most conveniently
determined using a typical shear force
diagram.
– Theoretically, no web reinforcement is
required if
Vu ≤ φVc (6)
18
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Table 1. Strength Reduction Factors
Type of Loading φ
Bending 0.90
Shear and Torsion 0.85
Compression members (spirally reinforced) 0.75
Compression Members (tied) 0.70
Bearing on Concrete 0.70

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Reinforcement
– However, the code requires that a minimum
area of shear reinforcement be provided in
all reinforced concrete flexural members
when Vu > ½ φVc, except as follows:
• In slabs and footings
• In concrete joist construction as defined in the code.
• In beams with a total depth of less than 10 in., 2 ½
times the flange thickness, or one-half the width of the
web, whichever is greater.
19
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Reinforcement
– In cases where shear reinforcement is
required for strength or because Vu > ½
φVc, the minimum area of shear
reinforcement shall be computed from
50bw s
Av = (7)
fy

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Reinforcement
Where
Av = total cross-sectional area of web reinforcement within
a distance s, for single loop stirrups, Av = 2As
As = cross-sectional area of the stirrup bar (in2)
bw = web width = b for rectangular section (in.)
s = center-to-center spacing of shear reinforcement in a
direction parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement (in.)
fy = yield strength of web reinforcement steel (psi)
20
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Reinforcement
Figure 10.
Isometric section
showing stirrups
partially exposed

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Q Example
A reinforced concrete beam of rectangular
cross section shown in the figure is
reinforced for moment only (no shear
reinforcement). Beam width b = 18 in., d =
10.25 in., and the reinforcing is five No. 4
bars. Calculate the maximum factored
shear force Vu permitted on the member by
the ACI Code. Use = 4,000 psi, and fy =
60,000 psi.
21
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Q Example (cont’d)
Since no shear reinforcement 10.25′′
Is provided, the ACI Code
5− #4
Requires that
18′′
1
maximum Vu = φVc
2
1
(
= φ 2 f c′bw d
2
)
1
( )
= (0.85)(2 ) 4000 (18)(10.25) = 9918 lb
2
22
CHAPTER
SHEAR IN BEAMS
By
4b

CHAPTER 4b. SHEAR IN BEAMS Slide No. 1
Shear Analysis Procedure

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The shear analysis procedure involves

the following:
– Checking the shear strength in an existing
member
– Verifying that the various ACI code
requirements have been satisfied and met.
Q Note that the member may reinforced or
plain.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
A reinforced concrete beam of rectangular
cross section shown is reinforced with
seven No. 6 bars in a single layer. Beam
width b = 18 in., d = 33 in., single-loop No.
3 stirrups are placed 12 in. on center, and
typical cover is 1 ½ in. Find Vc, Vs, and the
maximum factored shear force permitted
on this member. Use = 4,000 psi and fy
= 60,000 psi.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
18′′
″
1
#3 @ 12′′ stirrup 1
2
COV.
33′′
7−#6 bars
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The force that can be resisted by concrete
alone is 2 4,000 (18)(33)
Vc = 2 f c′bw d = = 75.1 kips
1000
– The nominal shear force provided by the
steel is A f d (2 × 0.11)(60)(33)
V = v y = s = 36.3 kips
s 12
– The maximum factored shear force is
maximum Vu = φVc + φVs = 0.85(75.1 + 36.3)
= 94.7 kips

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
Q ACI Code Provisions for Shear Design
– According to the ACI Code, the design of
beams for shear is based on the following
relation:
φVn ≥ Vu (1)
Where
φ = strength reduction factor (= 0.85 for shear)
Vn = Vc + Vs
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by reinforcement
Av f y d
= for inclined stirrups (2)
s
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– Symbols
Av = total cross-sectional area of web reinforcement within
a distance s, for single loop stirrups, Av = 2As
As = cross-sectional area of the stirrup bar (in2)
bw = web width = b for rectangular section (in.)
s = center-to-center spacing of shear reinforcement in a
direction parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement (in.)
fy = yield strength of web reinforcement steel (psi)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– For inclined stirrups, the expression for
nominal shear strength provided by
reinforcement is
Av f y d (sin α + cos α ) (3)
Vs =
s
– For α = 45 , the expression takes the form
0
1.414 Av f y d
Vs = (4)
s
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– The design for stirrup spacing can be
determined from
Av f y d
required s = (for vertical stirrups) (5)
Vs
and
1.414 Av f y d
required s =
Vs
(for 450 stirrups) (6)
where
Vu − φVc
Vs = (7)
φ

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– According to the ACI Code, the maximum
spacing of stirrups is the smallest value of
Av f y
smax =
50bw
d (8)
smax =
2
smax = 24 in.
If Vs exceeds 4 f c′bw d , the maximum spacing must

not exceed d/4 or 12 in.
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– It is not usually good practice to space
vertical stirrups closer than 4 in.
– It is generally economical and practical to
compute spacing required at several
sections and to place stirrups accordingly
in groups of varying spacing. Spacing
values should be made to not less than 1-
in. increments.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– Critical Section
• The maximum shear usually occurs in this
section near the support.
• For stirrup design, the section located a
distance d from the face of the support is called
the “critical section”
• Sections located less than a distance d from
the face of the support may be designed for the
same Vu as that of the critical section.
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– Critical Section
Critical Section
d
L
Figure 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Requirements
– Critical Section (cont’d)
• The stirrup spacing should be constant from the
critical section back to the face of the support
based on the spacing requirements at the
critical section.
• The first stirrup should be placed at a maximum
distance of s/2 from the face of the support,
where s equals the immediately adjacent
required spacing (a distance of 2 in. is
commonly used.
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Stirrup Design Procedure

Q The design of stirrups for shear
reinforcement involves the
determination of stirrup size and
spacing pattern.
Q A general procedure is as follows:
1. Determine the shear values based on
clear span and draw a shear diagram for
Vu.
2. Determine if stirrups are required.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

3. Determine the length of span over which
stirrups are required.
4. On the Vu diagram, determine the area
representing “required φVs.” This will
display the required strength of the
stirrups to be provided.
5. Select the size of the stirrups. Find the
spacing required at the critical section ( a
distance d from the face of the support.
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

6. Establish the ACI Code maximum
spacing requirements.
7. Determine the spacing requirements
based on shear strength to be furnished
by web reinforcing.
8. Establish the spacing pattern and show
detailed sketches.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
A continuous reinforced concrete beam
shown in the figure is 15 in. wide and has
an effective depth of 31 in. The factored
loads are shown, and the factored uniform
load includes the weight of the beam.
Design the web reinforcement if f c′= 4000
psi and fy = 60,000 psi.
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

31′′
100 k 100 k
As
5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′
15′′
A wu = 1.0 k/ft
Section A-A
15′ − 0′′ clear span

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

2(100) + 1(15)
Q Example 2 (cont’d) R1 = R2 =
2
= 107.5 k
– Establish the shear force diagram for Vu:
100 k 100 k
5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′
wu = 1.0 k/ft
107.5 k 107.5 k
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
100 k 100 k
Example 2 (cont’d) 5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′
wu = 1.0 k/ft
107.5 k 107.5 k
107.5
102.5
+ 2.5
Vu (kips)
2.5
-
107.5
See Fig. 2 for enlargement

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
100 k 100 k
Example 2 (cont’d) 5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′ 5′ - 0′′
wu = 1.0 k/ft
107.5 k 107.5 k
M
x Vu = 107.5 − x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
V d = 31′′ = 2.58′
100 k Vu* = Vu (2.58) = 107.5 − 2.58 = 104.9 k
107.5 k M
x
V
Vu = 107.5 − 100 − x for 5 ≤ x ≤ 10
107.5 k
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Because of the symmetry, we will focus on
the left half of the shear diagram as shown
in Fig. 2.
– Determine if stirrups required:
0.85(2) 4,000 (15)(31)
φVc = φ 2 f c′bw d = = 50 kips
100
1 1
φVc = (50) = 25 kips
2 2
Since ( Vu* =104.9 k) > (1/2 φVc = 25 k), stirrups are required.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Sym.
107.5
* 104.9 CL
Vu*
102.5
required φVs
φVc 50
1
φVc 25
2
Vu
*
(kips) 0
d = 31′′ = 2.58′
5.0′ 2.5′
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Stirrups are required to the point where
1
Vu = φVc = 25 kips
2
From Fig. 2, this point is located at the first

concentrated load and it is at distance 5 ft from
the face of the support.
– Determine the “required φVs” on the Vu diagram:
required φVs = max Vu − φVc − wx
= 107.5 − 50 − x
required φVs = 57.5 − x for 2.58 ≤ x ≤ 5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Assume No. 3 vertical stirrups (Av = 0.22 in2):
φAy f y d 0.85(0.22 )(60 )(31)
required s * = = = 6.3 in.
required φVs* 104.9 − 50
use 6 in.
– Establish ACI Code maximum spacing

requirements:
4 4000 (15)(31)
4 f c′bw d = = 117.6 kips
1000
φV * 104.9 − 50
Vs* = s = = 64.6 kips
φ 0.85
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Since 64.6 kips < 117.6 kips, the maximum
spacing shall be the smallest of the
following values (see Eq. 8):
Av f y 0.22(60,000 )
smax = = = 17.6 in.
50bw 50(15)
d 31
smax = = = 15.5 in. controls
2 2
smax = 24 in.
Therefore, use a maximum spacing of 15 in.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Determine the spacing requirements
between the critical section and the first
concentrated load:
φAy f y d 0.85(0.22 )(60 )(31)
required s = =
required φVs 57.5 − x
– The results of applying above equation for

values of x range from 3 to 5 are tabulated
as shown
x (ft) Required s (in)
3 6.4
4 6.5
5 6.6
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Since no stirrups are required in the
distance between the first concentrated
load , it is clear that the maximum spacing
of 15 in. need not be used in that distance.
– A spacing of 6 in. will be used between the
face of the support and the concentrated
load.
– The center part of the beam will be
reinforced with stirrups at a spacing slightly
less than the maximum spacing of 15 in.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Final Sketch for Shear Reinforcement:
Sym.
CL
7′ − 6′′
10 spaces @ 6′′ = 5′
3′′ ″
″ 1
1 1′ − 1
1′ − 1 2
2
15
CHAPTER
DEVELOPMENT, SPLICES,
AND SIMPLE SPAN BAR
CUTOFFS
By
5a

CHAPTER 5a. DEVELOPMENT, SPLICES, AND SIMPLE SPAN BAR CUTOFFS Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q If the reinforced concrete beam shown

in Fig. 1 were constructed using plain
round reinforcing bars, and in addition, if
those bars were to be greased or
otherwise lubricated before the concrete
were poured, the beam would be as
strong as it was made of plain concrete,
without reinforcement.
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure. 1. Bond Stresses due to Flexure

Concrete
(a)
Reinforcing bar (c) Bond forces acting on concrete
End slip
P
(d) Bond forces acting on steel

(b) Unrestrained slip between concrete
and steel
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q If a load is applied as shown Fig. 1b, the

bars would tend to maintain its original
length as the beam deflects.
Q The bars would slip longitudinally with
respect to adjacent concrete, which
would experience tensile strain due to
flexure.
Q The assumption that the strain in an
embedded reinforcing bar is the same
as that in surrounding concrete, would
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Not be valid.
Q In order for reinforced concrete to
behave as intended, it is essential that
“bond forces” be developed on the
interface between concrete and steel,
such as to prevent significant slip from
occurring at the interface.
Q It is through the action of these interface
bond forces that the slip of Fig. 5b is
prevented.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The assumptions for the design of

reinforced concrete include:
1. Perfect bonding between the concrete
and steel exist, and
2. No slippage occur.
Q Based on these assumptions, it
follows that some form of bond stress
exists at the contact surface between
the concrete and steel bars.
3
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q In beams, this bond stress is caused by

the change in bending moment along
the length of the beam and the
accompanying change in the tensile
stress in the bars (flexural bond).
Q The actual distribution of bond stresses
along the reinforcing steel is highly
complex, due mainly to the presence of
concrete cracks.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Large local variations in bond stress are

caused by flexural and diagonal cracks.
Q High bond stresses have been
measured adjacent to these cracks.
Q The high bond stress may result in:
– Small local slips adjacent to the crack
– Increased deflection
Q In general, this is harmless as long as
failure does not propagate all along the
bar with complete loss of bond.
4
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Development Length
– End anchorage may be considered reliable
if the bar is embedded into concrete a
prescribed distance known as the
“development length” of the bar.
– In a beam, if the the actual extended length
of the bar is equal or greater than this
required development length, then no bond
failure will occur.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Development Length
Max moment is at a
P P
l a
Figure 2. Development length

l should be at least equal to lb
5
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Need for Development Length

Figure 3. Continuous Beam
w
A C
B
Moment
+ + +
Diagram - -
l ≥ ld
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Anchorages Versus Development

Length
If the actual available length is inadequate
for full development, special anchorages
,such as hooks, must be provided to
ensure adequate strength.
6
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q ACI Code
– The provisions of the ACI Code are
directed toward providing adequate length
of embedment, past the location at which
the bar is fully stressed, which will ensure
development of the full strength of the bar.
– Therefore, the current method based on
ACI disregard high localized bond stress
even though it may result in localized slip
between steel and concrete adjacent to the
cracks.
Development Length: Tension Bars

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Methods for Determining the Development

Length, ld
– The ACI allows the determination of the
development length by two methods:
1. Tabular criteria (ACI Section 12.2.2)
2. General equation (ACI Section 12.2.3)
– In either case, ld shall not be less than 12 in.
– The general equation of the ACI Code offers
a simple approach that allows the user to see
the effect of all variables controlling the
development length.
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Methods for Determining the

Development Length, ld (cont’d)
This equation (ACI Eq. 12-1) is provided in
Section 12.2.3 of the ACI Code, and it is as
follows:
 
 
3  f y   αβγλ  (1)
ld = db
40  f c′    c + ktr  
   
  d b  

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Notations of Eq. 1:
(c + ktr)/db: shall not be taken greater than 2.5
ld = development length (in.)
fy = yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement (psi)
f c′= compressive strength of concrete (psi); the value of
f c′ shall not exceed 100 psi (ACI Code, Section 12.1.2)
db = nominal diameter of bar or wire (in.)
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Comments for Eq. 1:

1. α is a reinforcement location factor that accounts for
the position of the reinforcement in freshly place
concrete.
α = 1.3 (ACI Code, Section 12.2.4) where horizontal
reinforcement is so placed that more than 12 in. of
fresh concrete is cast in member below the
development length or splice.
α = 1.0 for other reinforcement.
2. β is a coating factor reflecting the effects of epoxy
coating.
For epoxy-coated reinforcement having cover less
than 3db or clear spacing between bars less than 6db,
use β = 1.5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Comments for Eq. 1 (cont’d):

For all other conditions, use β = 1.2
For uncoated reinforcement, use β = 1.0
The product of α and β need not be taken greater than
1.7 (ACI Code, Section 12.2.4)
3. γ is a reinforcement size factor.
Where No. 6 and smaller bars are used, γ = 0.8
Where No. 7 and larger bars used, γ = 0.1
4. λ is a lightweight-aggregate concrete factor.
For lightweight-aggregate concrete when the average
splitting tensile strength fct is not specified, use λ = 1.3
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

When fct is specified, use
f c′
λ = 6.7 ≥ 1.0
f ct
When normal-weight concrete is used, λ = 1.0 (ACI
Code, Section 12.2.4)
5. c represents a spacing or cover dimension (in.)

The value of c will be the smaller of either the distance
from the center of the bar to the nearest concrete cover
(surface) or one-half the center-to-center spacing of the
bars being developed (spacing).

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

The bar spacing will be the actual center-to-center
spacing between the bars if adjacent bars are all being
developed at the same location. If, however, an
adjacent bar has been developed at another location,
the spacing to be used will be greater than the actual
spacing to the adjacent bar.
Note in Fig. 4 that the spacing for bars Y may be
taken the same as for bars X, since bars Y are
developed in length AB, whereas bars X are
developed at a location other than AB.
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Comments for Eq. 1 (cont’d): Figure. 4

A Bars Y B Bars X
s
s
Single Layer Plan View

Bars Y Bars X (continuous) Bars Y
A
A Elevation View Section A-A

ld

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

6. The transverse reinforcement index Ktr is to be calculated
from
Atr f yt
K tr =
1500sn
where
Atr = total cross-sectional area of all transverse
reinforcement that is within the spacing s and that
crosses the potential plane of splitting through the
reinforcement being developed (in2)
fyt = yield strength of transverse reinforcement (psi)
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

s = maximum center-to-center spacing of transverse
reinforcement within the development length ld (in.)
n = number of bars or wires being developed along the
plane of splitting.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Reduction in Development Length

– A reduction in the development length ld is
permitted where reinforcement is in excess
of that required by analysis (except where
anchorage or development for fy is
specifically required or where the design
includes provisions for seismic
considerations).
– The reduction factor KER is given by
As required
K ER =
As provided
(2)
12
Procedure for Calculation of ld

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
1. Determine multiplying factors (use 1.0

unless otherwise determined).
a. Use α = 1.3 for top reinforcement, when
applicable.
b. Coating factor β applies to epoxy-coated bars.
Determine cover and clear spacing as
multiples of db. Use β = 1.5 if cover < 3db or
clear space < 6db. Use β = 1.2 otherwise.
c. Use γ = 0.8 for No. 6 bars and smaller.
d. Use λ = 1.3 for lightweight concrete with fct not
specified. Use f c′
λ = 6.7 ≥ 1.0 if f ct specified.
f ct

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
2. Check αβ ≤ 1.7.
3. Determine c, the smaller of cover or
half-spacing (both referenced to the
center of the bar).
4. Calculate
Atr f y
K tr = , or use K tr = 0 (conservative)
1500 sn
5. Check c + K tr
≤ 2.5
db
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
6. Calculate KER if applicable:

As required
K ER =
As provided
7. Calculate ld from Eq. 1 (ACI Code Eq.
12-1):
 
 
3  f y   αβγλ
 d
ld =
40  f c′    c + ktr 
b
   
  d b  

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Calculate the required development length
ld into the beam for the negative moment
steel shown so as to develop the tensile
strength of the steel at the face of the
column. Required As = 2.75 in2, f c′ =4,000
psi, and fy = 60,000 psi. Assume normal-
weight concrete.
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
21′′ column ld
3-#9 bars
3-#9
1.5′′ clear
21′′
#4 stirrups
14′′
#4 stirrups full ″
1
length of beam #4 stirrups @4 o.c. spacing
2
for development length ld

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
3#9 bars : d b = 1.128′′ From Table 1
(1) α = 1.3, β = 1.0, γ = 1.0, and λ = 1.0

(2) αβ = (1.3)(1) = 1.3 < 1.7 OK
1.128
(3) cover : c = 1.5 + 0.5 + = 2.56′′
2
Dia. #4 stirrup
14 − 2(1.5) − 2(0.5) − 1.128 Controls
Half - spacing : c = = 2.22′′
2(2 )
Atr f yt 0.4(60,000)
(4) K tr = = = 1.185
1500sn 1500(4.5)(3)
Area of 2 #4 stirrups
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
c + K tr 2.22 + 1.185
(5) = = 3.02 > 2.5, Therefore, use 2.5
db 1.128
As required 2.75
(6) K ER = = = 0.917
As provided 3.00
(7) Calculate the development length ld using Eq.1 :
 
 
3  f y   αβγλ
 d
ld =
40  f c′    c + ktr 
b
   
  d b  

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Reduction factor  
 
3  f y   αβγλ 
ld = K ER × db
40  f c′    c + ktr  
   
  d b  
3  60,000  1.3(1)(1)(1)
ld = 0.917 ×   (1.128) = 38.3′′
40  4,000   2.5 
38.3 in. > 12 in OK
17
CHAPTER
AND SIMPLE SPAN BAR
CUTOFFS
By
5b

CHAPTER 5b. DEVELOPMENT, SPLICES, AND SIMPLE SPAN BAR CUTOFFS Slide No. 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length:
Compression Bars
Q Deformed Bars in Compression
– The method for determining the
development length in compression ld
involves finding the the basic development
length ldb and multiplying it by applicable
modification factors.
– The modification factors reflect special
conditions.
– Note: ld shall not be less than 8 in.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length:
Compression Bars
Q Basic Development Length (compression)
The basic development length in
compression is given by
fy
ldb = 0.02d b (1)
f c′
But it shouldn’t be less than 0.0003fydb
according to the ACI Code, Section 12.3.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length:
Compression Bars
Q Modification Factors (Compression)
– The following modification factors may be
applied to the basic development length for
compression bars:
1. Reinforcement in excess of that required:
As required
As provided
2. Bars enclosed within a spiral that is not less than

¼ in. in diameter and not more than 4 in. in pitch
or within No. 4 ties and spaced at not more than
4 in. on center: USE 0.75
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length:
Compression Bars
Q Tables 1a through 1c gives values of
the basic development length ldb for
compression bars in inches for the
following combinations of f c′ and fy:
f c′ : 3000, 4000, 5000, and 6000 psi
fy: 40,000, 50,000, and 60,000 psi
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length:
Compression Bars
Table 1a. Basic Development Length ldb for
Compression Bars (in.) for fy = 40,000 psi
f c′ (normal-weight concrete), psi
Bar Size
3000 4000 5000 6000
3 5.5 4.7 4.5 4.5
4 7.3 6.3 6.0 6.0
5 9.1 7.9 7.5 7.5
6 11.0 9.5 9.0 9.0
7 12.8 11.1 10.5 10.5
8 14.6 12.6 12.0 12.0
9 16.5 14.3 13.5 13.5
10 18.5 16.1 15.2 15.2
11 20.6 17.8 16.9 16.9
14 24.7 21.4 20.3 20.3
18 33.0 28.5 27.1 27.1
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length:
Compression Bars
Table 1b. Basic Development Length ldb for
Bar Size
3000 4000 5000 6000
3 6.8 5.9 5.6 5.6
4 9.1 7.9 7.5 7.5
5 11.4 9.9 9.4 9.4
6 13.7 11.9 11.3 11.3
7 16.0 13.8 13.1 13.1
8 18.3 15.8 15.0 15.0
9 20.6 17.8 16.9 16.9
10 23.2 20.1 19.1 19.1
11 25.7 22.3 21.2 21.2
14 30.9 26.8 25.4 25.4
18 41.2 35.7 33.9 33.9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length:
Compression Bars
Table 1c. Basic Development Length ldb for
Bar Size
3000 4000 5000 6000
3 8.2 7.1 6.8 6.8
4 11.0 9.5 9.0 9.0
5 13.7 11.9 11.3 11.3
6 16.4 14.2 13.5 13.5
7 19.2 16.6 15.8 15.8
8 21.9 19.0 18.0 18.0
9 24.7 21.4 20.3 20.3
10 27.8 24.1 22.9 22.9
11 30.9 26.8 25.4 25.4
14 37.1 32.1 30.5 30.5
18 49.4 42.8 40.6 40.6
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Development Length: Standard

Hooks in Tension
Q Need for Hooks
– In the event that the desired
development length in tension
cannot be furnished, it will be
necessary to provide mechanical
anchorage at the end of the bars
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q Need for Hooks
ld ld
Hook
Beam
Column
Figure 1. 180°-Hook
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q Types of Hooks
– Anchorage for main or primary
reinforcement is usually accomplished by
means of 90° or 180° hook.
– The dimensions and bend radii for these
hooks have been standardized by the ACI
Code.
– Standard reinforcement hooks are shown
in Fig. 2.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q Types of Hooks
Figure 2a. Standard Hooks
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q Types of Hooks
Figure 2b. Standard Hooks
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q Types of Hooks
Figure 3. Standard Hooks
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q ACI Code Specifications
– The ACI Code specifies that the
development length ldh (see Fig. 2) for
deformed bars in tension, which terminate
in a standard hook, be computed as the
product of a basic development length lhb
and any applicable modification factors.
– Mathematically, this may expressed as
ldh = lhb × MF (2)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q ACI Basic Development Length, lhb
– For a hooked bar with fy = 60,000 psi,
1200d b (3)
lhb =
f c′
– Table 1 (Table A-13, Textbook) provides

values for lhb.
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q ACI Modification Factors (MF)
– Modification factors are to be used if
applicable:
1. Bars with fy other than 60,000 psi, USE
fy
MF = (4)
60,000
2. Concrete cover for No. 3 through No. 11: Side
cover (normal to the plane of the hook ) ≥ 2 ½ in.
and, for 90° hooks, cover on bar extension
beyond the bend ≥ 2 in.: USE 0.7 for MF
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q ACI Modification Factors, MF (cont’d)
3. Ties or stirrups: For No. 3 through No. 11 with
hook enclosed vertically of horizontally within
ties or stirrup ties spaced along the full
development length ldh not greater than 3db:
USE MF = 0.8.
4. Reinforcement in excess of that required,
where anchorage or development for fy is not
specifically required:
As required (5)
MF =
As provided
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
5. Lightweight aggregate concrete: USE
MF = 1.3 (6)
6. Epoxy-coated reinforcement: USE
MF = 1.2 (7)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
– The basic development length lhb must be
multiplied by the application factors
outlined in the previous viewgraphs.
– In no case may ldb be less than 8db or 6 in.,
whichever is greater.
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q Example 1
Determine the anchorage or development
length required for
f c′ the conditions shown in
the figure. Use = 3,000 psi (normal-
weight concrete) and fy = 60,000 psi. The
No. 8 bars may be categorized as top bars.
Assume a side cover on the main bars of
2 ½ in. minimum. Bars are uncoated.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Column
ld (minimum) ld (minimum) 14′′

3-#8 bars
2′′ clear #8 bars 18′′ 2′′ clear
#4 stirrups
24′′
Stirrups @ 5′′ o.c.
Beam
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Anchorage into the exterior column:
1. Establish values for the multiplying
factors α, β, γ, and λ:
a. α = 1.3 (the bars are top bars).
b. β = 1.0 (the bars are uncoated).
c. γ = 1.0 (the bars are No. 8)
d. λ = 1.0 (normal-weight concrete used)
2. The product α ×β = 1.3 < 1.7 (OK)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
3. Determine c. Based on cover (center of bar
to nearest concrete surface), consider the
clear cover, the No. 4 stirrups diameter, and
one-half the diameter of the No. 8 bar:
1.0
c = 2.0 + 0.5 + = 3.0 in.
2
Based on bar spacing:
14 − 2(2.0 ) − 2(0.5) − 2(0.5) Controls
c= = 2.0 in.
2(2 )
Therefore, use c = 2.0 in (smallest)
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
4. The figure shows stirrups in the beam.
However, there are no stirrups in the
column, and Ktr can be taken as zero for
the column anchorage.
5. Check (c + Ktr)/db ≤ 2.5:
c + K tr 2.0 + 0
= = 2.0 < 2.5 ⇒ USE 2.0
db 1.0
6. The access reinforcement can be ignored
and the factor applied can be omitted.
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
7. Calculate ld:
 
 
3  f y   αβγλ 
ld =  db
40  f c′    c + ktr  
   
  d b  
3  60,000  1.3(1)(1)(1) 
ld =   (1.0) = 53.4 in. > 12 in. OK
40  3,000   2.0 
Since 53.4 in > 24 in. (column width), use

a standard hook, either a 90° hook or a
180° hook.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Anchorage using a standard 180° hook:
1. The basic development length lhb for the
standard hook shown in the figure can be
computed from
1200d b 1200(1)
lhb = = = 21.9 in. (also check Table 1c)
f c′ 3000
2. The only applicable MF is based on side

cover of 2 ½ in.
Therefore, USE MF = 0.7
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Table 1c. Basic Development Length ldb for
Bar Size
3000 4000 5000 6000
3 8.2 7.1 6.8 6.8
4 11.0 9.5 9.0 9.0
5 13.7 11.9 11.3 11.3
6 16.4 14.2 13.5 13.5
7 19.2 16.6 15.8 15.8
8 21.9 19.0 18.0 18.0
9 24.7 21.4 20.3 20.3
10 27.8 24.1 22.9 22.9
11 30.9 26.8 25.4 25.4
14 37.1 32.1 30.5 30.5
18 49.4 42.8 40.6 40.6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
3. The required development length is then
calculated from
ldh = lhb × MF = 21.9(0.7 ) = 15.3 in.
Check minimum :
minimum ldh = 8d b ≥ 6 in.
8d b = 8 in. < 15.3 in. OK
The minimum width of column required is

15.3 + 2.5 = 17.8 in. < 24 in. (column width) OK
Therefore, the hook will fit into the column.
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Anchorage into beam:
The development length required if bars
are straight can be taken as 53.4 in. as
determined previously. However, this
number is conservative (Ktr = 0).
To determine a more accurate value, we
have to take into consideration the
transverse reinforcement index Ktr
because there are stirrups in the beam.
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Q Example 1 (cont’d) Area of 2 #4 stirrups
Atr f yt 0.4(60,000)
K tr = = = 1.067
1500sn 1500(5)(3)
c + K tr 2.0 + 1.067
= = 3.07 < 2.5 ⇒ USE 2.5
db 1.0
 
 
3  f y   αβγλ 
ld = db
40  f c′    c + ktr  
   
  d b  
3  60,000  1.3(1)(1)(1) 
ld =   (1.0) = 42.7 in. > 12 in. OK
40  3,000   2.5 
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
Anchorage into beam (cont’d):
– The development length required if bars
are straight is 42.7 in.
– Therefore, the bars must extend at least
this distance into the span.
– Figure 4 shows the detailed sketch for the
development length.
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Hooks in Tension
″ Required = 15.3′′ min.
1 ldb
2 cover
2
#8 bars
180° Hook 18′′
Beam
Column 24′′
Figure 4. Detailed Sketch for Example 1
18
CHAPTER
AND SIMPLE SPAN BAR
CUTOFFS
By
5c

CHAPTER 5c. DEVELOPMENT, SPLICES, AND SIMPLE SPAN BAR CUTOFFS Slide No. 1
Simple-Span Bar Cutoffs and Bends

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Determination of Bar Cutoffs

– Recall that the maximum required As for a
beam is needed only where the moment is
maximum.
– This maximum steel may be needed at
points along a bending member where the
bending moment is smaller.
– This can be done by either stopping or
bending the bars in a manner consistent
with the theoretical requirements for the
strength of the member and the ACI Code.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– In theory bars can be stopped or bent in
bending members whenever they are no
longer needed to resist the bending
moment.
– However, the ACI Code requires that each
bar be extended beyond the point at which
it is no longer needed for flexure a distance
equal to the effective depth d of the cross
section or 12db, whichever is greater.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The ACI code gives the following
exceptions to the previous rules:
1. At supports of simple spans, and
2. At free ends of cantilever beams.
• This in effect prohibits the cutting off of a
bar at the theoretical cutoff point, but can
be bent at the theoretical cutoff point.
• If bars are to be bent, it is common to start
the bend at a distance equal to one-half
the effective depth beyond the point.
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q General Procedure for Determining the

Theoretical Cutoff Point
1. Establish a bar cutoff scheme (i.e., select
the bars that will be cut off first).
2. Plot the complete Mu diagram.
3. Superimpose on the Mu diagram the values
of φ Mn corresponding to the bars of Step 1
that will not be stopped.
4. The theoretical points are established
where the φ Mn lines intersect the Mu curve.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example: Bar Cutoff Point

For the simply supported beam shown in
the figure, determine the theoretical and
actual cutoff point for the center No. 10
bar. The beam is to carry a distributed
dead load of 0.54 kips/ft including its own
weight, and live service load of 1.08 kips/ft.
Material strengths specified are f c′ = 4,000
psi and fy = 60,000 psi.
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example: Bar Cutoff Point (cont’d)

CL
wL = 1.08 k/ft 12′′
wD = 0.54 k/ft
16′′ 19′′
3 #10
24′ − 9′′
Top View
d cutoff ?

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Determine factored distributed load:
wu = 1.4(0.54) + 1.7(1.08) = 2.592 kips/ft
1. Bar cutoff scheme has been established

for the center No. 10 bar.
2. Plot of the complete Mu diagram:
In order to do that, we have to find an
expression for Mu based on the loading
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

wu = 2.592 kips/ft
(24′ − 9′′) = 24.75′
32.1 kips 32.1 kips
2.592 kips/ft Mx
x2
x M x = 32.1x − 2.592 = 32.1x − 1.296 x 2 (1)
2
Vx
Note: Mx = Mu(x)
32.1 kips

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Thus, the plot of Mu will appear as follows:
wu = 2.592 kips/ft
(24′ − 9′′) = 24.75′
32.1 kips 32.1 kips

250
200
150
-ki
M u (ft
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
x (ft)
5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

250
200
Muu(ft(ft-kips)
150
-ki
100
M
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
x (ft)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

3. Superimpose on the Mu diagram the
values of φ Mu corresponding to 2 No.
10 bars:
φM n for 2 #10 bars :
As 2.54
ρ= = = 0.0132
bd 12(16 )
From Table 2, k corresponding to 0.0132 is
k = 0.6998 ksi
As ,min = 0.0033(b )(d ) = 0.0033(12)(16) = 0.63 in 2 < 2.54 in 2 OK
6

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 2 (Table A-10, Text)

ρ k ρ k ρ k
0.0092 0.5072 0.0128 0.6813 0.0164 0.8417
0.0093 0.5122 0.0129 0.6859 0.0165 0.8459
0.0094 0.5172 0.0130 0.6906 0.0166 0.8502
0.0095 0.5222 0.0131 0.6952 0.0167 0.8544
0.0096 0.5272 0.0132 0.6998 0.0168 0.8586
0.0097 0.5322 0.0133 0.7044 0.0169 0.8629
0.0098 0.5372 0.0134 0.7090 0.0170 0.8671
0.0099 0.5421 0.0135 0.7136 0.0171 0.8713
0.0100 0.5471 0.0136 0.7181 0.0172 0.8754
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

0.9(12 )(16 ) (0.6998)
2
φM n = φbd 2 k = = 161.2 ft - kips
12
– The line φMn = 161.2 intersects the curve of

Mu at 7 in. and 17.7 in. Therefore, the
theoretical cutoff point is located 7 ft. from
the face of either support.
– The actual cutoff point:
d = 16′′ = 1.33′ and 12d b = 12(1.27) = 15.24′′ = 1.27′
controls Dia. No. 10 bar
Hence,
actual cutoff point = 7 - 1.33 = 5.7 ft from F.O.S

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Bar Designation
in in2 lb/ft
#3 [#10] 0.375 0.11 0.376
#4 [#13] 0.500 0.20 0.668
#5 [#16] 0.625 0.31 1.043
#6 [#19] 0.750 0.44 1.502
#7 [#22] 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 [#25] 1.000 0.79 2.670
#9 [#29] 1.128 1.00 3.400
#10 [#32] 1.270 1.27 4.303
#11 [#36] 1.410 1.56 5.313
#14 [#43] 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 [#57] 2.257 4.00 13.60
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
250
200 φM u = 161.2 ft-k
150
Muuft(ft-kips)
(
100
M
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
7 x (ft) 18
17.7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

CL
wL = 1.08 k/ft 12′′
wD = 0.54 k/ft
16′′ 19′′
x 3 #10
24′ − 9′′
Top View
5.7′ 5.7′
13.4′
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Alternative Method to Find the Theoretical
Cutoff Point:
• In method, the φMn value for the continuous
reinforcement can be substituted into Eq. 1,
and consequently the distances from the face
of the right support can be located analytically
as follows:
φM n = 161.2 = 32.1x − 1.296 x 2
or 1.296 x 2 − 32.1x + 161.2 = 0
from which (quadratic formula) :
32.1 ± (32.1)2 − 4(1.296)161.2
x= = 7.0 in, 17.7 in
2(1.296)
10
CHAPTER
COLUMNS
By
9a

CHAPTER 9a. COLUMNS Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Axial Compression
– Columns are defined as members that
carry loads in compression.
– Usually they carry bending moments as
well, about one or both axes of the cross
section.
– The bending action may produce tensile
forces over a part of the cross section.
– Despite of the tensile forces or stresses
that may be produced, columns are
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Axial Compression
– Generally referred to as :compression
members” because the compression forces
or stresses dominate their behavior.
– In addition to the most common type of
compression members (vertical elements
in structures), compression members
include:
• Arch ribs
• Rigid frame members inclined or otherwise
• Compression elements in trusses
• shells
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Reinforced Concrete Columns
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Pont-
Pont-du-
du-Gard.
Gard. Roman aqueduct built in 19 B.C. to carry water
across the Gardon Valley to Nimes.
Nimes. Spans of the first and second
level arches are 53-
53-80 feet. (Near Remoulins,
Remoulins, France)
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Ohio River Bridge. Typical cantilever and suspended span bridge, showing
the truss geometry in the end span and cantilevered portion of the
the main
span. (Madison, Indiana)
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
4
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Column load transfer from beams and slabs

1) Tributary area method:
Half distance to adjacent columns
Load on column = area × floor load

y
Floor load = DL + LL
DL = slab thickness × conc. unit wt.
x
Example: x = 16.0 ft, y = 13.0 ft, LL = 62.4 lb/ft2, slab thickness = 4.0 in.
Floor load = 4.0 (150)/12 + 62.4 = 112.4 lb/ft2
Load on column = (16.0)(13.0)(112.4) = 10,800 kg = 23.4 kips
5
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Column load transfer from beams and slabs

2) Beams reaction method:
Collect loads from adjacent beam ends
B1 B2
B4
RB1 RB2
B1 C1 B2
RB1 RB2
B3
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Load summation on column section for design

ROOF
Load on 2nd floor column

Design section
2nd FLOOR = Roof floor + Column wt.
Load on 1st floor column

Design section = load on 2nd floor column
+ 2nd floor + Column wt.
1st FLOOR Ground level
Load on pier column

Design section = load on 1st floor column
+ 1st floor + Column wt.
Footing
6
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Types of Reinforced Concrete

Columns
1. Members reinforced with longitudinal
bars and lateral ties.
2. Members reinforced with longitudinal
bars and continuous spirals.
3. Composite compression members
reinforced longitudinally with structural
steel shapes, pipe, or tubing, with or
without additional longitudinal bars, and
various types of lateral reinforcement.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Types of Reinforced Concrete Columns
Tie Spiral
Longitudinal
steel
s = pitch
Tied column Spirally reinforced column
7
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Types of Reinforced Concrete Columns
Composite columns
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Types of Columns in Terms of Their

Strengths
1. Short Columns
A column is said to be short when its length is
such that lateral buckling need not be considered.
Most of concrete columns fall into this category.
2. Slender Columns
When the length of the column is such that
buckling need to be considered, the column is
referred to as slender column. It is recognized that
as the length increases, the usable strength of a
given cross section is decreased because of
buckling problem.
8
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
– Buckling is a mode of failure generally
resulting from structural instability due to
compressive action on the structural
member or element involved.
– Examples
• Overloaded metal building columns.
• Compressive members in bridges.
• Roof trusses.
• Hull of submarine.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
Figure 1a
9
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
Figure 1b
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The Nature of Buckling

Definition
“Buckling can be defined as the sudden
large deformation of structure due to a
slight increase of an existing load under
which the structure had exhibited little,
if any, deformation before the load was
increased.”
10
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling Failure of Reinforced Concrete

Columns
Figure 2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Load, Pcr

The critical buckling load (Euler Buckling)
for a long column is given by
π 2 EI (1)
Pcr = 2
where
L
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
I = moment of inertia of the cross section
L = length of column
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Columns: Small Eccentricity
Q If a compression member is loaded parallel
to its axis by a load P without eccentricity,
the load P theoretically induces a uniform
compressive stress over the cross-sectional
area.
Q If the compressive load is applied a small
distance e away from the longitudinal axis,
however, there is a tendency for the column
to bend due to the moment M = Pe.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of
Symmetry
– When the line of action of the axial load P
passes through the centriod of the cross
section, it can be assumed that the
distribution of normal stress is uniform
throughout the section.
– Such a loading is said to be centric, as
shown in Fig 3.
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Symmetry
P
Figure 3. Centric Loading

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Symmetry
– When the line of action of the concentrated
load P dose not pass through the centroid
of the cross section, the distribution of
normal stress is no longer uniform.
– Such loading is said to eccentric, as shown
in Fig 4.
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Symmetry
•
P
P •
Figure 4. Eccentric Loading

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Symmetry
The stress due to eccentric loading on a
beam cross section is given by
P My
fx = ± (2)
A I
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Columns Loaded with Small Eccentricities
– The concrete column that is loaded with a
compressive axial load P at zero eccentricity
is probably nonexistent, and even the
axial/small eccentricity combination is
relatively rare.
– Nevertheless, the case of columns that are
loaded with compressive axial loads at small
eccentricity e is considered first. In this case
we define the situation in which the induced
small moments are of little significance.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Notations Columns Loaded with Small
Eccentricities
Ag = gross area of the column section (in2)
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement (in2)
P0 = nominal or theoretical axial load at zero eccentricity
Pn = nominal or theoretical axial load at given eccentricity
Pu = factored applied axial load at given eccentricity
ρg = ratio of total longitudinal reinforcement area to
cross-sectional area of column:
Ast (3)
ρg =
Ag
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Strength of Short Axially Loaded Columns
P0
Steel
fy
∆
Stress
f c′
Section A-A A A Concrete
.001 .002 .003

Strain

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Strength of Short Axially Loaded Columns
P0
[ ΣFy = 0 ]
P0 = f c′(Ag − Ast ) + f y Ast
From experiment (e.g., ACI):
f c′ P0 = 0.85 f c′(Ag − Ast ) + f y Ast

where
fy fy
Ag = Gross area of column section
Fs = Ast fy
Fc = (Ag - Ast) f c′ Ast = Longitudinal steel area
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Column Failure by Axial Load
Pu
∆
Heavy spiral
Initial failure
Pu ACI spiral
Light
Tied column spiral
Axial load
0
Axial deformation ∆

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q ACI Code Requirements for Column
Strength
φPn ≥ Pu (4)
Spirally reinforced column:
[ ]
φPn (max ) = 0.85φ 0.85 f c′(Ag − Ast ) + f y Ast , φ = 0.75 (5)
Tied column:
[ ]
φPn (max ) = 0.80φ 0.85 f c′(Ag − Ast ) + f y Ast , φ = 0.70 (6)
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Code Requirements Concerning

Column Details
Q Limits on percentage of reinforcement
 A 
0.01 ≤  ρ g = st  ≤ 0.08 (7)
 Ag 
Lower limit: To prevent failure mode of plain concrete
Upper limit: To maintain proper clearances between bars

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
Q Minimum Number of Bars
– The minimum number of longitudinal bars
is
• four within rectangular or circular ties
• Three within triangular ties
• Six for bars enclosed by spirals
Q Clear distance between Bars
– The clear distance between longitudinal
bars must not be less than 1.5 times the
nominal bar diameter nor 1 ½ in.
18
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
Q Clear distance between Bars (cont’d)
– Table 1 (Table A-14, Textbook) may be
used to determine the maximum number of
bars allowed in one row around the
periphery of circular or square columns.
Q Cover
– Cover shall be 1 ½ in. minimum over
primary reinforcement, ties or spirals.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details Table A-14, Textbook
Table 1. Preferred Maximum Number of Column Bars in One Row
Q Table 1
19
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
Q Tie Requirements
– According to Section 7.10.5 of ACI Code,
the minimum is
• No. 3 for longitudinal bars No. 10 and smaller
• Otherwise, minimum tie size is No. 4 (see
Table 1 for a suggested tie size)
– The center-to-center spacing of ties must
not exceed the smaller of 16 longitudinal
bar diameter, 48 tie-bar diameter, or the
least column dimension.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
Q Spiral Requirements
– According to Section 7.10.4 of ACI Code,
the minimum spiral size is 3/8 in. in
diameter for cast-in-place construction (5/8
is usually maximum).
– Clear space between spirals must not
exceed 3 in. or be less than 1 in.
20
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
Q Spiral Requirements (cont’d)
– The spiral steel ratio ρs must not be less
than the value given by
A  f′
ρ s (min ) = 0.45 g − 1 c (8)
 Ac  fy
where
volume of spiral steel in one turn
ρs =
volume of column core in height ( s )
s = center-to-center spacing of spiral (in.), also called pitch
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of the column (in2)
Ac = cross-sectional area of the core (in2) (out-to-out of spiral)
fy = spiral steel yield point (psi) ≤ 60,000 psi
= compressive strength of concrete (psi)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
– An Approximate Formula for Spiral Steel
Ratio
• A formula in terms of the physical properties of
the column cross section can be derived from
the definition of ρs.
• In reference to Fig. 5, the overall core diameter
(out-to-out of spiral) is denoted as Dc, and the
spiral diameter (center-to-center) as Ds.
• The cross-sectional area of the spiral bar or
wire is given the symbol Asp.
21
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
Dc
Spiral
Ds
Figure 5. Definition of Dc and Ds

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Column Details
– From the definition of ρs, an expression
may written as follows:
AspπDs
actual ρ s = (9)
(πD / 4)(s )
2
c
– If the small difference between Dc and Ds is

neglected, then in terms of Dc, the actual
spiral steel ratio is given by
4 Asp
actual ρ s = (10)
Dc s
22
CHAPTER
COLUMNS
By
9b

CHAPTER 9b. COLUMNS Slide No. 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Analysis of Short Columns:

Small Eccentricity
Q The analysis of short columns carrying
axial loads that have small eccentricities
involves:
– Checking the maximum design axial load
strength, and
– Checking the various details of the
reinforcing.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
Q Procedure for Analysis of Short
Columns with Small Eccentricities
1. Check ρg within acceptable limits as
stipulated by the ACI Code:
0.01 ≤ ρ g ≤ 0.08 (1)
2. Check the number of bars within
acceptable limits for the clear space (see
Table 1, Table A-14, Text). The minimum
number is four for bars with rectangular
or circular ties and six for bars enclosed
by spirals.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
3. Calculate the maximum design axial load
strength φPn(max).
4. Check the lateral reinforcing. For ties,
check size, spacing, and arrangement.
For spirals, check ρs, and clear distance.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
Q Example 1
Find the maximum design axial load
strength for the tied column of cross
section shown in the figure. Check the
ties. Assume a short column. The
materials strength specified are f c′ = 4000
psi and fy = 60,000 psi for both
longitudinally steel and ties.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
16′′
″
1
1 cover
16′′ 2
#3 @ 16′′
8-#9 bars
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
1. Check the steel ratio for longitudinal
steel:
Ast 8.00
ρg = = = 0.0313
Ag (16)2
0.01 < 0.0313 < 0.08 OK
2. From Table 1 (Table A-14, Text), using a

13-in. core (column size less cover on
each side), the maximum number of No.
9 bars is eight. This is OK.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity Table A-14, Textbook
Q Table 1
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
3. The maximum design axial load strength
may now be computed as follows:
[
φPn (max ) = 0.80φ 0.85 f ′(Ag − Ast )c + f y Ast ]
= 0.80(0.70 )[0.85(4 )(256 − 8) + (60 )(8)]
= 741 kips
4. Check the ties. The size of No. 3 is OK
for longitudinal bar size up to No. 10. The
spacing of the ties must not exceed the
smaller of

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
48 tie-bar diameter = 38 (3/8) = 18 in.
16 longitudinal-bar diameter = 16 (1.128) = 18 in.
Least column dimension = 16 in.
Therefore, the tie spacing is OK.
Check clear distance:
16 − 2(1.5) − 2(3 / 8) − 3(1.128)
clear distance =
2
= 4.4 in. < 6 in. OK
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
Q Example 2
A short circular spiral column having a
diameter of 18 in. is reinforced with eight
No. 9 bars. The cover is 1 ½ in., and the
spiral is 3/8 in. in diameter spaced 2 in. o.c.
Find the maximum design axial load
strength and check the spiral. Use f c′ =
3000 psi and fy = 40,000 psi

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
1. Check the steel ratio for longitudinal steel:
Ast 8.00
ρg = = = 0.0314
Ag π (9)2
0.01 < 0.0314 < 0.08 OK
2. From Table 1 (Table A-14, Text), and for

circular column, the maximum number of #
9 bars is 10. This is OK
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity Table A-14, Textbook
Q Table 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity πD π (18) 2 2
Ag = = = 254.5 in 2
Q Example 2 (cont’d) 4 4
3. The maximum design axial load strength may
now be computed as follows:
[
φPn (max ) = 0.80φ 0.85 f ′(Ag − Ast )c + f y Ast ]
= 0.85(0.75)[0.85(3)(254.5 − 8) + (40 )(8)]
= 604.7 kips
4. Check spirals: 3/8 in. spiral
4A 4(0.11)
actual ρ s = sp = = 0.0147
Dc s 15(2)
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
AspπDs Dc
actual ρ s =
(πD / 4)(s )
2
c
Spiral
Approximate:
4 Asp
actual ρ s =
Dc s
Ds
Figure 1. Definition of Dc and Ds

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Small Eccentricity
 Ag  f′  254.5  3
ρ s (min ) = 0.45 − 1 c = 0.45 − 1 = 0.0149
 Ac  fy  176.7  40
ρ s (min ) = 0.0149 ≈ 0.0147 OK (slightly underreinforced)
Clear distance between spiral loops:

3
clear distance = 2 - = 1.63 in
8
1′′ < 1.63′′ < 3′′
Therefore, 3/8 in dia. spiral @ 2-in. is OK
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Design of Short Columns: Small

Eccentricity
Q The design of reinforced concrete
columns involves the following:
– Proportioning of the steel and concrete
areas.
– Selection of properly sized and spaced ties
or spirals.
Q Since the ratio of steel to concrete area
must fall within a given range:
0.01 ≤ ρ g ≤ 0.08

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
The main strength equation is modified
as follows to include this term:
For tied column:
[
φPn (max ) = 0.80φ 0.85 f ′(Ag − Ast )c + f y Ast ] (2)
Ast
ρg = ⇒ Ast = ρ g Ag
Ag (3)
Therefore,
[
φPn (max ) = 0.80φ 0.85 f ′(Ag − ρAg )c + f y ρ g Ag ]
(4)
[
= 0.80φAg 0.85 f ′(1 − ρ )c + f y ρ g ]
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
Q Since
Pu ≤ φPn (max ) (5)
an expression can be written for

required Ag in terms of the material
strength, Pu and ρg.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
Q For Tied Columns:
Pu (6)
required Ag =
[
0.80φ 0.85 f c′(1 − ρ g ) + f y ρ g ]
Q For Spiral Columns:
Pu
required Ag = (7)
[
0.85φ 0.85 f c′(1 − ρ g ) + f y ρ g ]
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
Q Procedure for Design of Short
Columns with Small Eccentricities
1. Establish the material strengths.
Establish the desired ρg (if any).
2. Establish the factored axial load Pu.
3. Determine the required gross column
area Ag.
4. Select the column dimensions. Use full-
inch increments.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
5. Find the load carried by the concrete and
the load required to be carried by the
longitudinal steel. Determine the required
longitudinal steel area. Select the
longitudinal steel.
6. Design the lateral reinforcing (ties or
spiral).
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
Q Example 3
Design a square-tied column to carry axial
service loads of 320 kips dead load and
190 kips live load. There is no identified
applied moment. Assume that the column
is short. Use ρg about 0.03, f c′ = 4000 psi,
and fy = 60,000 psi.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
1. Given values are as follows:
ρg =0.03, f c′ = 4000 psi, and fy = 60,000 psi
2. The factored axial load is
Pu = 1.4(320) + 1.7(190) = 771 kips
3. The required gross column area is (from Eq.
1)
Pu
required Ag =
0.80φ [0.85 f c′(1 − ρ g ) + f y ρ g ]
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
771
required Ag = = 270 in 2
0.80(0.70)[0.85(4 )(1 − 0.03) + (60)(0.03)]
4. The required size of a square column will

be
270 = 16.4 in.
Use a 16-in.-square column. This choice
will require that the actual ρg be slightly in
excess of 0.03
actual Ag = (16 ) = 256 in 2
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
5. The load on the concrete is
load on concrete = 0.80φ (0.85 f c′)Ag (1 − ρ g )

= 0.80(0.70 )(0.85)(4 )(256)(1 − 0.03)
= 473 kips
Therefore, the load to be carried by the

steel is
load by steel = 771 − 473 = 298 kips
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
The required steel area can be calculated
from
298
required Ag = = 8.87 in 2
0.80(0.70)(60 )
Use eight No. 10 bars (Ast =10.16 in2), see
Table 1.
Table 2 (Table A-14, Text) indicates a
maximum of eight No. 10 bars for a 13-in.
core. OK

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity Table A-14, Textbook
Q Table 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
6. Design the ties. From Table 1 (Table A-
14, Textbook), select a No. 3 tie. The
spacing must be greater than the smaller
of
48 tie - bar diameter = 48(3/8) = 18 in.

16 longitudinal - bar diamater = 16(1.27 ) = 20.3 in.
least column dimension = 16 in. Controls
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
Use No. 3 ties spaced 16 in. o.c. Check
the arrangement with reference to the
figure. The clear space between
adjacent bars in the same face is
2 (1.5 in.) Cover 2 × dia. of No. 3 tie
16 − 3 − 0.75 − 3(1.27 )
= 4.22 in. < 6.0 in.
2 dia. of No. 10 bar
Therefore, no additional ties are required
by the ACI Code.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
Table 3. Reinforced Steel Properties Table A-1 Textbook

Bar number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18
Unit weight 0.376 0.668 1.043 1.502 2.044 2.670 3.400 4.303 5.313 7.650 13.60
per foot (lb)
Diameter (in.) 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.128 1.270 1.410 1.693 2.257
2
Area (in ) 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56 2.25 4.00
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Eccentricity
7. The design sketch is as follows:
16′′
″
1
1 cover
2
16′′
#3 ties @ 16′′ o.c.
8-#10 bars
17
CHAPTER
COLUMNS
By
9c

CHAPTER 9c. COLUMNS Slide No. 1
The Load-Moment Relationship

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Axial Load-Moment Combination

– Assume that Pu is applied to a cross
section at an eccentricity e from the
centroid, as shown in Fig. 1a and 1b.
– Add equal and opposite forces Pu at the
centroid of the cross section, as shown in
Fig. 1c.
– The original eccentric force Pu may noe be
combined with the upward force Pu to form
a couple Pue, that is a pure moment.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Pu Figure 1
e
Pu Pu
e e Pu e
Pu
= =
(a)
(b) (c) (d)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– This will leave remaining one force, Pu
acting downward at the centroid of the
cross section.
– It can be therefore be seen that if a force
Pu is applied with an eccentricity e, the
situation that results is identical to the case
where an axial load of Pu at the centroid
and a moment of Pue are simultaneously
applied as shown in Fig. 1d.
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– If Mu is defined as the factored moment to
be applied on a compression member
along with a factored axial load of Pu at the
centroid, the relationship between the two
can expressed as
Mu
e= (1)
Pu

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Eccentric Axial Loading in A Plane of

Symmetry
Figure 2
y y y
C
σx = C
σx + C σx
σ x = (σ x )centric + (σ x )bending
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Eccentric Axial Loading in A Plane of

Symmetry
The stress due to eccentric loading on a
beam cross section is given by
P My
σx = ± (2)
D C
E
A I
B
P A P

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Equivalent Force System for Eccentric

Loading
Figure 3
P =4.8 kN
P = 4.8 kN y M x = 4.8(40 ) = 192 kN ⋅ m
M z = 4.8(60 − 35) = 120 kN ⋅ m
Mx = 192 kN·m
m
m y
120 mm 80
Mz = 120 kN·m
x
z
35 mm
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
The T-section shown in Fig. 50 is used as
a short post to support a compressive load
P of 150 kips. The load is applied on
centerline of the stem at a distance e = 2
in. from the centroid of the cross section.
Determine the normal stresses at points A
and B on a transverse plane C-C near the
base of the post.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
P
e
6 in 2 in
2 in • • 6 in
C C
Section C-C
5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Computing the cross-sectional properties:
Area = A = 2[6 × 2] = 24 in 2
3(6 × 2) + (6 + 1)(6 × 2)
xC = = 5 in. from point A
24
6 in 2 in
2(5) 6(3) 4(1)

3 3 3
2 in • • 6 in Iy = + − = 136 in 4
3 3 3
xC = 5 in
N.A.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Equivalent force system:
P = 150 kip acts through centroid
M = Pe = (150)(2 )× 12 = 3,600 kip ⋅ in
Computations of normal stresses:
P My 150 300(5)
σA = − + =− + = 4.78 ksi (T)
A Ix 24 136
P My 150 300(3)
σB = − − =− − = - 12.87 ksi (C)
A Ix 24 136
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Q The first step in the investigation of
short columns carrying loads at
eccentricity is to determine the strength
of given column cross section that
carries load at various eccentricities.
Q For this, the design axial load strength
φPn is found, where Pn is defined as the
nominal axial load strength at a given
eccentricity.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Q Example 2
Find the design axial load strength φPn for
the tied column for the following conditions:
(a) small eccentricity, (b) pure moment, (c)
e = 5 in., and (d) the balanced condition.
The column cross section is shown.
Assume a short column. Bending about
the Y-Y axis. Use f c′ = 4000 psi and fy =
60,000 psi.
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
20′′
6−#9 bars
Y
X X 14′′
Y
14′′

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
(a) Small Eccentricity:
Ag = 14(20 ) = 280 in 2
Ast = 6 in 2 (area of 6− #9 bars)
φPn = φPn (max)

[
= 0.80φ 0.85 f c′(Ag − Ast ) + f y Ast ]
= 0.80(0.70 )[0.85(4)(280 − 6 ) + (60 )(6 )]
= 723 kips
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
(b) Pure Moment:
The analysis of the pure moment condition
is similar to the analysis of the case where
the eccentricity e is infinite as shown in
Fig. 4.
The design moment φMn will be found
since Pu and φPn will both be zero.
Assume that As is at yield, and then with
reference to Fig. 5, then

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Figure 4
Pu
e=∞
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
C1 = concrete compressive force
C2 = steel compressive force
T = steel tensile force
ε s′ 0.003 c −3
= ⇒ ε s′ = 0.003 (3)
c −3 c c
Since
f s′ = Esε s′ (4)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
3′′ 3′′ 0.85 f c′
As′ ε s′
0.003
C2
c 0.85c C1
Z2
17′′ As Z1
φM n εy T
Strain Stress and Force

(a) (b) (c) (d)
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Substituting Es = 29 × 106 psi and ε s′ given
by Eq. 3 into Eq. 4, gives
c−3 c −3
f s′ = 29 × 106 (0.003) = 87 (4)
c c
For equilibrium in Fig 4d,
C1 + C2 = T (5)
Substituting into above equation, yields

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
(0.85 f c )(0.85c )b + f s′As′ − 0.85 f c′As′ = f y As (6a)
(0.85)(4)(0.85c ) + 87 c − 3 (3) − 0.85(4)(3) = 3(60) (6b)

c
– The above equation can be solved for c to
give
c = 3.62 in.
and thus,
3.62 − 3
f s′ = 87 = 14.90 ksi (compression) (7)
3.62
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Number Bar number
of bars #3 #4 $5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60
Table A-2 Textbook

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Therefore, the forces will be
C1 = 0.85 f c′(0.85c )b = 0.85(4)(0.85)(3.62)(14) = 146.5 kips
C2 = f s′As′ − 0.85 f c′As′ = 14.9(3) − 0.85(4 )(3) = 34.5 kips
– The internal Moments are

146.5  0.85(3.62 ) 
M n1 = C1Z1 = 17 −  = 188.8 ft - kips
12  2
34.5(14 )
M n 2 = C2 Z 2 = = 40.3 ft - kips
12
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
3′′ 3′′ 0.85 f c′
As′ ε s′
0.003
C2
c 0.85c C1
Z2
17′′ As Z1
φM n ε
y T
or more

(a) (b) (c) (d)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Therefore,
M n = M n1 + M n 2 = 188.8 + 40.3 = 229 ft - kips
and
φM n = 0.7(229) = 160 ft - kips
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
(c) The eccentricity e = 5 in:
The situation of e = 5 in. is shown in Fig. 6
Note that in Part (a), all steel was in
compression and in Part (b), the steel on the
side of the column away from the load was in
tension. Therefore, there is some value of the
eccentricity at which steel will change from
tension to compression. Since this is not
known, the strain in Fig. 7 is assumed.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Pu Figure 6
e = 5′′
Y
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
3′′ 0.85 f c′
As′ ε s′
0.003
C2
Pn c 0.85c C1
d = 17′′
5′′ As Z2
Z1
12′′
εs T
Comp./tens.? Assumed Strain Stress and Force

(a) (b) (c) (d)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
The assumptions at ultimate load are
1. Maximum concrete strain = 0.003
2. ε s′ > εy, therefore, f s′ =fy
3. εs is tensile
4. εs < εy and thus fs < fy
These assumptions will be verified later.
The unknown quantities are Pu and c.
The forces will be evaluated as follows:
15
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity ε′ s
0.003
c
C1 = 0.85 f c′ab = 0.85(4 )(0.85c )(14 ) − 40.46c
d
C2 = f y As′ − 0.85 f c′As′
= 60(3) − 0.85(4 )(3) = 169.8 kips
εs
d −c
T = f s As = ε s Es As = 87  As εs d −c
 c  0.003
=
c
 17 − c  17 − c ε s = 0.003
d −c
, and
= 87 3 = 261 c
 c  c  d −c d −c
f s = ε s Es =  0.003 29 ×10 = 87
3
From ∑ moments = 0 in Fig. 7c :  c  c
Pn = C1 + C2 − T
17 − c
= 40.46c + 169.8 − 261 (8)
c

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
From ∑ moments = 0, taking moments about T in
Fig. 7d
 a
Pn (12 ) = C1  d −  + C2 (14)
 2 (9)
1   0.85c  
= 40.46c17 −  + 169.8(`14 )
12   2  
Eqs. 8 and 9 can be solved simultaneously for c to

give
c = 14.86 in.
Pn = 733 kips
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Now, the assumptions can be checked:
 14.86 − 3 
ε s′ =  (0.003) = 0.0024
 14.86 
fy 60,000
εy = = = 0.00207 < (ε s′ = 0.0024) OK
Es 29 × 106
Therefore, f s′ = fy, and based on the location

of the neutral axis:
 17 − 14.86 
f s = 87  = 12.53 ksi < 60 ksi OK
 14.86 

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
– The design moment for an eccentricity of 5
in. can be computed as follows:
Pu = φPn = 0.7(733) = 513 kips
513(5)
φM n = φPn e = = 214 ft - kips
12
– Therefore, the given column has a design
load-moment combination strength of 513
kips axial load and 214 ft-kips moment.
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
(d) The Balanced Condition Case:
The balanced condition is defined when the
concrete reaches a strain of 0.003 at the same
time that the tension steel reaches its yield
strian, as shown in Fig. 8c.
The value of cb can be calculated from
87 87
cb = d= (17 ) = 10.06 in.
87 + f y 87 + 60

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
3′′ 0.85 f c′
As′ ε s′
0.003
Pb
C2
cb 0.85c C1
eb
d = 17′′
As
εy T
0 00207

(a) (b) (c) (d)
18
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
10.06 − 3
ε s′ = (0.003) = 0.0021 > ε y = 0.00207
10.06
Therefore, f s′ = fy = 60 ksi
The forces can computed as follows:
C1 = 0.85(4)(0.85)(10.06)(14) = 407 kips
C 2 = 60(3) − 0.85(4)(3) = 170 kips
T = 60(3) = 180 kips
Pb = C1 + C2 − T = 407 + 170 − 180 = 397 kips

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
– The value of eb may be calculated by
summing moments about T as follows:
 0.85cb 
Pe (eb + 7 ) = C1  d −  + C2 (14)
 2 
 0.85(10.06)2 
397(eb + 7 ) = 407 17 −  + 170(14)
 2 
– From which, eb = 12.0 in. Therefore, at the

balanced condition:
φPb = 0.70(397 ) = 278 kips
278(12)
φM n = φPb eb = = 278 ft - kips
12
19
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
– The results of the four parts can be tabulated
(see Table 2) and plotted as shown in Fig. 9.
– This plot is called an “interaction diagram”.
– In the plot, any point on the solid line
represents an allowable combination of load
and moment.
– Any point within the solid line represents a
load-moment combination that is also
allowable, but for which this column is
overdesigned.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
Table 2
Axial load strength Moment strength
e
(φPn,kips) (φPne, ft- kips)
Small 723 0 (small)
Infinite 0 160
5 in. 513 214
12 in 278 278
20
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
φPn (kips)
800
Figure 9. Column Interaction Diagram
700 Compression Failure
600
Balanced condition
e=0
500
400
300 5 in.
e= 12 in.
200 e = eb =
100
Tensile Failure
0 e=∝
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Mo me nt
Bending Strength of Member
Moment φPn e (ft - kips)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Large Eccentricity
– Any point outside the solid line represents an
unaccepted load-moment combination or a
load-moment combination for which this
column is underdesigned.
– Radial lines from the origin represent various
eccentricities (slope = φPn/φPn or 1/e).
– Any eccentricity less than eb will result in
compression controlling the column, and any
eccentricity greater than eb will result in
tension controlling the column.
21
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Design of Short Columns: Large

Eccentricity
Q The design of a column cross section
using the previous calculation approach
would be a trial-and-error method and
would become exceedingly tedious.
Q Therefore, design and analysis aids
have been developed that shorten the
process to a great extent.
Q A chart approach has been developed
in ACI Publication SP-17 (97), ACI
Design Handbook.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Design of Short Columns: Large

Eccentricity
Q The charts take on the general form of
Figure 9 but are set up to be more
general so that they will remain
applicable if various code criteria
undergo changes.
Q These charts can be used for both
analysis and design of columns.
Q There are also computer programs
available to aid in the design process.
22
Structural Steel Design Third Edition
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
STRUCTURAL STEEL
DESIGN
Part II – Structural Steel Design and Analysis
By
1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN Slide No. 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Advantages of Steel as a
Structural Material
Q It is interesting to know that steel was
not economically made in the United
States until late in the nineteenth
century.
Q However, since then steel has become
the predominate material for the
construction of bridges, buildings,
towers, and other structures.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
Q Steel exhibits desirable physical
properties that makes it one of the most
versatile structural material in use.
Q Its great strength, uniformity, light
weight, ease of use, and many other
desirable properties makes it the
material of choice for numerous
structures such as steel bridges, high
rise buildings, towers, and other
structures.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
Construction of Golden Gate Bridge (San Francisco, CA)
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
Q The many advantages of steel can be
summarized as follows:
– High Strength
• This means that the weight of structure that
made of steel will be small.
– Uniformity
• Properties of steel do not change as oppose to
concrete.
– Elasticity
• Steel follows Hooke’s Law very accurately.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
– Ductility
• A very desirable of property of steel in which
steel can withstand extensive deformation
without failure under high tensile stresses, i.e.,
it gives warning before failure takes place.
– Toughness
• Steel has both strength and ductility.
– Additions to Existing Structures
• Example: new bays or even entire new wings
can be added to existing frame buildings, and
steel bridges may easily be windened.
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Disadvantages of Steel as a
Structural Material
Q Although steel has all this advantages as
structural material, it also has many
disadvantages that make reinforced
concrete as a replacement for construction
purposes.
Q For example, steel columns sometimes
can not provide the necessary strength
because of buckling, whereas R/C
columns are generally sturdy and massive,
i.e., no buckling problems occurs.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
Q The many disadvantages of steel can
be summarized as follows:
– Maintenance Cost
• Steel structures are susceptible to corrosion
when exposed to air, water, and humidity.
They must be painted periodically.
– Fireproofing Cost
• Steel is incombustible material, however, its
strength is reduced tremendously at high
temperatures due to common fires
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
– Susceptibility to Buckling
• For most structures, the use of steel columns is
very economical because of their high strength-
to-weight ratios. However, as the length and
slenderness of a compressive column is
increased, its danger of buckling increases.
– Fatigue
• The strength of structural steel member can be
reduced if this member is subjected to cyclic
loading.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
S = stress range
N = number of cycles
Figure 1. S-N Curves for Various Materials (Byars and Snyder, 1975)
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Structural Material
– Brittle Fracture
• Under certain conditions steel may lose its
ductility, and brittle fracture may occur at places
of stress concentration. Fatigue type loadings
and very low temperatures trigger the situation.
Early Uses of Iron and Steel

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q 1777-1779: Metal as structural material

began with cast iron, used on a 100-ft
(30-m) arch span, which was built in
England.
Q 1780 –1820: A number of cast-iron
bridges were built during this period.
Q 1846 -1850: The Brittania Bridge over
Menai Strait in Wales was built.
8
Early Uses of Iron and Steel

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q 1840: Wrought iron began replacing

cast iron soon.
Q 1855: Development of the Bessemer
process, which help producing steel in
large quantities and at cheaper prices.
Q 1989: Steel shapes having yield
strength of 24,000 to 100,000 psi were
produced.
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Rolled Sections
– Structural steel can be economically rolled
into a wide variety of shapes and sizes
without appreciably changing its physical
properties.
– Usually the most desirable members are
those with large moments of inertia in
proportion to their areas.
– The I, T, and C shapes, so commonly
used, fall into this class.
9
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
10
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Rolled Sections
– Steel section are usually designated by the
shapes of their cross sections.
– As examples, there are angles, tees, zees,
and plates.
– It is necessary, however, to make a definite
distinction between American standard
beams (called S beams) and wide-flange
beams (called W beams) as they are both I
shaped.
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Rolled Sections
I-Shaped Sections
Flange
Web Slope 0 to 5% 2
16 % slope
3
W section S section
11
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Designation System
– Structural shapes are abbreviated by a
certain system usually described in LRFD
manual for use in drawings, specifications,
and designs.
– This system has been standardized so that
all steel mills can use the same
identification for purposes of ordering,
billing, etc.
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Some examples of this abbreviation system
are as follows:
1. A W17 × 117 is a W section approximately
27 in. deep weighing 114 b/ft.
2. An S12 × 35 is an S section 12 in. deep
weighing 35 lb/ft.
3. An HP12 × 74 is bearing pile section which
is approximately 12 in. deep weighing 74
lb/ft.
12
Steel Sections
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
4. A C10 × 30 is a channel section 10 in.
deep weighing 30 lb/ft.
5. An MC18 × 58 is a miscellaneous
channel 18 in. deep weighing 58 lb/ft,
which cannot be classified as a C shape
because of its dimensions.
6. An L6 × 6 × ½ is an equal leg angle, each
leg being 6 in long and ½ in. thick.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
13
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Stress-Strain Relationships in
Structural Steel
Q Idealized Relationships
Elastic Elastic
region region
Stress
Stress
Fy Fy
Fy
E = slope =
εy
εy Strain εy Strain
(a) As Determined by Tensile Test (b) Idealized
Modern Structural Steels

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Properties of Modern Steels

– The properties of steel used can be greatly
changed by varying the quantities of carbon
present and adding other elements such as
• Silicon
• Nickel
• Manganese, and
• Copper
– A steel having a significant amount of these
elements is referred to as an alloy steel.
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Yield Point of Modern Steels

– In the past, a structural carbon steel
designated as A36 and having yield stress
of Fy = 36 ksi was the commonly used
structural steel.
– Today, a steel having Fy = 50 ksi can be
produced and sold at almost the same
price as 36 ksi steel.
– Structural steels are generally grouped into
several major ASTM classifications:
ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Yield Point of Modern Steels

– The carbon steels A36, A53, A500, A501,
and A529.
– The high-strength low alloy steels A572,
A618, A913, and A992.
– The corrosion resistant high-strength low-
alloy steels A242, A588, and A847
Considerable information is presented for

each of these steels in Part 2 of The LRFD
Manual.
15
Uses of High-Strength Steels

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q There are indeed ultra-high-strength

steels that have yield strengths from
160 to 300 ksi. These steels have not
been included in the LRFD Manual
because they have not been assigned
ASTM numbers.
Q The steel industry is now experimenting
with steels with yield stresses from 200
to 300 ksi.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q It is believed hat steels with 500 ksi

yield strength will be made available
within few years.
Q The theoretical biding force between
iron atoms has been estimated to be in
excess of 4000 ksi.
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Factors that Lead to the Use of High-

strength Steels:
1. Superior corrosion resistance.
2. Possible savings in shipping, erection,
and foundation costs caused by weight
savings.
3. Use of shallow beams permitting smaller
floor depths.
4. Possible savings in fireproofing because
smaller members can be used.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Responsibilities of the Structural

Designer and Engineer
Q The structural designer or engineer
must learn to arrange and proportion
the parts of structures so that they can
be practically erected and will have
sufficient strength and reasonable
economy. Some of the items that must
be considered include
– Safety
– Cost
– Practicality
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Safety
• Not only must the frame of a structure safely
support the loads to which it is subjected, but
also it must support them in such a manner that
deflections and vibrations are not so great as to
frighten the occupants or to cause unsightly
cracks.
– Cost
• The engineer or designer needs to keep in mind
the factors that can lower cost without sacrificing
the strength, e.g., the use of standard-size
members, simple connections, etc.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Practicality
• Designers and engineers need to understand
fabrication methods, and should try to fit their
work to the fabrication facilities available.
• The more the designer knows about the
problems, tolerances, and clearances in shop
and field the more probable it is that
reasonable, practical, and economical designs
will be produced.
Could I get this thing together if I were sent

out to do it??
18
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Computers and Structural Steel

Design
Q Personal computers have drastically
changed the way steel structures are
analyzed and designed.
Q Many of the commercial structural
software packages can perform
– Structural Analysis, and
– Structural Design

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design
Q The need for these programs stems
from the fact that the calculations
involved in both the design and analysis
of an engineering system are quite time-
consuming.
Q With the use of a computer, the design
engineer greatly can reduce the time
required to perform these calculations.
19
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design
Q Although computers do increase design
productivity, they also tend to reduce
the engineer’s “feel” for the structure.
Q This can be a particular problem for
young engineers with very little design
experience.
Q Computers should not be looked at as
black boxes that can do powerful things
for us.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design
Q Knowledge and understanding of the
basic engineering principals are
prerequisites for the effective
implementation of any design.
Q No matter how impressive your tool
chest, you will be hard-pressed to repair
a car if you do not understand how it
works.
20
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design
Q This specially true when using
computers to perform structural designs
and analyses.
Q Although they have powerful potential
utility, computers are particularly
useless without a fundamental
understanding of how engineering
systems work.
21
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
SPECIFICATIONS,
LOADS, AND METHODS
OF DESIGN
By
2a

CHAPTER 2a. SPECIFICATIONS, LOADS, AND METHODS OF DESIGN Slide No. 1
Specifications and Building Codes

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The design of structural steel in the

United States is controlled and
governed by building codes.
Q These codes provide general guidelines
of the minimum requirements for the
design of a structural component or a
system.
Q These codes, which are actually laws or
ordinances, specify minimum:
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Design loads
– Design stresses
– Construction types
– Material quality
– Other factors.
Q Some of these codes are written
specifically for certain areas and
disciplines of an engineering practice.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Examples:
– The design of steel bridges is generally in
accordance with specifications of the
American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
– Railroad bridges are designed in
accordance with specifications provided by
the American Railway Engineering
Association (AREA).
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The design or analysis of offshore

structures is usually governed by the
specifications adopted by the American
Petroleum Institute (API).
– Commercial ship design is generally
controlled by the specifications furnished by
the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS).
– Reinforced concrete structures are
generally designed according to the
American Concrete Institute (ACI).

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Structural Steel Design

– Structural steel design of buildings in the
United States is principally based on the
specifications of the American Institute of
Steel Construction (AISC).
“LRFD Manual of Steel Construction,” 3rd Edition

3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Structural Steel Design

– The AISC is comprised of steel fabricator
and manufacturing companies, as well as
individuals interested in steel design and
research.
– The AISC Specifications are the result of
the combined judgment of researchers and
practicing engineers.
– The research efforts have been synthesized
into practical design procedures to provide a
safe, economical structure.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Building Codes
– The term building code is sometimes used
synonymously with specifications.
– More correctly, a building code is a broadly
based document, either a legal document
such as a state or local building code, or a
document widely recognized even though
not legal which covers the same wide
range of topics as the state or local
building code.
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Building Codes
– Building codes generally treat all issues
relating to
• Safety
• Architectural details
• Fire protection
• Heating and air conditioning
• Plumbing and sanitation, and
• Lighting
– Building codes also prescribe standard
loads for which the structure is to be
designed.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The important thing to remember about

specifications and building codes is that
they are written, not for the purpose of
restricting engineers, but for the
purpose of protecting the public. No
matter which building code or
specification is or is not being used, the
ultimate responsibility for the design of
safe structure lies with the structural
design engineer.
5
Dead, Live, and Environmental Loads

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Loads
– The accurate determination of the loads to
which a structure or structural element will
be subjected is not always predictable.
– Even if the loads are well known at one
location in a structure, the distribution of
load from element to element throughout
the structure usually requires assumptions
and approximations.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Loads
– The objective of a structural engineer is to
design a structure that will be able to
withstand all the loads to which it is
subjected while serving its intended
purpose throughout its intended life span.
– Loads can be classified into three broad
categories: (1) Dead Loads, (2) Live
Loads, and (3) Environmental Loads.
6

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Types of Loads
– Dead Loads
– Live Loads
– Environmental Loads
• Impact
• Rain loads
• Wind loads
• Snow loads
• Earthquake loads
• Hydrostatic and soil pressure
• Thermal and other effects

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Dead Loads
– Dead load is a fixed position gravity service
load.
– It is called dead load because it acts
continuously toward the earth when the
structure is in service.
– The weight of the structure is considered
dead load, as well as attachments to
structure such as pipes, electrical conduit,
air-conditioning and heating ducts, lighting
fixtures, and roof and floor covering, etc.
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Dead Loads (cont’d)

– Dead loads are usually known accurately
but not until the design has been
completed.
– Reasonable estimates of structure weights
may be obtained by referring to similar
types of structures or to various formulas
and tables.
– Approximate weights of some common
building materials for roofs, walls, floors,
and so on are provided in Table 1.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. Typical Dead Loads for Some

Common Building Materials
3
Reinforced concrete 150 lb/ft
3
Structural steel 490 lb/ft
Movable steel partitions 4 psf
Plaster and concrete 5 psf
Suspended ceilings 2 psf
3-ply ready roofing 1 psf
Hardwood flooring (7/8 in.) 4 psf
2 ´ 12 ´ 16 in. double wood floors 7 psf
Wood studs with ½ in gypsum 8 psf
Clay brick wythes (4 in.) 39 psf
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Live Loads
– Gravity loads acting when the structure is
in service, but varying in magnitude and
location, are termed live loads.
– Example of live loads are
• Human occupants
• Furniture
• Movable equipment
• Vehicles
• Stored goods

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Live Loads (cont’d)

– A great deal of information on the
magnitudes of these various loads, along
with specified minimum values, are
presented in ASCE 7-98:
• Floor loads:
– Typical values for floor loading are listed in Table 2
• Traffic loads:
– Bridges are subjected to series of concentrated loads
of varying magnitude caused by groups of truck or
train wheels.
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 2. Typical Minimum Uniform Live

Loads for Design of Building
Type of Building LL (psf)
Apartments 40
Apartment houses
Public rooms 100
Dining rooms and restaurants 100
Garages (passenger cars only) 50
Gymnasiums, main floors, and balconies 100
Lobbies 100
Office buildings
Offices 50
Classrooms 40
Schools Corridors first floor 100
Corridors above first flo 80
Light 125
Storage warehouses
Heavy 250
First floor 100
Stores (retail)
Other floors 75

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 3. Typical Concentrated Live

Loads for Buildings
Hospitals - operating rooms, private rooms, and wards 1000 lb
Manufacturing building (light) 2000 lb
Manufacturing building (heavy) 3000 lb
Office floors 2000 lb
Retail stores (first floors) 1000 lb
Retail stores (upper floors) 1000 lb
School classrooms 1000 lb
School corridors 1000 lb
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
• Impact loads:
– Impact loads are caused by the vibration of moving
or movable loads. The ASCE Specification requires
that when structures are supporting live loads that
tend to cause impact, it is necessary for those loads
to be increased by the percentages given in Table 4.
• Longitudinal loads
– Longitudinal loads are another type of load that
needs to be considered in designing some
structures. Stopping a train on a railroad bridge or a
truck on a highway bridge causes longitudinal forces
to be applied. Imagine the tremendous longitudinal
force developed when the driver of a 40-ton truck
traveling at 60 mph has to stop suddenly.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Table 4. Live Load Impact Factors

Elevator machinery 100%
Motor driven machinery 20%
Reciprocating machinery 50%
Hangers for floors or balconies 33%
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Environmental Loads
– Snow loads
• On inch of snow load is equivalent to a load of
approximately 0.5 psf.
• For roof design, snow loads vary from 10 to 40
psf.
– Rain loads
• Although snow load are a more severe problem
than rain loads for the usual roof. The situation
can be reversed for flat roofs with poor
drainage systems.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Environmental Loads (cont’d)

– Wind loads
• Wind loads can be severe. Numerous
structural failures by wind were reported.
Perhaps the most infamous of these are the
failure of
Tay Bridge in Scotland in 1979, which caused
the deaths of 75 people,
Tacoma Narrow Bridge in Tacoma,
Washington, in 1940,
Union Carbide Building in Toronto in 1958.
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Wind loads (cont’d)

• In accordance with Bernoulli’s theorem for ideal
fluid striking an object, the increase in static
pressure equals the decrease in dynamic
pressure, or
1
q= ρV 2 (1)
2
• Where q is the dynamic pressure on the object,
ρ is the mass density of air (specific weight w =
0.07651 pcf at sea level and 150 C), and V is
the wind velocity.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Wind loads (cont’d)

• In terms of velocity V in miles per hour, the
dynamic pressure q (psf) would be given by
1 1  0.07651  5280 
q= ρV 2 =    = 0.0026V
2
(2)
2 2  32.2  2600 
• In design of usual types of buildings, the

dynamic pressure q is commonly converted into
equivalent static pressure p, which may be
expressed as
p = qCeC g C p (3)
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Where
Ce = exposure factor that varies from 1.0 (for 0-
40-ft height) to 2.0 (for 740-1200-ft height).
Cg = gust factor, such as 2.0 for structural
members and 2.5 for small elements
including cladding.
Cp = shape factor for the building as a whole.
• The commonly used wind pressure of 20 psf, as
specified by many building codes, correspond to
a velocity of 88 mph from Eq. 2.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Earthquake Loads
• An earthquake consists of horizontal and
vertical ground motions, with the vertical motion
usually having much smaller magnitude.
• Since the horizontal motion of the ground
causes the most significant effect, it is that
effect which usually thought of as earthquake
load.
• When the ground under a structure having a
certain mass suddenly moves, the inertia of the
mass tends to resist the movement (Fig. 1)
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Earthquake Loads (cont’d)

Figure 1
W W
CW = inertia
reaction
Earthquake motion
(a) At rest (b) Under horizontal motion
from earthquake

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

• In order to simplify the design process, most
building codes contain an equivalent lateral
force procedure for designing to resist
earthquake.
• One of the most widely used design
recommendations is that of the Structural
Engineers Association of California (SEAOC).
• Some recent rules for equivalent lateral force
procedure are those given by the ANSI
Standard.
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

• In the ANSI, the lateral seismic forces V,
expressed as follows, are assumed to act non-
concurrently in the direction of each of the main
axes of the structure:
V = ZIKCSW (4)
Z = seismic zone coefficient (varies from 1/8 to 1).
I = occupancy important factor (varies from 1.5 to 1.25).
K = horizontal force factor (varies from 0.67 to 2.5).
T = fundamental natural period.
S = soil profile coefficient (varies from 1.0 to 1.5).
W = total dead load of the building.
1
C= ≤ 0.12
15 T

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

• When the natural period T cannot be
determined by rational means from technical
data, it may be obtained as follows for shear
walls or exterior concrete frames using deep
beams or wide piers, or both:
0.05hn (5)
T=
D
D = dimension of the structure in the direction of the applied

forces, in feet.
hn = height of the building
16
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Load and Resistance Factor

Design (LRFD)
Q The load and resistance factor design
(LRFD) is a probability-based design
approach.
Q It has been adopted in most modern
structural codes.
Q The LRFD is based on a limit states
philosophy, i.e., a state at which a
structure ceases to perform its intended
function.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design (LRFD)
Q Need for Reliability Evaluation
– The presence of uncertainty in engineering design
and analysis has always been recognized.
– Traditional approaches simplify the problem by
considering the uncertain parameters to be
deterministic.
– Traditional approaches account for the uncertainty
through the use of empirical safety factor.
– This factor is based on past experience but does
not absolutely guarantee safety or performance.
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design (LRFD)
Q Reliability-Based Design (RBD)
– RBD requires the consideration of:
• Loads
• Structural Strength
• Methods of Reliability Analysis (i.e., FORM)
– Two primary approaches for RBD:
• Direct Reliability-based Design
• Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design (LRFD)
Rn m m
FS i=1 i =1 (6)
ASD LRFD
used.
18
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design (LRFD)
Q The General From of LRFD:
m
i =1
Where
of m components

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Design (LRFD)
Q Special Form for Specific Strength
(moment) and Load Effects (dead and
Live load):
φM R ≥ γ D M D + γ L M L
or (8)
0.90 M R ≥ 1.2 M D + 1.6M L
19
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
SPECIFICATIONS,
LOADS, AND METHODS
OF DESIGN
By
2b

CHAPTER 2b. SPECIFICATIONS, LOADS, AND METHODS OF DESIGN Slide No. 1
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The load factors are usually amplifying

factors that are used in LRFD design
equation to increase the loads.
Q The purpose of increasing the loads is
to account for the uncertainties involved
in estimating the magnitudes of dead
and/or live loads.
How close (%) could you estimate the worst
wind or snow load that will ever be applied
to a particular building?
1
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Since the dead loads can be estimated

more accurately than live loads, the
factor for live load is usually higher than
that used for dead loads.
Q Examples:
– A load factor of 1.6 for live loads in LRFD
steel manual as compared to 1.2 for dead
loads.
– A load factor of 1.7 for live loads in ACI
Code as compared to 1.4 for dead loads.
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Loads and Load Combinations

1.4 (D + F) (1)
1.2 (D + F + T) + 1.6 (L + H) + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) (2)
1.2 D + 1.6 (Lr or S or R) + (0.5 L or 0.8 W) (3)
1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 L + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) (4)
1.2 D + 1.0 E + 0.5 L + 0.2 S (5)
0.9 D + 1.6 W + 1.6 H (6)
0.9 D + 1.0 E + 1.6 H (7)
2
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Notations
U = the design (ultimate) load
D = dead load
F = fluid load
T = self straining force
L = live load
Lr = roof live load
H = lateral earth pressure load, ground water pressure.
S = snow load
R = rain load
W = wind load
E = earthquake load
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
A floor system has W24 × 55 section
spaced 8 ft on-center supporting a floor
dead load of 50 psf and a live load of 80
psf. Determine the governing load in lb/ft
which each beam must support.
For one foot of length of the beam,
area = 8 ×1 = 8 in 2
Therefore,
D = 55 + 8(50 ) = 455 lb/ft
L = 8(80 ) = 640 lb/ft
3
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
L
L
8f Beam,
t of
Span
8f
t
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Computing factored loads and noting that
D and L are the only loads to be supported,
therefore using Eqs. 1 to 7 result in:
1. U = 1.4(D + F ) = 1.4(455 + 0 ) = 637 lb/ft
2. U = 1.2(D + F + T ) + 1.6(L + H ) + 0.5(Lr or S or R )
= 1.2(455 + 0 + 0 ) + 1.6(640 + 0 ) + 0.5(0 or 0 or 0 )
= 1570 lb/ft Controls (largest)
3. U = 1.2 D + 1.6(Lr or S or R ) + (0.5 L or 0.8W )
= 1.2(455) + 1.6(0 ) + 0.5(640 ) = 866 lb/ft
4
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
4. U = 1.2 D + 1.6W + 0.5 L + 0.5(Lr or S or R )
= 1.2(455) + 1.6(0 ) + 0.5(640 ) + 0.5(0 ) = 866 lb/ft
5. U = 1.2 D + 1.0 E + 0.5 L + 0.2 S

= 1.2(455) + 1.0(0 ) + 0.5(640 ) + 0.2(0 ) = 866 lb/ft
6. U = 0.9 D + 1.6W + 1.6 H = 0.9(455) + 1.6(0 ) + 1.6(0 ) = 409.5 lb/ft
7. U = 0.9 D + 1.0 E + 1.6 H = 0.9(455) + 1.0(0 ) + 1.6(0 ) = 409 lb/ft
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
The various axial loads for a building column
have been computed according to the
applicable building code with the following
results: dead load = 200 k, load from roof = 50
k (roof live load), live load from floor = 250 k,
compression wind = 80 k, tensile wind 65 k,
compression earthquake = 60 k, and tensile
earthquake = 70 k.
Determine the critical design load using the
combinations provided by Eqs. 1 to 7.
5
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
1. U = 1.4(D + F ) = 1.4(200 + 0 ) = 280 k

2. U = 1.2(D + F + T ) + 1.6(L + H ) + 0.5(Lr or S or R )
= 1.2(200 + 0 + 0 ) + 1.6(250 + 0 ) + 0.5(50 )
= 665 k Controls (largest)
3. U = 1.2 D + 1.6(Lr or S or R ) + (0.5 L or 0.8W )
a. U = 1.2(200 ) + 1.6(50 ) + 0.5(250 ) = 445 k
b. U = 1.2(200 ) + 1.6(50 ) + 0.8(80 ) = 384 k
c. U = 1.2(200 ) + 1.6(50 ) + 0.8(− 65) = 268 k
Load Factors
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
4. U = 1.2 D + 1.6W + 0.5 L + 0.5(Lr or S or R )
a. U = 1.2(455) + 1.6(80 ) + 0.5(250 ) + 0.5(50 ) = 518 k
b. U = 1.2(455) + 1.6(− 65) + 0.5(250 ) + 0.5(50 ) = 286 k
5. U = 1.2 D + 1.0 E + 0.5 L + 0.2 S
a. U = 1.2(200 ) + 1.0(60 ) + 0.5(250 ) + 0.2(0 ) = 425 k
b. U = 1.2(200 ) + 1.0(− 70 ) + 0.5(250 ) + 0.2(0 ) = 295 k
6. U = 0.9 D + 1.6W + 1.6 H
a. U = 0.9(200 ) + 1.6(80 ) + 1.6(0 ) = 308 k
b. U = 0.9(200 ) + 1.6(- 65) + 1.6(0 ) = 76 k
7. U = 0.9 D + 1.0 E + 1.6 H
a. U = 0.9(200 ) + 1.0(60 ) + 1.6(0 ) = 240 k
b. U = 0.9(200 ) + 1.0(− 70 ) + 1.6(0 ) = 110 k
6
Strength (or Resistance) Factors

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Strength factors are usually reduction

factors that applied to the strength
(stress, force, moment) of the member
to account for the uncertainties in
material strengths, dimensions, and
workmanship.
Q With a resistance factor, the designer
attempts to account for imperfection in
analysis theory, variation in material
properties, and imperfect dimensions.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q This can be accomplished by

multiplying the theoretical ultimate
strength (also called nominal strength)
of each member by a capacity reduction
factor φ, which generally less than one.
Q These values are 0.85 for columns, 0.75
or 0.90 for tension members, 0.90 for
bending or shear in beams, and so on.
Q Typical reduction factors are provided in
Table 1 (Table 2.2, Text).
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. Typical Resistance (Strength) Factors

Type of Loading φ
Bearing on the projected areas of pins, web yielding under
concentrated loads, slip-resistant bolt shear values
1.00
Beams on bending and shear, fillet welds with stress parallel to
weld axis, groove welds base metal
0.90
Columns, web crippling, edge distance, and bearing capacity at
holes
0.85
Shear on effective area of full-penetration groove welds, tension
normal to the effective area of partial-penetration groove welds.
0.80
Bolts in tension, plug, or slot welds, fracture in the net section of
tension members
0.75
Bearing on bolts (other than A307) 0.65
Bearing on concrete foundations 0.60

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Reliability and the LRFD

Specification
Q Reliability
– The reliability of an engineering system can
be defined as the system’s ability to fulfill its
design functions for a specified period of time.
– In the context of this course, it refers to the
estimated percentage of times that the
strength of a member will equal or exceed the
maximum loading applied to that member
during its estimated life (say 25 years).
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
Q Reliability
– Motivation
• Assume that a designer states that his or her
designs are 99.6 percent reliable (this is usually
the case obtained with most LRFD design).
• If we consider the designs of 1000 structures, this
does not mean that 4 of the 1000 structures will fall
flat on the ground, but rather it means that those
structures at some time will be loaded into the
plastic range and perhaps the strain hardening
range. So excessive deformation and slight
damage might occur, but a complete failure.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
Q LRFD Specification
– In the previous example, it would be
desirable to have 100%-reliability.
– However, this is an impossible goal
statistically. There will always be a chance
of failure (unreliability), say 2 or 3 %.
– The goal of the LRFD Specification was to
keep this to very small and consistent
percentage.
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
– To do this, the resistance or strength R of
each member of steel structure as well as
the maximum loading Q, expected during
the life of the structure, are computed.
– A structure then is s said to be safe if
R≥Q (1)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
– General Form
m
i =1
Where
of m components
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
Rn m m
FS i=1 i =1
ASD LRFD
used.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
– The actual values of R and Q are random
variables and it is therefore impossible to
say with 100% certainty that R is always
equal or greater than Q for a particular
structure.
– No matter how carefully a structure is
designed, there will be always some
chance that Q exceeds R as shown in
Figure 1.
11
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
Density
Function
Figure 1
Load Effect (Q)

(L)
(g = R − Q ) < 0 Strength (R)
Area (for g < 0) =

Failure probability
Origin 0 Random Value

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
– Reliability Index β
• A measure of reliability can be defined by
introducing a parameter β, called the reliability
index.
β can be computed using structural reliability
theory and knowledge of the first and second
moment statistical characteristics (i.e., mean
and COV) for both the strength and load
variables.
12
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
– Reliability Index β (cont’d)
• For two variables and linear performance
function, the reliability index b can be defined
as the shortest distance from the origin to the
failure line as shown in Fig. 2. Mathematically,
it can be expressed as
µ R − µQ
β= (2)
σ R2 − σ Q2
µ = mean value of strength or load variable
σ = standard deviation of strength or load variable

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification Figure 2
Q Reliability Index β L'
Failure
Region
Design
Point Failure Line
g=0
Survival
β
Region
R'
The reliability index β is the shortest distance from the origin to the failure surface.
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Specification
– Reliability Index β (cont’d)
• The important relationship between the
reliability index β and the probability of failure Pf
is given by
Pf = 1 − Φ (β ) (3)
where Φ(.) = cumulative probability distribution

function of the standard normal distribution.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Specification
Target Reliability Indices or Levels (AISC)
Target
Structural Type Reliability Level
(β 0 )
Metal structures for buildings (dead, live, and snow loads) 3
Metal structures for buildings (dead, live, and wind loads) 2.5
Metal structures for buildings (dead, live, and snow, and
1.75
earthquake loads)
Metal connections for buildings (dead, live, and snow loads) 4 to 4.5
Reinforced concrete for buildings (dead, live, and snow loads)
ductile failure 3
brittle failure 3.5
14
Advantages of LRFD
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Advantages
– Provides a more rational approach for new
designs and configurations.
– Provides consistency in reliability.
– Provides potentially a more economical
use of materials.
– Allows for future changes as a result of
gained information in prediction models,
and material and load characterization
– Easier and consistent for code calibration.
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The computer program INSTEP32

design software can be used to perform
the necessary calculations for load
combinations provided by Eqs. 1
through 7.
Q This program can also assist you in
solving many of the problems presented
in the textbook.
15
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Installation of INSTEP32
1. Insert the CD-ROM in your computer.
2. In Windows Explorer, open the
INSTEP32 directory on the CD-ROM.
3. Double-click on Setup.
4. The Setup program will guide you
through the installation process.
INSTEP32 can be started by clicking the
INSTEP32 icon on the Start Menu on the
desktop.
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3: Load Combinations

– To perform the calculations for load
combinations, start INSTEP32 and then
select Design– Load Combinations from
the menu bar.
– After you have done this, that data entry
dialogue shown in the following slides will
appear.
16
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3: Load Combinations (cont’d)
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
17
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Using the computer program INSTEP32,
compute the governing factored loads for
each of the following: D = 200 k, Lr = 50 k,
L = 250 k, W = 80 k, and E = 60 k.
The input and output of the program is

shown in the next slides. Therefore, the
critical factored load for design is 665 k.
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
18
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Critical
Factored
load
19
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
20
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
ANALYSIS OF TENSION
MEMBERS
By
3a

CHAPTER 3a. ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Tension members are found in

– Bridges and roof trusses
– Towers
– Bracing systems
– Cases where they are used as tie rods
Q The design of tension members is very
simple and straightforward.
Q No buckling problems are encountered
as in the case of compression members.
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
RHINE BRIDGE, COLOGNE-

COLOGNE-RODENKIRCHEN, (1946-
(1946-47), SPAN 94.5-
94.5-378-
378-94.5 m
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Transmission Towers
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Tension Members
– Trusses
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Tension Members
– Tension Structures
3
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Rods
– One of the simplest forms of tension
members is the circular rod.
– The rod has been used frequently in the
past, but has only occasional uses
nowadays in bracing systems, light
trusses, and in timber construction.
– The problems associated with rods that
there is some difficulty connecting them to
many structures.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Rolled Shapes (Standard Sections)

– Today, tension members include
• Single angles
• Double angles
• Tees
• Channels
• W sections, and
• Built-up sections
– These members look better, are stiffer, and
are easier to connect to other structures.
4
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Steel Sections
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Tie Plates (bars)

– Members consisting of more than one
section need to be tied together.
– Tie plates (also called tie bars) located at
various intervals or perforated cover plates
serve to hold the various pieces in their
correct positions.
– These plates help correct any an equal
distribution of loads between the various
parts.
5
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Steel Cables
– They are made with special steel alloy wire
ropes that are cold-drawn to a desired
diameter.
– The resulting wire strengths of about
200,000 to 250,000 psi can be
economically used for suspension bridges,
cable supported roofs, ski lifts, and other
similar applications.
Design Strength of Tension Members

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Nominal Strength
– The strength of a tension member may be
described in terms of the “limit states” that
govern.
– The controlling strength limit state for a
tension member can either
• Yielding of the gross cross-section of the
member away from the connection, or
• Fracture of the effective net area (i.e., through
the holes) at the connection
6

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
When the limit state is general yielding of
the gross section over the member length,
as for a tension member without holes (i.e.,
with welded connection), the nominal
strength Pn is expressed as
Pn = Fy Ag
(1)
Pu ≤ φt Fy Ag with φt = 0.90
Fy = yield stress
Ag = gross cross-sectional area

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– For tension members having holes, such as
for rivet or bolts, the reduced cross section is
referred to as the net area.
– Holes in member cause stress concentration
(nonuniform stresses).
– For example, a hole in a plate with a tensile
service force P produces a stress distribution
at service load as shown in Fig. 1
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Figure 1. Elastic Stress Distribution with

Holes Present
P
P
f avg on net section
f max = 3 f avg

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Theory of elasticity shows that tensile
stress adjacent to the hole will about three
times the average stress on the net area.
– However, as each fiber reaches yield
strain, that is εy = Fy/Es, its stress then
becomes a constant Fy with deformation
continuing with increasing load until finally
all fibers have achieved or exceeded the
strain εy (see Fig. 2)
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Figure 2. Ultimate Condition - Stress

Distribution with Holes Present
P
P
Fy

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
When the limit state is a localized yielding
resulting in a fracture through the effective
net area of a tension member having holes,
the nominal strength Pn is expressed as
Pn = Fu Ae
(2)
Pu ≤ φt Fu Ae with φt = 0.75
Fu = tensile strength
Ae = effective net area = UAn
An = net area
U = efficiency factor
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Net Areas, An
– Whenever a tension member is to be
fastened by means of bolts or rivets, holes
must be provided at the connection.
– Therefore, the member cross sectional
area is reduced and the strength of the
member may also be reduced depending
on the size and location of the holes.
– The term “net cross-sectional area” or “net
area” refers to the gross sectional area of
the member minus the holes, notches, or
other indentations.
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Net Areas, An (cont’d)

– Methods for Cutting Holes
1. The most common and least expensive
method is to punch standard holes 1/16 in.
(1.6 mm) larger than the diameter of the rivet
or bolt.
In general the plate thickness is less than the
punch diameter. This is accounted in design
by assuming that the extend of the damage is
limited to a radial distance of 1/32 in. (0.8
mm) around the hole.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

2. A second method of cutting holes consists of
subpunching them 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) diameter
undersize and them reaming the holes to the
finished size after the pieces being joined are
assembled.
This method is more expensive, but offers the
advantage of accurate alignment.
This method produces better strength.
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

3. A third method consists of drilling holes to a
diameter of the rivet or bolt plus 1/32 in. (0.8
mm).
This method is used to join thick pieces, and
is the most expensive of the all common
methods.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

How to find the area of the hole?
The area f the hole is considered a rectangular
area, and is computed as follows:
Ah = d h × t p (3)
For fastener in standard holes,

dh = diameter of fastener + 1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
tp = thickness of plate or metal used
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q s
Ah = d h × t p

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
What is the net area An for the tension
member shown?
1
Plate - × 4
4
P P
Standard hole for a - 3 − in - diam. bolt

4
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Ag = 4(0.25) = 1.0 in 2
3 1 7
width to be deducted for hole = + = in. = d h
4 8 8
P
An = Ag − Ah = Ag − d ht p
4 in.  7  1 
= 1.0 −    = 0.781 in 2
 8  4 
1
in. Area (Ah) of hole
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Determine the net area of the 3/8 × 8-in
plate shown. The plate is connected at its
ends with two lines of ¾-in bolts.
Pu Pu
1 3
Pu Plate - × 8 in Plate - × 8 in
4 8
2
Pu Pu
2
1
Plate - × 8 in
4
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
 3
Ag =   (8) = 3 in 2
8
3 1 7
width to be deducted for one hole = + = in. = d h
4 8 8
An = Ag − 2 Ah = Ag − 2d ht p
7 3
= 3.0 − 2  ×  = 2.34 in 2
8 8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
Compute the net area for the member
shown in the figure.
WT12 × 31
3
− in bolts
4
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Using a WT12 × 31, the following
properties can be obtained from the AISC
Steel Manual (Page 1-44):
A = 9.16 in2
tw = 0.430 in
tf =0.59 in
Therefore,
Ag = A = 9.16 in2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
3 1 7
width to be deducted for one hole = + = in. = d h
4 8 8
An = Ag − 2( Ah )Flange − ( Ah )Web
= Ag − 2(d h t p )Falnge − (d ht p )Web
= Ag − 2d ht f − d ht w
7 7
= 9.16 − 2 (0.59 ) − (0.430 ) = 7.75 in 2
8 8
16
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
ANALYSIS OF TENSION
MEMBERS
By
3b

CHAPTER 3b. ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1
Effect of Staggered Holes

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Whenever there is more than on hole

and the holes are not lined up
transverse to the loading direction, more
than one potential failure line may exist.
Q The controlling failure line is that line
which gives the minimum net area.
Q In the previous examples, tension
members were assumed to fail
transversely as along line AB in Fig. 1a
or 1b.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Figure 1. Possible Failure Sections in

Plates
(a) A
(c)
s
A
B
B g
C
A
(b) D
E

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Fig. 1c shows a member in which a

failure other than a transverse one is
possible.
Q The holes are staggered, and failure
along section ABCD is possible unless
the holes are a large distance apart.
Q In Fig. 1b, the failure line is along the
section AB.
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q In Fig. 1c, which is showing two lines of

staggered holes, the failure line might
be through one hole (section ABE) or it
might be along a diagonal path ABCD.
Q At first glance, one might think section
ABE is critical since the path ABE is
obviously shorter than path ABCD.
Q However, from path ABE, only one hole
would be deducted while two holes
would be deducted from path ABCD.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Controlling Section
– In order to determine the controlling
section, both paths ABE and ABCD must
be investigated .
– Accurate checking of strength along path
ABCD is very complex.
– However, a simplified empirical relationship
has been proposed by Cochrane and
adopted by in the AISC LRFD Manual.
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The LRFD Specification and other
specifications use a very simple method for
computing the net width of a tension
member along a zigzag section.
– The method is to take the gross width of
the member regardless of the line along
which failure might occur, subtract the
diameter of the holes along the zigzag
section, and for each individual line the
quantity given by s2/4g.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– In determining the critical section among
various paths, the one that gives the least
value after subtracting the holes, and the
quantity 2
s
(1)
4g
is the critical section.
s = stagger or spacing of adjacent holes parallel to loading
direction (see Fig. 2), also called pitch
g = gage distance transverse to the loading (Fig. 2)
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Figure 2. Critical Section and net

Length s
A
B
g
s2
C
4g
E D
Net length of ABC = length of ABC – diameter of hole

s2
Net length of ABCD = length of ABCD – 2(diameter of hole) +
4g
Note: for standard bolts, add 1/8 in. to hole diameter,

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Determine the critical net area of the ½ -in
plate shown using the LRFD Specification.
The holes are punched for ¾-in bolts.
A
1
2 in
B
3 in
11 in
C
3 in E
1
2 in
D F
3 in
5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
A
1
2 in
2
B
Q Example 1 (cont’d) 11 in
3 in
C
3 in E
From the figure, 1
2 in
2
D F
s = 3 in, and g = 3 in and 6 in 3 in
The critical section could be possibly be

ABCD, ABCEF, or ABEF
1
net length of ABCD = length of ABCD − 2(hole dia. + in)
8
 3 1
net length of ABCD = 11 − 2 +  = 9.25 in
 4 8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Example 1 (cont’d)
1
2 in
Q B
3i C
3i
E
1
2 in
D F
3i
1 s2
net length of ABCEF = length of ABCEF − 3(hole dia. + in) +
8 4g
 3 1  (3)
2
net length of ABCEF = 11 − 3 +  + = 9.125 in (controls)
 4 8  4(3)
6

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
A
1
2 in
2
Q B
3 in
11 in
C
3 in E
1
2 in
2
D F
3 in
1 s2
net length of ABEF = length of ABEF − 2(hole dia. + in) +
8 4g
 3 1  (3)
2
net length of ABEF = 11 − 2 +  + = 9.625 in
 4 8  4(6)
Therefore,
1
The neat area An = 9.125  = 4.56 in 2
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Determine the minimum net area of the plate
shown assuming 15/16-in diameter holes,
and the holes are punched for nonstandard
1 7 1
bolts (i.e., add 1/16 in). 2 in 1 in
8 8 PL ×12 in
4
A
1
2 in B
1
2 in E
12 in
4 in C F
3 in
D G
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
1 7
2 in 1 in
8 8
A
1
2 in
2 B
Q Example 2 (cont’d) 1
2 in
2 E
12 in
From the figure, 4 in C F
3 in
D G
1 7
2 in and 1 in,
s= 8 8 and g = 2.5 in, and 4 in
The critical section could be possibly be

ABCD, ABECD, or ABEFG
1
net length of ABCD = length of ABCD − 2(hole dia. + in)
16
 15 1 
net length of ABCD = 12 − 2 +  = 10.00 in
 16 16 

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
1 7
2 in 1 in
2 in
A
B
8 8
1 7 1
E
2 = 2.125 in, and 1 = 1.875 in
2 in
8 8
C F
3i D G
1 2
s2
net length of ABECD = length of ABECD − 3(hole dia. + in) + ∑
16 i =1 4 g
 15 1  (2.125) (2.125)
2 2
net length of ABECD = 12 − 3 +  + +
 16 16  4(2.5) 4(4 )
= 9.734 in
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
1 7
2 in 1 in
8 8
A
2 in
2 B
1
2 in
2 E
12 in
4 in C F
3 in
D G
1 2
s2
net length of ABEFG = length of ABEFG − 3(hole dia. + in) + ∑
16 i =1 4 g
 15 1  (2.125) (1.875)
2 2
net length of ABEFG = 12 − 3 +  + + = 9.671 in
 16 16  4(2.5) 4(4)
Therefore,
controls
1
The neat area An = 9.671  = 2.42 in 2
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
For the two lines of bolt holes shown,
determine the pitch s that will give a net
area DEFG equal to the one along ABC.
D A
2 in
B
E
6 in
2 in
F
2 in
G C
s s
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
D A
Q Example 3 (cont’d) 2 in
E
B
6 in
2 in
F
2 in
G C
s s
 3 1
net length of ABC = 6 − (1) +  = 5.125 in
 4 8
2
3 1 s s2
net length of DEFG = 6 − (2 ) +  + = 4.25 +
 4 8  4(2 ) 8
Requirement : net length of ABC = net length of DEFG
s2
5.125 = 4.25 +
8
∴ s = 2.65 in.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Manual Provisions for Angles

– Holes for bolts and rivets are usually drilled
or punched in steel angles at certain
standard locations.
– These locations or gages are dependent
on the angle-leg widths and on the number
of lines of holes.
– Table1 (Table 3.1, Text), which is taken
from Fig. 10.6 of the LRFD Manual, shows
these gages.
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Table 1. Usual Gages for Angles, in Inches (AISC Manual)
Leg 8 7 6 5 4 3 1/2 3 2 1/2 2 1 3/4 1 1/2 1 3/8 1 1/4 1
g 4 1/2 4 3 1/2 3 2 1/2 2 1 3/4 1 3/8 1 1/8 1 7/8 7/8 3/4 5/8
g1 3 2 1/2 2 1/4 2
g2 3 3 2 1/2 1 3/4
g1
g2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– When holes are staggered on two legs of
an angle, the gage length g for use in s2/4g
expression is obtained by using a length
between the centers of the holes measured
along the centerline of the angle thickness,
i.e., the distance AB in Fig. 2.
– Thus the gage distance g is given by
t t
g = g a − + gb − = g a + gb − t (2)
2 2
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 2. Gage Distances for an Angle

CL
t A
t B
ga 2
CL
t
2
gb

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 4
Determine the net area An for the angle
given in the figure if 15/16-in diameter
holes for nonstandard bolts (i.e., add 1/16
in.) are used. AISC Manual
1
L6 × 4 × (A = 4.72 in2)
2
1
2
2
1
2
4
2
1
3′′
2
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
For the net area calculations the angle may
be visualized as being flattened into a plate
as shown in Fig. 3.
s2
An = Ag − Dt + t
4g
Where D is the width to be deducted for

the hole.
Path ABCD:
15 1  1
4.72 − 2  +  × = 3.72 in 2 Governs
16 16  2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 3. Angle for the example with legs
6′′ leg shown “flattened” into one plane.
A
″
B
1
2
2 E
″
1
4
4
C
D
4′′ leg
3′′ 3′′
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Using Eq. 2:
1 1 1 1
g = g + g1 − t = 2 + 2 − = 4 in,
2 4 2 4
Path ABECD:
15 1  1  (3) (3)2  × 1 = 3.94 in 2
2
4.72 − 3 +  × +  + 
16 16  2  4(2.5) 4(4.25)  2
Hence, An = 3.72 in2.
Effective Net Areas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The net area as computed previously

gives the reduced section that resist but
still may not correctly reflect the
strength.
Q This particularly true when the tension
member has a profile consisting of
elements not in common plane and
where the tensile load is transmitted at
the end of the member by connection to
some but not all of the elements.
14
Effective Net Areas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q An angle section having connection to

one leg only is an example of such a
such a case.
Q For such situations, the tensile force is
not uniformly distributed over the net
area.
Q To account for nonuniformity, the AISC
Specification provide for an “effective
net area Ae” equal to UAn.
Effective Net Areas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q AISC LRFD Provisions for Effective Net

Area
The AISC LRFD Specification provide that
the effective net area is to be computed as
Ae = UAn (3)
Where
U = reduction coefficient
An = net area
15
Effective Net Areas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Area
– The above equation (Eq. 3) logically applies
for both fastener connections having holes
and for welded connections.
– For welded connections, the net area equal
the gross area Ag since there are no holes.
– Whenever the tensile load is transmitted by
bolts, rivets, or welds through some but not
all of the cross-sectional elements of the
members, the load carrying efficiency is
reduced and U will be less than unity.
Effective Net Areas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q AISC LRFD Provisions for Effective Net Area

The following equation can be used to estimate
the reduction coefficient U:
x (4)
U = 1− ≤ 0.9
L
Where
x = distance from centroid of element being
connected eccentrically to plane of load transfer
L = length between first and last bolts in line.
16
Effective Net Areas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q AISC LRFD Provisions for Effective Net Area

Table 1. Permissible U Values for Bolted Connections
a. W, M, or S shapes with flange widths not less than two-thirds the
depth, and structural tees cut from these shapes, provided the
connection is to the flanges and has no fewer than three fasteners
per line in the dircetion of stress, U = 0.90.
b. W, M, or S shapes not meeting the conditions of subparagraph a,
structural tees cut from these shapes, and all other shapes including
built-up cross sections, provided the connection has no fewer than
three fasteners per line in the direction of stress, U = 0.85.
c. All members having only two fasteners per line in the direction
of stress, U = 0.75.
Effective Net Areas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Area
Figure 4
C.G. angle
C.G. angle
x x
C.G. angle
x
17
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
ANALYSIS OF TENSION
MEMBERS
By
3c

CHAPTER 3c. ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1
Analysis of Bolted Members

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q When tension in a member is

transmitted by bolts, A then equal the
net area An of the member and U is
computed as follows:
x (1)
U = 1−
≤ 0.9
L
Q The length L used in above expression
is equal to the distance between the first
and the last bolts in the line.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1a. Values of x for Different Shapes
C.G. angle
C.G. angle
x x
(I)
(II)
C.G. angle
x
L (III)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1b. Values of x for Different Shapes
(I) (II)
x
Structural tee
Mid depth of W
x
x
Note x = y in structural tee tables
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The angle shown in Fig. 1a-I is connected

at its ends to only one leg.
Q The area effective in resisting tension can
be appreciably increased by shortening
the width of the unconnected leg and
lengthening the width of the connected
width (see Fig. 1a-I and II)
Q x is measured from the plane of the
connection to the center of gravity (C.G.)
or centroid of the whole section.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Calculation of U for W Section

– In order to calculate U for a W section
connected by its flange only, it is assumed
that the section is split into two structural
tees.
– Then, the value of x used will be the
distance from the outside edge of the
flange to the C.G. of the structural tee as
shown in Part II of Fig. 1b.
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Determine the tensile design strength of a
W10 × 45 with two lines of ¾-in diameter
bolts in each flange using A572 Grade 50
steel with Fy = 50 ksi and Fu = 65 ksi and
the LEFD Specification. There are
assumed to be at least three bolts in each
line 4 in. on center, and the bolts are not
staggered with respect to each other.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The following properties of W10 × 45 section
are obtained from LRFD Manual (Page 1-20):
• A = Ag = 13.3 in2, d = 10.1 in., bf = 8.02 in., tf = 0.62 in.
(a) Case I-Yielding of the Section:
φt Pn = φFy Ag = 0.90(50 )(13.3) = 598.5 k
(b) Case II-Net-section Fracture:

3 1
An = 13.3 − 4  +  (0.62 ) = 11.13 in 2 = A
4 8
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Referring to the tables for half of a W10 × 45
(or WT5 × 22.5), the value of x is obtained as
x = 0.907 in. From LRFD, P. 1-49
Then
x 0.907
U = 1− = 1− = 0.89 < 0.9
L 8
Ae = UA = 0.89(11.13) = 9.91 in 2
φt Pn = φt Fu Ae = 0.75(65)(9.91) = 483.1 k
Therefore, design strength = 483.1 k

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Connecting Elements for Tension

Members
Q Splice and gusset plates are usually used as
statically loaded tensile connecting elements.
Q According to the LRFD Manual, their strength
can be determine from
– For yielding of connection elements:
φ = 0.90
(1)
Rn = Ag Fy
– For fracture of connection elements:
φ = 0.75
(2)
Rn = An Fu with An ≤ 0.85 Ag
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Members
Q Example 2
A tension member W10 × 45 with Fy = 50
ksi and Fu = 65 ksi is assumed to be
connected at its ends with two 3/8 × 12-in
plates as shown. If two lines of ¾-in bolts
are used in each plate, determine the
design tensile force which the plates can
transfer.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Members
3
PL ×12
8
Pu
2
W10× 45 Pu
Pu
2
3
PL ×12
8
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Members
 3 
φt Fy Ag = 0.9(50 )2 (12) = 405 k
8
   
 3   3 1   3 
An of 2 plates = (2 ) (12 ) −  + (2 )  = 7.69 in 2
 8   4 8   8 
  3 
0.85 Ag = 0.852 (12 ) = 7.65 in 2 < 7.69
 8 
∴ An = 7.65 in 2
φt Pn = φt Fu An = 0.75(65)(7.65) = 372.9 k controls
Therefore,
φ t Pn = 372.9 k
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The design strength of a tension

member is not always controlled by
φt Fy Ag or φ t Fu Ag
or by the strength of the bolts or welds
with which the member is connected.
Q It may instead be controlled by its block
shear strength as will be described.
7
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Failure due to Block Shear

– The failure of a member may occur along a
path involving tension on one plane and
shear on a perpendicular plane as shown
in Fig. 2.
– In this figure, several possible block shear
failures are shown.
– For these situations, it is possible for a
“block” to tear out.
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 2. Failure due to Block Shear

Shear plane
Tension plane
These cross-hatched (a) Bolted Angle

Parts may tear out.
Shear plane
Tension plane
Tension plane
This cross-hatched Shear plane

(b) Bolted Flange of W Section
Parts may tear out.
8
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– When a tensile load applied to a particular
connection is increased, the fracture
strength of the weaker plane will be
approached.
– That plane will not fall because it is
restrained by the stronger plane.
– The load can be increased until the
fracture strength of the stronger plane is
reached.
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– During this time, the weaker plane is in
yielding.
– The total strength of the connection equals
the fracture strength of the stronger plane
plus the yield strength of the weaker plane.
– However, it is not realistic to add the
fracture strength of one plane to the
fracture strength of the plane to determine
the block shear capacity of a particular
member.
9
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Block shear failure can be thought of

as being a tearing or rupture failure
and not a yielding failure at bolt holes.
Shear plane
Tension plane
This cross-hatched
Parts may tear out.
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The member shown in Fig. 3a has a larger
shear area and a small tensile area.
– Therefore, the primary resistance to a
block shear failure is shearing and not
tensile.
– The LRFD Specification states that it is
logical to assume that when shear fracture
occurs on this large shear-resisting area,
the small tensile area has yielded.
10
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 3. Block Shear

Pu
5
Large shear area
Pu
Small tensile area
(a) Shear Fracture and Tension Yielding
Pu
5
(b) Free body of “block” that tends to shear

out in angle of part a.
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Part (b) of Fig. 3 shows a free body of the
block that tends to tear out the angle of
Part a. This block shear is caused by the
bolts bearing on the back of the bolts
holes.
– When a member has a large tensile area
and a small shear area, the block shear
failure will be tensile and not shearing.
11
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Specification on Block Shear

– The block shear design strength of a
member is to be determined by
1. Computing the tensile fracture strength on the
net section in one direction and adding to that
value the shear yield strength on the gross area
on the perpendicular segment.
2. Computing the shear fracture strength on the
gross area subject to tension and adding it to the
tensile yield strength on the net area subject to
shear on the perpendicular segment.
– The expression to use is the one with larger
rupture value.
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

1.If FuAnt ≥ 0.6 Fu Anv, then shear yielding and
tension fracture, and the following Eq. is used:
[ ]
φRn = φ 0.6 Fy Agv + Fu Ant ≤ φ [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant ] (3)
2.If FuAnt < 0.6 Fu Anv, then shear yielding and

tension fracture, and the following Eq. is used:
[ ]
φRn = φ 0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt ≤ φ [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant ] (4)
in which φ = 0.75, and
12
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Agv = gross area subjected to shear, in2
Agt = gross area subjected to tension, in2

Anv = net area subjected to shear, in2
Ant = net area subjected to tension, in2
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
2.5′′ = lh
Q Example 3 3.5′′
The A572 Grade 50 1
(Fu = 65 ksi) tension L6 × 4 × 2′′ = lv
2
member shown is
connected with three 4′′
¾-in bolts. Determine

the block shearing 4′′
strength of the
member and its Shear plane
tensile strength.
Tension plane
13
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
For L6 × 4 × ½, the LRFD Manual gives the
following properties (P. 1-34 & 1-35):
A = 4.72 in2, and x in unconnected leg = 0.986 in.
The following areas can be computed:
1
Agv = (10)  = 5.0 in 2
2
1
Agt = (2.5)  = 1.25 in 2
2
  3 1  1 
Anv = 10 − 2.5 +   = 3.91 in 2
  4 8  2 
 1  3 1  1 
Ant = 2.5 −  +   = 1.03 in 2
 2  4 8  2 
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3 (cont’d
Fu Ant = (65)(1.03) = 66.9 k < 0.6 Fu Anv = 0.6(65)(3.91) = 152.5 k
Therefore, use Eq. 4
[ ]
φRn = φ 0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt ≤ φ [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant ]
φRn = 0.75[0.6(65)(3.9) + 50(1.25)] = 161 k Controls
< 0.75[0.6(65)(3.9 ) + 65(1.03)] = 164 k
– Tensile strength of angle:
(a) Yieding Criterion :
φt Pn = φt Fy Ag = 0.9(50 )(4.72 ) = 212.4 k
14
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3 (cont’d
(a) Fracture Criterion :
 3 1  1 
An = 4.72 − (1) +   = 4.28 in 2 = A
 4 8  2 
x 0.986
U = 1− = 1− = 0.88 ≤ 0.9
L 8
Ae = UA = 0.88(4.28) = 3.77 in 2
φt Pn = φt Fu Ae = 0.75(65)(3.77 ) = 183.8 k
Therefore,
φt Pn = 161 k
Block Shear
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Use of Tables in LRFD Manual

– Tables are available in Part 9 of the LRFD
Manual, 2nd Edition with which block shear
strengths of W beams can be determined .
– In Table 9.3, values of φ Fu Ant are
tabulated per inch of material thickness,
and then in Table 9.4 values of φ (0.6Fy Agv)
per inch of material thickness are given.
15
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 4
Using the program INSTEP32, determine
the design tensile strength of a 12-ft long
W12 × 136 consisting of A572 Grade 50
steel if the net area is assumed to be 35.52
in2 and U = 0.9.
Input:
Pu = 0 kips
Net Area = 35.52 in2
Length = 12 × 12 = 144 in
U = 0.9
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
16
Computer Example
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
17
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
DESIGN OF TENSION
MEMBERS
By
4

CHAPTER 4. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1
Selection of Members
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q This chapter deals with the design of

tension members for external loads.
Q In general, the design of tension
members should have the following
properties:
1. Compactness
2. Dimensions that fit into the structure with
reasonable relation to other member
dimensions.
3. Minimization of shear blocks and lag.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q AISC LRFD Specifications

The design strength φt Pn is the lesser of
a) φt Fy Ag (1)
b) φt Fu Ae (2)
c) The block shear strength, φt Rn (3)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The first expression (Eq. 1) is satisfied if
the minimum gross area is at least equal to
the following:
Pu
min Ag = (4)
φt Fy
– The second expression (Eq. 2) is satisfied
if the minimum value of Ae is at least
Pu
min Ae = (5)
φt Fu
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– And since Ae = U An for bolted members, the
minimum value of An is given by
min Ae Pu (6)
min An = =
U φt FuU
– Then the minimum Ag for the second expression
(Eq. 2) must be at least equal the minimum
value of An plus the estimated hole area:
Pu
min Ag = + estimated hole areas (7)
φt FuU
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The third expression (Eq. 3) can be
evaluated once a trial shape has been
selected, and the other parameters related
to the block shear strength are known.
– The designer can substitute into Eqs. 4
and 7, taking the larger value of Ag so
obtained for an initial size estimate.
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The designer also has to check the
slenderness ratio that it would not exceed
a value of 300, that is
L
= 300
r
or (8)
L
min r =
300
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– If no load involved other than the dead and
live loads, then the designer must check
the following load factor expressions and
take the larger:
Pu = 1.4 D (9)
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L (10)
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Select a 30-ft-long W12
section of A992 steel to
support a tensile service
dead load PD = 130 k and
a tensile service load PL
= 110 k. As shown in the
figure, the member is to
have two lines of bolts in
each flange for 7/8-in
bolts (at least three in a
line 4 in on center).
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Considering the load factor expressions of
Eqs. 9 and 10:
Pu = 1.4 D = 1.4(130 ) = 182 k
Controls
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2(130) + 1.6(110 ) = 332 k
Computing the minimum Ag required using
Eqs. 4 and 7:
Pu 332
min Ag = = = 7.38 in 2
φt Fy 0.9(50 )
Assume U = 0.9 and assume the flange

thickness is 0.380 in from the manual for W12.
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Pu
min Ag = + estimated hole areas
φt FuU
332  7 1  
= + 4  + (0.380 ) = 9.09 in 2
0.75(65)(0.9 )  8 8  
Preferable min r:
L 30 ×12
min r = = = 1.2 in
300 300
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Try W12 × 35, that has the following
properties (P. 1-20 and 1-21, Manual):
Ag = 10.3 in2, d = 12.5 in, bf = 6.56 in
tf =0.520 in, and ry = 1.54 in
Checking:
φt Pn = φt Fu Ag = 0.9(50 )(10.3) = 463.5 k > 332 k OK
x For half W12 × 35 or that is a WT6 × 17.5 :

x = 1.30 in (note it is y in P. 1 - 49 of Manual)
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Checking (cont’d)
L = 2(4 ) = 8 in
 x  1.30 
U = 1 −  ≤ 0.90 = 1 −  = 0.84 < 0.90
 L  8 
 7 1  
An = 10.3 − 4  + (0.520 ) = 8.22 in 2
 8 8  
φt Pn = φt Fu Ae = 0.75(65)[0.84(8.22 )] = 336.6 k > 332 k OK
Ly 30 × 12
= = 234 < 300 OK
ry 1.54
Therefore, USE W12 × 35 Section
7
Built-up Tension Members

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The LRFD Specification provides a

definite set of rules describing how the
different parts of built-up tension members
are to be connected together:
1. When a tension member is built up from
element in continuous contact with each
other, such as a plate and a shape, or two
plates, the longitudinal spacing of connectors
between those elements must not exceed 24
times the thickness of the thinner plate, or 12
in if the member is to be painted.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
2. Should the member consists of unpainted

weathering steel elements in continuous contact
and be subject to atmospheric corrosion, the
maximum permissible connector spacings are
14 times the thickness of the thinner plate, or 7
in.
3. Should a tension member be built up from two
or more shapes separated by intermittent filet,
the shapes must be connected to each other at
intervals such that the slenderness ratio of the
individual shapes between fasteners does not
exceed 300.
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
4. The distance from the center of any bolts

to the nearest edge of the connected part
under consideration may not be larger
than 12 times the thickness of the
connected part, or 6 in.
NOTE: refer to Page 105 of the textbook

and LRFD Specification D2 for more details
about the the design of connecting plates.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Two C12 × 30s, as shown in the figure, have
been selected to support a dead tensile
working load of 120 k and a 240-k live load
tensile working load. The member is 30 ft long
consists of A36 steel, and has one line of at
least three 7/8-in bolts in each channel flange
3 in on center. Using the LRFD Specification,
determine whether the member is satisfactory
and design the necessary tie plates. Assume
centers of bolt holes are 1.75 in from the
backs of the channels.
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2 (cont’d) Pu
2
Pu
2
5.326′′
0.674
c.g. of C
length of
12″ tie plate
2 - C12 × 30s
( A = 8.82 in 2 each)
″ ″ ″
3 1 3
1 8 1 Pu
4 2 4 Pu
2
2
12″ width of the plate

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Using C12 × 30s, the following properties
from the LRFS Manual can be obtained:
Ag = 8.81 in2 each, tf = 0.501 in, Ix = 162 in4 each
Iy = 5.12 in4 each, y axis 0.674 from back of C, and
ry = 0.762 in.
Load to be resisted:
Pu = 1.4 D = 1.4(120) = 168 k

Controls
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2(120 ) + 1.6(240 ) = 528 k
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Design Strengths:
φt Fy Ag = 0.9(36)[2(8.81)] = 570.9 k > 528 k OK

 7 1 
An = 28.81 − 2 + (0.501) = 15.62 in 2
 8 8 
U = 0.85 from Table 2 (Table 3 - 2, Text)
φt Pn = φt Fu AnU = 0.75(58)(15.62)(0.85) = 577.5 k > 528 k OK
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Slenderness Ratio:
I x = 2(162) = 324 in 4
I y = 2(5.12) + 2(8.81)(5.326) = 511 in 4
2
324
rx = = 4.29 in
2(8.81)
511
ry = = 5.38 in
2(8.81)
since rx = 4.29 in < ry = 5.38 in, rx controls
Lx 12 × 30
= = 83.9 < 300 OK
rx 4.29

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Design of tie plates:
 3
Distance between lines of bolts = 12 - 21  = 8.5 in
 4
2
Min. length of tie plates = (8.5) = 5.67 in (say 6 in)
3
1 3
Min. thickness of tie plates = (8.5) = 0.17 (say in)
50 16
 1
Min. width of tie paltes = 8.5 + 21  = 11.5 in (say 12 in)
 2
Max. preferable spacing of tie plates :
Least r of C = 0.762 in
L L
Max. preferable = 300 ⇒ = 300 ⇒ L = 228.6 in = 19.05 ft
r 0.762
USE 3/16 × 6 × 1 ft
12
Rods and Bars

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q When rods and bars are used as

tension members, they may be simply
welded at their ends, or they may be
threaded and held in place with nuts.
Q The LRFD nominal tensile design stress
for threaded rods is given in their table
J3.2 and equals φ0.75 Fu, and is to be
applied to the gross area of the rod AD
computed with the major thread
diameter.
Rods and Bars

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The area required for a particular

tensile load can then be calculated from
the following expression:
Pu
AD ≥ with φ = 0.75 (11)
φ 0.75 Fu
13
Rods and Bars

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
Using A36 steel and LRFD Specification,
select a standard rod of A36 steel to
support a tensile working dead load of 10 k
and a tensile working live load of 20 k.
Pu = 1.4 D = 1.4(10 ) = 14 k
Controls
Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2(10 ) + 1.6(20 ) = 44 k
Pu 44
Eq. 11 : AD = = = 1.35 in 2
φ 0.75 Fu 0.75(0.75)(58)
3
USE 1 - in - diameter rod ( AD = 1.49 in 2 )
8
Design for Fatigue Loads

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The AISC has provisions for fatigue

design as outlined by the following
procedure:
1. The design stress range determined in
accordance with the AISC requirements
is only applicable for the following
situations:
a. Structures for which the steel has adequate
corrosion protection for the conditions
expected in that locality.
b. Structures for temperatures do not exceed
3000 F.
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
2. The provisions of the Specification apply

to stresses which are calculated with
unfactored loads and the maximum
permitted stress due to these loads is
0.66 Fy.
Formulas are given in Appendix K.3 of
the Specification for computing the
design stress range.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The stress range, for most cases, can

be calculated from
0.333
 Cf 
FSR =   ≥ FTH (12)
 N 
Where
FSR = design stress range, ksi
Cf = constant from Table A-K3.1 in LRFD Appendix
N = number of stress fluctuations in design life
FTH = threshold fatigue stress range from Table A-K3.1
in LRFD Appendix, Ksi.
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 4
A tension member is to consist of a W12
section (Fy = 50 ksi) with fillet-welded end
connections. The service dead load is 40
k, while it is estimated that the service live
load will vary from a compression of 20 k to
a tension of 90 k fifty times per day for an
estimated design life of 25 years. Select
the section.
See Solution on Page 116, Textbook.
16
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
AXIALLY LOADED
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
By
5a

CHAPTER 5a. INTRODUCTION TO AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Axial Compression
– Columns are defined as members that
carry loads in compression.
– Usually they carry bending moments as
well, about one or both axes of the cross
section.
– The bending action may produce tensile
forces over a part of the cross section.
– Despite of the tensile forces or stresses
that may be produced, columns are
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Axial Compression
– Generally referred to as: “compression
members” because the compression forces
or stresses dominate their behavior.
– In addition to the most common type of
compression members (vertical elements
in structures), compression members
include:
• Arch ribs
• Rigid frame members inclined or otherwise
• Compression elements in trusses
• shells
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Steel Columns
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
3
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q General
– Columns include top chords of trusses and
various bracing members.
– In many cases, many members have
compression in some of their parts. These
include:
• The compression flange
• Built-up beam sections, and
• Members that are subjected simultaneously to
bending and compressive loads.
4
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q General
– Mode of Failures for Columns
1. Flexural Buckling (also called Euler buckling) is
the primary type of buckling. Members are
subject to flexure or bending when they become
unstable.
2. Local Buckling: This type occurs when some
part or parts of the cross section of a column are
so thin that they buckle locally in compression
before the other modes of buckling can occur.
The susceptibility of a column to local buckling is
measured by the width-thickness ratio of the
parts of the cross section
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q General
Euler Buckling
P
5
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q General
– Local Buckling
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q General
– Mode of Failures for Columns (cont’d)
3. Torstional Buckling may occur in columns
that have certain cross-sectional
configurations. These columns fail by twisting
(torsion) or by a combination of torsional and
flexural buckling.
6
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Slenderness Ratio
– The longer the column becomes for the same
cross section, the greater becomes its
tendency to buckle and the smaller becomes
the load it will carry.
– The tendency of a member to buckle is usually
measured by its slenderness ratio, that is
L
Slenderness Ratio = (1)
r
I
where r = = radius of gyration
A
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Effect of Material Imperfections and

Flaws
– Slight imperfections in tension members
and beams can be safely disregarded as
they are of little consequences.
– On the other hand, slight defects in
columns may be of major significance.
– A column that is slightly bent at the time it
is put in place may have significant
bending moment resulting from the load
and the initial lateral deflection.
7
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Why is a column more critical than a

beam or a tension member?
– A column is a more critical member in a
structure than is a beam or tension
members because minor imperfections in
materials and dimensions mean a great
deal.
– This fact can be illustrated by a bridge
truss that has some of its members
damaged by a truck.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Why is a column more critical than a

beam or a tension member? (cont’d)
– The bending of tension members probably
will not be serious as the tensile loads will
tend to straighten those members; but the
bending of any compression members is a
serious matter, as compressive loads will
tend to magnify the bending in those
members.
8
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Columns Bay
– The spacing of columns in plan establishes
what is called a Bay.
– For example, if the columns are 20 ft on
center in one direction and 25 ft in the
other direction, the bay size is 20 ft × 25 ft.
– Larger bay sizes increase the user’s
flexibility in space planning.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Columns Bay Bay Size : 20 ft × 25 ft
25 ft
20 ft
9
Residual Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Residual stresses are stresses that

remain in a member after it has been
formed into a finished product.
Q Causes:
1. Uneven cooling that occurs after hot rolling
of structural shapes.
2. Cold bending or cambering during
fabrication.
3. Punching of holes during fabrication.
4. Welding.
Residual Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections

– In wide-flange or H-shaped sections, after hot
rolling, the flanges, being the thicker parts, cool
more slowly than the web region.
– Furthermore, the flange tips having greater
exposure to the air cool more rapidly than the
region at the junction of the flange and the web.
– Consequently, compressive residual stress
exists at flange tips and mid-depth of the web,
while tensile residual stress exists in the flange
and the web at the regions where they join.
10
Residual Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections
Maximum compressive
Stress, say 12 ksi average
(83 Mpa)
Compression (-)
(-)
Tension (+)
(+)
Figure 1. Typical residual stress

pattern on rolled shapes
Sections Used for Columns

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q In theory, numerous shapes can be

used as columns to resist given loads.
Q However, from practical viewpoint, the
number of possible solutions is severely
limited by section availability,
connection problems, and type of
structure in which the section is to be
used.
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. Types of Compression Members
Single angle Double angle Tee Channel

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. (cont’d)Types of Compression

Members
W Column Pipe or round Square HSS

HSS tubing tubing
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Members
Rectangular Four angle Box section Box section

HSS tubing box section

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Members
W with W and Built-up Built-up

Cover Plats channels
13
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
AXIALLY LOADED
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
By
5b

CHAPTER 5b. INTRODUCTION TO AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1
Development of Column Formulas

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q In 1757, Leonhard Euler, A Swiss

mathematician wrote a paper of great
value concerning the buckling of
columns
Q He was probably the first person to
realize the significance of buckling.
Q The Euler formula, the most famous of
all column equations will be derived in
the following viewgraphs.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q This formula marked the real beginning

of theoretical and experimental
investigation of columns.
Q Practical column design is based
primarily on formulas that have been
developed to fit with reasonable
accuracy test-result curves.
Q The testing of columns with various
slenderness ratios results in a scattered
range of values as shown in Fig. 1.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. Test Result Curve

at failure
Pu
A
L
r
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The dots in Fig. 1 will not fall on a

smooth curve even if all of the testing is
performed in the same laboratory
because of the difficulty of
– Exactly centering the loads
– Lack of perfect uniformity of the materials
– Varying dimensions of the sections
– Residual stresses
– End restraint variations
– Etc.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The practical approach is to attempt to

develop formulas which give results
represented by an approximate average
of the test results.
Q It is to be noted also that the laboratory
conditions are not field conditions and
column tests probably give the limiting
values of column strengths.
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Yield Strength and Length of Column

– Short Columns
• The yield stresses of the section tested are
quite important for short columns as their failure
stresses are close to those yield stresses.
– Columns with Intermediate L/r
• The yield stresses are of lesser importance on their
effect on failure stresses. Also residual stresses
have more effect on the results.
– Long Slender Columns
• The yield stresses are of no significance, but the
column strength is very sensitive to end conditions.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
– Buckling is a mode of failure generally
resulting from structural instability due to
compressive action on the structural
member or element involved.
– Examples
• Overloaded metal building columns.
• Compressive members in bridges.
• Roof trusses.
• Hull of submarine.
4
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
– Examples (cont’d)
• Metal skin on aircraft fuselages or wings with
excessive torsional and/or compressive
loading.
• Any thin-walled torque tube.
• The thin web of an I-beam with excessive
shear load
• A thin flange of an I-beam subjected to
excessive compressive bending effects.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
– In view of the above-mentioned examples,
it is clear that buckling is a result of
compressive action.
– Overall torsion or shear may cause a
localized compressive action that could
lead to buckling.
– Examples of buckling for commonly seen
and used tools (components) are provided
in the next few viewgraphs.
5
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
Figure 2
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
Figure 2 (cont’d)
6
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
Figure 2 (cont’d)
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
– In Fig. 2, (a) to (d) are examples of
temporary or elastic buckling.
– While (e) to (h) of the same figure are
examples of plastic buckling
– The distinctive feature of buckling is the
catastrophic and often spectacular nature
of failure.
7
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
Figure 3. Steel Column Buckling
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Buckling
– The collapse of a column supporting
stands in a stadium or the roof of a building
usually draws large headlines and cries of
engineering negligence.
– On a lesser scale, the reader can witness
and get a better understanding of buckling
by trying to understand a few of the tests
shown in Fig. 2.
8
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– For non-buckling cases of axial, torsional,
bending, and combined loading, the stress
or deformation was the significant quantity
in failure.
– Buckling of a member is uniquely different
in that the quantity significant in failure is
the buckling load itself.
– The failure (buckling) load bears no unique
relationship to the stress and deformation
at failure.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Buckling is unique from our other
structural-element considerations in that it
results from a state of unstable equilibrium.
– For example, buckling of a long column is
not caused by failure of the material of
which the column is composed, but by
determination of what was a stable state of
equilibrium to an unstable one.
9
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Mechanism of Buckling
– Let’s consider Fig. 4, 5, and 6, and study
them very carefully.
– In Fig. 4, some axial load P is applied to
the column.
– The column is then given a small deflection
by applying the small lateral force F.
– If the load P is sufficiently small, when the
force F is removed, the column will go back
to its original straight condition.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Mechanism of Buckling Figure 4

P < Pcr P < Pcr P < Pcr
Before
F
During F
F F
Before During After
F F F
After
F Stable Equilibrium
10
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The column will go back to its original
straight condition just as the ball returns to
the bottom of the curved container.
– In Fig. 4 of the ball and the curved
container, gravity tends to restore the ball
to its original position, while for the column
the elasticity of the column itself acts as
restoring force.
– This action constitutes stable equilibrium.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The same procedure can be repeated for
increased value of the load P until some
critical value Pcr is reached, as shown in
Fig. 5.
– When the column carries this load, and a
lateral force F is applied and removed, the
column will remain in the slightly deflected
position. The elastic restoring force of the
column is not sufficient to return the
column to its original straight position but is
sufficient to prevent excessive deflection of
the column.
11
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5
P = Pcr P = Pcr P = Pcr
Before
F
During
F
F F
Before During After
F F F
After
Precarious Equilibrium
F
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– In Fig. 5 of the ball and the flat surface, the
amount of deflection will depend on the
magnitude of the lateral force F.
– Hence, the column can be in equilibrium in an
infinite number of slightly bent positions.
– This action constitutes neutral or precarious
equilibrium.
– If the column is subjected to an axial
compressive load P that exceeds Pcr, as
shown in Fig. 6, and a lateral force F is applied
and removed, the column will bend
considerably.
12
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 6
P > Pcr P > Pcr P > Pcr
Before
F Possible
buckle
F F or
During collapse
F
Before During After
F F F
After Small
F disturbance ν Unstable Equilibrium
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– That is, the elastic restoring force of the
column is not sufficient to prevent a small
disturbance from growing into an excessively
large deflection.
– Depending on the magnitude of P, the
column either will remain in the bent position
or will completely collapse and fracture, just
as the ball will roll off the curved surface in
Fig. 6.
13
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– This type of behavior indicates that for
axial loads greater than Pcr, the straight
position of a column is one of unstable
equilibrium in that a small disturbance will
tend to grow into an excessive
deformation.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Definition
“Buckling can be defined as the sudden

large deformation of structure due to a
slight increase of an existing load
under which the structure had exhibited
little, if any, deformation before the load
was increased.”
14
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Load

– The purpose of this analysis is to
determine the minimum axial compressive
load for which a column will experience
lateral deflection.
– Governing Differential Equation:
• Consider a buckled simply-supported column of
length L under an external axial compression
force P, as shown in the left schematic of Fig.
7. The transverse displacement of the buckled
column is represented by δ.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Load P

P
Figure 7
y P
(a)
(b)
15
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Governing Differential Equation:
• The right schematic of Fig. 7 shows the forces
and moments acting on a cross-section in the
buckled column. Moment equilibrium on the
lower free body yields a solution for the internal
bending moment M,
Py + M = 0 (1)
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Governing Differential Equation (cont’d):
• Recall the relationship between the moment M
and the transverse displacement y for the
elastic curve,
dy 2 (2)
EI 2 = M
dx
• Eliminating M from Eqs. 1 and 2 results in the
governing equation for the buckled slender
column,
16
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Governing Differential Equation (cont’d):
d2y P
+ y=0 (3)
dx 2 EI
– Buckling Solution:
• The governing equation is a second order
homogeneous ordinary differential equation
with constant coefficients and can be solved by
the method of characteristic equations. The
solution is found to be,
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Buckling Solution (cont’d):
y ( x) = A sin px + B cos px (4)
• Where p2 = P/EI. The coefficients A and B can

be determined by the two boundary conditions,
y(0) = 0 and y(L) = 0, which yields,
B=0
A sin pL = 0 (5)
17
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

• The coefficient B is always zero, and for most
values of m × L the coefficient A is required to
be zero. However, for special cases of m × L,
A can be nonzero and the column can be
buckled. The restriction on m × L is also a
restriction on the values for the loading F; these
special values are mathematically called
eigenvalues. All other values of F lead to trivial
solutions (i.e. zero deformation).
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

sin pL = 0
⇒ pL = 0, π , 2π , 3π ,L , nπ
or
π 2π 3π nπ
p = 0,
, , ,L, (6)
L L L L
• Since p = P/EI, therefore,
2
π 2 EI (2 ) π 2 EI (3) π 2 EI
2 2
n 2π 2 EI
P = 0, , , , L , (7)
L2 L2 L2 L2
18
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

• Or
2
 nπ 
P = EI   for n = 0,1,2,3L (8)
 L 
• The lowest load that causes buckling is called
critical load (n = 1).
π 2 EI (9)
Pcr = 2
L
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Load, Pcr

The critical buckling load (Euler Buckling)
for a long column is given by
π 2 EI (9)
Pcr = 2
where
L
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
I = moment of inertia of the cross section
L = length of column
19
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Stress

– The critical buckling normal stress Fe is
found as follows:
When the moment of inertia I in Eq. 9 is
replaced by Ar2, the result is
Pcr π 2E
= = Fe (10)
A (L / r )2
where
A = cross-sectional area of column
r = radius of gyration =
I
A
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Stress

The critical buckling normal stress is given
by
π 2E
Fe = (11)
(L / r )2
Where
I
r = radius of gyration =
A
(L/r) = slenderness ratio of column
20
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Load and Stress

– The Euler buckling load and stress as
given by Eq. 9 or Eq. 11 agrees well with
experiment if the slenderness ratio is large
(L/r > 140 for steel columns).
– Short compression members (L/r < 140 for
steel columns) can be treated as
compression blocks where yielding occurs
before buckling.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Critical Buckling Load and Stress

– Many columns lie between these extremes
in which neither solution is applicable.
– These intermediate-length columns are
analyzed by using empirical formulas to be
described later.
– When calculating the critical buckling for
columns, I (or r) should be obtained about
the weak axis.
21
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
A W10 × 22 is used as a 15-long pin-
connected column. Using Euler
expression (formula),
a. Determine the column’s critical or
buckling load, assuming the steel has a
proportional limit of 36 ksi.
b. Repeat part (a) if the length of the column
is changed to 8 ft.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Using a W10 × 22, the following properties
can be obtained from the LRFD Manual:
A = 6.49 in2, rx = 4.27 in, and rx = 1.33 in
Therefore, minimum r = ry = 1.33 in.
a. L 15 ×12
= = 135.34
r 1.33
Fe =
π 2E
=
(
π 2 29 ×103 )
= 15.63 ksi < 36 ksi
(L / r )2 (135.34)2
OK column is in elastic range
22
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
b. Using an 8-ft W10 × 22:
L 8 ×12
= = 72.18
r 1.33
Fe =
π 2E
=
(
π 2 29 × 103 )
= 54.94 ksi > 36 ksi
(L / r )2 (72.18)2
∴ column is in inelastic range and
Euler equation is not applicable
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Review of Parallel-Axis Theorem for

Radius of Gyration
– In dealing with columns that consist of
several rolled standard sections, it is
sometimes necessary to compute the
radius of gyration for the entire section for
the purpose of analyzing the buckling load.
– It was shown that the parallel-axis theorem
is a useful tool to calculate the second
23
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Radius of Gyration
– Moment of area (moment of inertia) about
other axes not passing through the
centroid of the overall section.
– In a similar fashion, the parallel-axis
theorem can be used to find radii of
gyration of a section about different axis
not passing through the centroid.
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Radius of Gyration
– Consider the two channels, which are
y
laced a distance of 2a back to back.
Lacing bars
Ix 2 I xC I xC
2d I x = 2 I xC ⇒ rx =
Aoverall
=
2 Asec
=
Asec
= rxC (12)
x
2a
x
xC ( ) ( )
I y = 2 I yC + Asec d 2 = 2 Asec ry2C + Asec d 2 = 2 Asec ry2C + d 2 ( )
⇒ ry =
Iy
=
(
2 Asec ry2C + d 2 )= ry2C + d 2 (13)
y
Aoverall 2 Asec
24
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Parallel-Axis Theorem for Radius of

Gyration
Eqs. 12 and 13 indicate that the radius of
gyration for the two channels is the same
as that
y
for one channel, and
Lacing bars
ry = ry2C + (a + xC )
2d 2
(14)
x x
2a xC
where a + xC = d
y
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Two C229 × 30 structural steel channels
are used for a column that is 12 m long.
Determine the total compressive load
required to buckle the two members if
(a) They act independently of each other.
Use E = 200 GPa.
(b) They are laced 150 mm back to back
as shown in Fig. 10.
25
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
y
Lacing bars
150 mm
x x
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(a) Two channels act independently:
• If the two channels are not connected and each
acts independently, the slenderness ratio is
determined by using the minimum radius of
gyration rmin of the individual section
• For a C229 × 30 section (see Fig 8):
rmin = ry = 16.3 mm A = 3795 mm 2
26
Buckling of Long Straight ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Columns
Figure 8
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
L 12 × 103
= = 736.2 (slender)
r 16.3
Pcr =
( )[ ( )]
π 2 EA π 2 200 × 109 (2 ) 3795 × 10 −6
= = 27.64 × 103 N = 27.6 kN
y (L / r )2 (736.2)2
Lacing bars
150 mm • (b) For a C229 × 30 section (see Fig 8):

x x
rmin = 81.8 mm xC = 14.8 mm
I x = 25.3 × 106 mm 4 I y = 1.01× 106 mm
y
xC = 14.8 mm
27
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
50.6 ×106
I = 2 I = 2(25.3 × 10 ) = 50.6 ×10
Ix
6 6
mm 2 ⇒ rx = = = 81.7
2(3795)
x xC
A
y
( ) [
I y = 2 I yC + Ad 2 = 2 1.01× 106 + 3795(75 + 14.8) = 63.23 × 106 mm 2
2
]
Lacing bars Iy 63.23 ×106
⇒ ry = = = 91.3 mm
150 mm A 2(3795)
x x L 12 × 103
rx = rmin = 81.7, therefore, = = 146.9
rmin 81.7
∴ Pcr =
π EA2
=
2
( )[ (
π 200 × 109 2 3795 ×10 −6
= 694.3 kN
)]
y (L / rmin )2
(146.9)2
xC = 14.8 mm
The Euler Formula

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– An alternate solution for finding rx and ry:
• Using Eqs. 12 and 14,
rx = rxC = 81.8 mm
ry = ry2C + (a + xC ) = (16.3)2 + (75 + 14.8)2

2
= 91.3 mm
• Therefore, rmin = rx = 81.8 mm
The slight difference in the result is due to round-off errors.
28
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
AXIALLY LOADED
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
By
5c

CHAPTER 5c. INTRODUCTION TO AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
End Restraint and Effective

Lengths of Columns
Q Limitations of Basic Euler Formula
– The basic Euler formula is only useful if the
end support conditions are carefully
considered.
– The results obtained by application of the
formula to specific examples compare very
well with test results for centrally loaded,
long, slender columns with rounded ends.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q Limitations of Basic Euler Formula
– In real life, these types of columns barely
exists.
– For example, the columns with which one
works do not have rounded ends and are
not free to rotate because their ends are
bolted or welded to other members.
– Furthermore, the axial load applied to
these columns are not centric in most
cases.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q Effect of End Restraint on Column Load
Capacity
– End restraint and its effect on the load-
carrying capacity of columns is very
important subject.
– Columns with appreciable rotational and
transnational end restraint can support
considerably more load than those with
little rotational end restraint as at hinged
end.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q General Notes On Column Buckling
1. Boundary conditions other than simply-
supported will result in different critical loads and
mode shapes.
2. The buckling mode shape is valid only for small
deflections, where the material is still within its
elastic limit.
3. The critical load will cause buckling for slender,
long columns. In contrast, failure will occur in
short columns when the strength of material is
exceeded. Between the long and short column

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q General Notes On Column Buckling
limits, there is a region where buckling occurs
after the stress exceeds the proportional limit but
is still below the ultimate strength. These
columns are classified as intermediate and their
failure is called inelastic buckling.
4. Whether a column is short, intermediate, or long
depends on its geometry as well as the stiffness
and strength of its material. This concept is
addressed in the columns introduction page.
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q The Concept of Effective Length
– The Euler buckling formula, namely Eqs. 9
or 11 of Chapter 5b, were derived for a
column with pivoted ends.
– The Euler equation changes for columns
with different end conditions, such as the
four common ones found in Figs.1and 2.
– While it is possible to set up the differential
equation with appropriate boundary
conditions to determine the Euler buckling

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Figure 1
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Figure 2
(Beer and Johnston 1992)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
formula for each case, a more common
approach makes use of the concept of an
“effective length”.
– The pivoted ended column, by definition, has
zero bending moments at each end.
– The length L in the Euler equation, therefore,
is the distance between successive points of
zero bending moment.
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
– All that is needed to modify the Euler
column formula for use with other end
conditions is to replace L by L′ .
– L′is defined as the effective length of the
column.
L′ = Le = KL (1)
where
K = effective length factor as defined by LRFD

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q The Effective Length Concept
Definition:
The effective length L′ (or Le or KL) of a
column is defined as the distance
between successive inflection points or
points of zero moment.
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q The Effective Length Concept
Based on the effective length concept, the
Euler buckling load and stress formulas
become, respectively 2
π EI (2)
Pcr =
(KL )2
or
π 2E
Fe = (3)
(KL / r )2
KL = Le = L′ = effective length

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q AISC LRFD Specifications for End
Restraint
– Table C-C2.1 of the ”Commentary on the
LRFD Specification” gives recommended
values of the effective length factors K
when ideal conditions are approximated.
– This table is reproduced here as Table 1
(Table 5.1, Textbook).
– Two sets of K values are provided in the
table.
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Table 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q AISC LRFD Specifications for End
Restraint
– One being the theoretical values and the
other being the recommended design
values.
– The recommended values are based on
the fact that perfectly pinned and fixed
conditions are not always possible.
– For continuous frames, the LRFD provides
special K-value Charts for that purpose.
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q Effect of Braced and Unbraced
Structural Frames on Columns Strength
– Structural steel columns can be parts of
structural frames.
– These frames are sometimes braced and
sometimes unbraced.
– A braced frame is one for which sideway
(joint translation) by means of bracing,
shear walls, or lateral support from
adjoining structure (see Fig. 2a).

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
– An unbraced frame does not have any of
these types of bracing provided, and must
depend on the stiffness of its own
members and rotational rigidity of the joints
between the frames members to prevent
lateral buckling (see Fig. 2b)
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q Figure 2
L
Lateral Column is in this
deflection Position after sideway
B And joint rotation B
L Lateral L
deflection
A A
(a) (b)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
Q Effect of Braced and Unbraced Structural
Frames on Columns Strength
– Examination of Fig 2a will show that the
effective length will exceed the actual length
of the column as the elastic curve will
theoretically take the shape of the curve of a
pinned-end column of twice its length and K
will theoretically equal 2.0.
– Notice in Fig 2b how much smaller the lateral
deflection of column AB would be if it were
pinned at both ends to prevent sideway.
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Lengths of Columns
– For braced frames, K values can never be
greater than 1.0, but for unbraced frames
the K values will always be greater than
1.0 because of sideway.
– The smaller the effective length (i.e.,
braced) of a particular column, the smaller
its danger of lateral buckling and the
greater its load-carrying capacity.
Stiffened and Unstiffened Elements

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Local Buckling
– Up to this point, the overall stability of a
particular column has been considered.
– Yet, it is entirely possible for thin flanges or
webs of a column or beam to buckle locally
in compression well before the calculated
buckling strength of the whole member is
reached.
– When thin plates are used to carry
compressive stresses they are particularly
susceptible to buckling about their weak axes
due to small moment of inertia.
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Specification (Section B5)

– The LRFD Specification provides limiting
values for the width-thickness ratios of the
individual parts of compression members
and for the parts of beams in their
compression regions.
– Two categories are listed in the LRFD
Manual:
• Stiffened elements
• Unstiffened elements

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– An unstiffened element is a projecting
piece with one free edge parallel to the
direction of the compression force.
– A stiffened element is supported along
two edges in that direction.
– These types of elements are shown in
Figure 3. In each case, the width b and the
thickness t of the elements in question are
shown.
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Figure 3. Unstiffened and Stiffened Elements

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– For establishing width-thickness ratio
limits for elements of compression
members, the LRFD Specification divides
members into three distinct classifications
as follows:
1. Compact sections
2. Noncompact sections
3. Slender compression elements
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Compact Sections
– A compact section is one that has a
sufficiently stocky profile so that it is capable
of developing a fully plastic stress
distribution before buckling.
– For a section to be compact, it has to have a
width-thickness ratios equal to or less than
the limiting values provided in Table 4 (Table
5.2, Text, or Table B5.1, LRFD Maual).

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Figure 4. Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for

Compression Elements
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Figure 4. (cont’d) Limiting Width-Thickness

Ratios for Compression Elements

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Stiffened Elements
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf


ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Noncompact Sections
– A noncompact section is one for which the
yield stress can be reached in some but not
all of its compression elements before
buckling occurs.
– It is not capable of reaching fully plastic stress
distribution.
– For a section to be noncompact, it has to
have a width-thickness ratios greater than λp
but less than λr as provided in Table 4 (Table
5.2, Text, or Table B5.1, LRFD Maual).
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Slender Compression Elements

– A slender element with a cross section that
does not satisfy the width-thickness ratio
requirements of Table 4 (Table 5.2, Text,
or Table B5.1, LRFD Maual).
– For a section to be slender, it has to have a
width-thickness ratios greater than λr as
provided in Table 4 (Table 5.2, Text, or
Table B5.1, LRFD Maual).
17
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
AXIALLY LOADED
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
By
5d

CHAPTER 5d. INTRODUCTION TO AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Long, Short, and Intermediate

Columns
Q The strength of a column and the
manner in which it fails are greatly
dependent on its effective length.
Q A very short stocky steel column may
be loaded until it reaches it yield point,
and perhaps the strain hardening range.
Q In essence, it can support about the
same load in compression that it can in
tension.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Columns
Q As the effective length of a column
increases, its buckling stress will
decrease.
Q The steel column is said to fail
elastically if the buckling stress is less
than the proportional limit of steel when
the effective length exceeds a certain
value.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Columns
Q Long Columns
– Long columns usually fails elastically.
– The Euler formula predicts very well the
strength of long columns where the axial
compressive buckling stress remains
below the proportional limit.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Columns
Q Short Columns
– The failure stress equals to the yield stress
for short columns.
– For a column to fall into this class, it would
have to be so short as to have no practical
application.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Columns
Q Intermediate Columns
– For intermediate columns some of the
fibers will reach the yield stress and some
will not.
– The member will fail by both yielding and
buckling, and their behavior is said to be
inelastic.
– Most columns fall into this range.
3
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The Euler formula is used by the AISC

LRFD Specification for long columns
with elastic buckling.
Q Other empirical (based on testing)
equations are used by the LRFD for
short and intermediate columns.
Q With these equations, a critical or
buckling stress Fcr is determined for a
compression element.
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD General Design Equation for

Columns
The design strength of a compression
member is determined as follows:
Pn = Ag Fcr
(1)
φ c Pn ≤ φc Ag Fcr with φ = 0.85
4
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Critical Buckling Stress

Two equations are provided by the LRFD
for the critical buckling stress Fcr:
(0.658)λc F
2
for λc ≤ 1.5
 y
Fcr =  0.877  (2)

 2  Fy for λc > 1.5
 λc 
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

The limiting λc value is given by
Fy
λc = (3)
Fe
π 2E
Where Fe = Euler buckling stress =
(KL / r )2
Hence,
Fy (KL / r )
2
Fy Fy KL Fy
λc = = = = (4)
Fe π 2E π 2E rπ E
(KL / r )2
5
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

So the limiting λc value to be used in Eq. 2
is given by
Fy KL Fy
λc = = (5)
Fe rπ E
where
Fy = yield strength of material (steel)
Fe = Euler critical buckling stress
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– For inelastic flexural buckling, Eq. 2 can be
used to compute the critical buckling stress
Fcr when λc ≤ 1.5.
– For elastic flexural buckling, Eq. 2 can be
used to compute the critical buckling stress
Fcr when λc > 1.5.
– Eq. 2 include the estimated effects of
residual stresses and initial out-of-
straightness of the members.
– Eq. 2 is presented graphically in Fig. 1.
6
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. LRFD Critical Buckling Stress

Short
Intermediate
column Long column
column
Inelastic buckling
φc Fcr
λc = 1.5 Elastic buckling
(Euler Formula)
KL
r
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– To facilitate the design process, the LRFD
Manual provides computed values φc Fcr
values for steels with Fy = 36 ksi and 50 ksi
for KL/r from 1 to 200 and has shown the
results in Tables 3.36 and 3.50 of the
LRFD Specification located in Part 16 of
the Manual.
– Also, there is Table 4 of the LRFD
Specification from which the user may
obtain values for steel with any Fy values.
7
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Manual Design Tables (P. 16.I-143)
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
8
Column Formulas
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Manual Design Tables (P. 4-25)
Maximum Slenderness Ratios

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Compression members preferably

should be designed with
KL
≤ 200 (6)
r
as specified in Section B7 of the LRFD
Manual.
Note that LRFD Tables 3.36 and 3.50 give a value of 5.33 ksi for
the design stress φc Fcr when KL/r = 200. If KL/r > 200, it is
then necessary to substitute into the column formulas to get the
the stress.
9
Maximum Slenderness Ratios

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q More Simplification by the LRFD

Manual for Design
– It is to be noted that the LRFD Manual in
its Part 4 has further simplified the
calculations required by computing the
column design strength φc Fcr Ag for each of
the shapes normally used as columns for
commonly used effective lengths or KL
values.
– These were determined with respect to the
least radius of gyration for each section.
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
a. Using the column design stress values
shown in Table 3.50, part 16 of the LRFD
manual, determine the design strength, φc Pn
of the Fy = 50 ksi axially loaded column
shown in the figure.
b. Repeat the problem using the column tables
of part 4 of the Manual.
c. Check local buckling for the section selected
using the appropriate values from Table 5.2.
10
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1 (cont’d) Pu ≤ φc Pn
W12 × 72
15 ft
Pu ≤ φc Pn
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
a. The properties of the W12 × 72 are
obtained from the LRFD Manual as
A = 21.1 in 2 rx = 5.31 in ry = 3.04 in
d = 12.3 in b f = 12.00 in t f = 0.670 in
k = 1.27 in t w = 0.430 in
K = 0.80 from Table 1 (Table 5.1, Text)

Since (ry = 3.04 in ) < (rx = 5.31 in ), ry controls
and
KL 0.80(12 × 15)
= = 47.37
ry 3.04
11
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
For KL/r = 47 and 48, Table 3-50 of the
LRFD Manual, Page 16.I-145, gives
respectively the following values for φc Fcr:
36.2 ksi and 35.9 ksi.
Using interpolation,
47 36.2
φ F − 36.2 47.37 − 47
47.37 φc Fcr ⇒ c cr = ⇒ φ c Fcr = 36.09 ksi
35.9 − 36.2 48 − 47
48 35.9
12
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
P. 16.I-145
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Therefore,
φc Pn = φc Fcr Ag = 36.09(21.1) = 761.5 k
b. Entering column tables Part 4 of the

LRFD Manual with Ky Ly in feet:
K y Ly = 0.80(15) = 12 ft
Pu = φ c Pn = 761 k
13
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
P. 4-25
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
c. Checking W12× 72 for compactness:
For flange See Table 2
h 12.0 E 29 ×103
=
2t f 2(0.670)
= 8.96 < 0.56
Fy
= 0.56
50
= 13.49 OK
For web, noting h = d – 2k = 12.3 – 2 (1.27) =9.76 in
h 9.76 E 29 × 103
=
t w 0.430
= 22.7 < 1.49
Fy
= 1.49
50
= 35.88 OK
See Table 3
14
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Table 2. Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for

Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Table 3. (cont’d) Limiting Width-Thickness

Stiffened Elements
15
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Determine the design strength φc Pn of the
axially loaded column shown in the figure if
KL = 19 ft and 50 ksi steel is used.
1
PL × 20
2
MC18× 42.7
y
x x
18.50 in
[ A = 12.6 in , d = 18.0 in,

2 12 in
I x = 554 in 4 , I y = 14.3 in 4 ,
x = 0.877 in from back of C]
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
1
A = 20  + 2(12.6 ) = 35.2 in 2
2
y from top =
(0.5 × 20)(0.25) + (2 ×12.6)(9.5) = 6.87 in
35.2
20(0.5)
[ ]
3
I x = 2(554 ) + 2 12.6(9.25 − 6.69 ) + + 10(6.69 − 0.25) = 1,688 in 4
2 2
12
0.5(20 )
[ ]
3
I y = 2(14.3) + 2 12.6(6 + 0.877 )
2
+ = 1554 in 4
12
Ix 1688
rx = = = 6.92 in
A 35.2
Iy 1554
ry = = = 6.64 in Controls
A 35.2
16
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
KL KL (12 × 19 )
= = = 34.34
r ry 6.64
For KL/r = 34 and 35, Table 3-50 of the
LRFD Manual, Page 16.I-145, gives
respectively the following values for φc Fcr:
39.1 ksi and 38.9 ksi
34 39.1
φ F − 39.1 34.34 − 34
34.34 φ c Fcr ⇒ c cr = ⇒ φ c Fcr = 39.03 ksi
38.9 − 39.1 35 − 34
35 38.9
Therefore, the design strength = φc Pn = φc Ag Fcr
=39.03 (35.2) = 1374 k
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
a. Using Table 3.50 of Part 16 of the LRFD
Manual, determine the design strength φc Pn
of the 50 ksi axially loaded W14 × 90 shown
in the figure. Because of its considerable
length, this column is braced perpendicular
to its weak axis at the points shown in the
figure. These connections are assumed to
permit rotation of the member in a plane
parallel to the plane of the flanges. At the
same time, however, they are assumed to
prevent translation or sideway and twisting
17
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3 (cont’d) φc Pn
of the cross section
about a longitudinal
10 ft
axis passing through
the shear center of
General support
the cross section.  xy direction 10 ft 32 ft
– Repeat part (a) using
the column tables of
12 ft
Part 4 of the LRFD
Manual.
W14× 90
φc Pn
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
y
Q Example 3 x
(cont’d)
– Note that the
column is braced x
perpendicular to
y 10 ft
its weak y axis as

shown. 10 ft
Bracing
12 ft
W14× 90
18
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
a. The following properties of the W14 × 90
can be obtained from the LRFD Manual as
A = 26.5 in 2 rx = 6.14 in ry = 3.70 in
Determination of effective lengths:
K x Lx = (0.8)(32) = 25.6 ft
K y L y = (1.0 )(10) = 10 ft Governs for Ky Ly
K x Ly = (0.8)(12 ) = 9.6 ft
See Table for the K values
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Table 1
19
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Computations of slenderness ratios:
 KL  12 × 25.6
  = = 50.03 Governs
 r x 6.14
 KL  12 × 10
  = = 32.43
 r y 3.70
Design Strength:
KL
= 50.03 ≈ 50, Table 3 - 50 gives φ c Fcr = 35.4 ksi
r
∴φ c Pn = φc Fcr Ag = 35.4(26.5) = 938 k
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
b. Using columns tables of Part 4 of LRFD
Manual:
Note: from part (a) solution, there are two
different KL values:
K x Lx = 25.6 ft and K y Ly = 10 ft
Which value would control? This can
accomplished as follows:
K x Lx K y Ly
= Equivalent
rx ry
20
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
K x Lx K x Lx
Equivalent K y L y = ry =
rx rx / ry
The controlling Ky Ly for use in the tables is larger
of the real Ky Ly = 10 ft, or equivalent Ky Ly:
rx
for W14 × 90 from bottom of column tables = 1.66
ry
25.6
Equivalent K y Ly = = 15.43 > K y Ly = 10 ft
1.66
For K y Ly = 15.42 and by interpolation :
φc Pn = 938 k
Example Problems
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The Interpolation Process:
• For Ky Ly = 15 ft and 16 ft, column table (P. 4-
23) of Par 4 of the LRFD Manual, gives
respectively the following values for φc Pn: 947 k
and 925 k. Therefore, by interpolation:
15 947
φ P − 947 15.42 − 15
15.42 φ c Pn ⇒ c n = ⇒ φ c Pn = 938 k
925 − 947 16 − 15
16 925
21
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
DESIGN OF AXIALLY
LOADED COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
By
6a

CHAPTER 6a. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The members that can be designed for

compression include:
– Single shapes
– W sections with cover plates
– Built-up sections constructed with channels
– Sections whose unbraced lengths in the x
and y directions.
– Lacing and tie plates for built-up sections
with open sides.
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The Design Process for Columns

– It is to be noted that the design of columns
wit formulas involves a trial-and-error
process.
– The design stress φc Fcr is not known until a
column size is selected and vice versa.
– Once a trial section is assumed, the r value
for that section can be obtained and
substituted into the appropriate column
equation to determine its design stress.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– In the design of columns, the factored load
Pu is computed for a particular column and
then divided by an assumed design stress
to give an estimated column area A, that is
Pu P
Aestimated = = u (1)
assumed stress φc Fcr
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– After an estimated column area is
determined, a trial section can be selected
with approximately that area.
– The design stress for the selected section
can be computed and multiplied by the
cross sectional area of the section to
obtain the member’s design strength.
– This design strength is compared with the
factored load Pu. It must be equal or
greater than the load Pu.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q General Notes on Column Design

– The effective slenderness ratio (KL/r) for
the average column of 10 to 15 ft in length
will generally fall between 40 and 60.
– A value for KL/r in this range can be
assumed and substituted into the
appropriate column equation.
– Or instead of the column equation, tables
in LRFD manual can be consulted to give
the design strength for that particular KL/r
value. (KL/r ranges from 1 to 200 in LRFD)
3
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Using Fy = 50 ksi, select the lightest W14
section available for the service column
loads PD = 130 k and PL = 210 k. Assume
KL = 10 ft.
Pu = 1.2 PD = 1.2(130) =
Governs
Pu = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL = 1.2(130) + 1.6(210) = 492 k
KL
Assume = 50
r
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
φc Fcr form Table 3.50 (Part 16 of Manual) = 35.4 ksi
Pu 492
∴ Arequired = = = 13.90 in 2
φ c Fcr 35.4
(
Try W14 × 48 A = 14.1 in 2 , rx = 5.85 in, ry = 1.91 in )
ry = 1.91 controls
KL 12 × 10
= = 62.83
ry 1.91
φc Fcr form Table 3.50 (Part 16 of Manual)

and by iterpolation = 31.85 ksi
4
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
5
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
φc Pn = (φ c Fcr )Ag = 31.85(14.1) = 449 k < 492 k NG
∴ try next larger W14
(
Try W14 × 53 A = 15.6 in 2 , rx = 5.89 in, ry = 1.92 in )
ry = 1.92 controls
KL 12 × 10
= = 62.5
ry 1.92
φc Fcr form Table 3.50 (Part 16 of Manual)
and by iterpolation = 31.95 ksi
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
∴φ c Pn = (φc Fcr )Ag = 31.95(15.6 ) = 498 k < 492 k OK
Checking width-thickness ratio for W14 × 53:
 b f = 8.060 in , t f = 0.660 in, 

W14 × 53 

 k = 1 . 25 in, d = 13 . 9 in, t w = 0. 370 in 
bf 8.060 E 29 ×103
2t f
=
2(0.660)
= 6.11 < 0.56
Fy
= 0.56
50
= 13.49 OK
h 13.9 − 2(1.25) E 29 × 103

= = 30.81 < 1.49 = 1.49 = 35.88 OK
tw 0.370 Fy 50
6
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The LRFD Manual can be used to

select various column sections from
tables without the need of using a trial-
and-error procedures.
Q These tables provide axial design
strengths φcPn for various practical
effective lengths of the steel sections
commonly used as columns.
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Manual Design Tables (P. 4-25)
7
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The values are given with respect to the

least radii of gyration for W’s and WT’s
with 50 ksi steel.
Q Other grade steels are commonly used
for other types of sections as shown in
the Manual and listed there.
Q These include 35 ksi for steel pipe, 36
ksi for L’s, 42 ksi for round HSS
sections, and 46 ksi for square and
rectangular HSS sections.
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q For most columns consisting of single

steel shapes, the effective slenderness
ratio with respect to the y axis (KL/r)y is
larger than the effective slenderness
ratio with respect to the x axis (KL/r)x.
Q As a result, the controlling or smaller
design stress is for the y axis.
Q Because of this, the LRFD tables
provide design strengths of columns
with respect to their y axis.
8
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Using the LRFD column tables with their
given yield strengths:
a. Select the lightest W section available for
the loads, steel, and KL of Example 1.
Use Fy = 50 ksi.
b. Select the lightest satisfactory standard
(S), extra strong (XS), and double extra
strong (XXS) pipe columns described in
part (a) of this example. Use Fy = 35 ksi.
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
c. Select the lightest satisfactory rectangular
and square HSS sections for the situation
in part (a). Use Fy = 46 ksi.
d. Select the lightest round HSS section for
part (a). Use Fy = 42 ksi.
a. Enter LRFD tables with KyLy = 10 ft., Pu =

492 k, and Fy = 50 ksi.
9
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Lightest suitable section in each W series:
W 14 × 53(φ c Pn = 498 k )
Lightest
W 12 × 53(φ c Pn = 559 k )
Page 4-26 of Manual W 10 × 49(φ c Pn = 520 k ) controls
Therefore, USE W10 × 49
b. Pipe Columns:
S : not available
Page 4-76 of Manual XS12 × 0.500(65.5 lb/ft ) = 549 k
Page 4-76 of Manual XXS8 × 0.875(72.5 lb/ft ) = 575k
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
c. Rectangular and square HSS sections:
5
Page 4-49 of Manual (57.3 lb/ft ) = 530 k
HSS 14 ×14 ×
16
3
Page 4-51 of Manual HSS 12 ×10 × (52.9 lb/ft ) = 537 k
8
d. Round HSS section:
Page 4-66 of Manual HSS 16 × 0.312(52.3 lb/ft ) = 500 k
10
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q How to handle the situation when

(KL/r)x is larger than (KL/r)y ?
– Two methods can be used:
• Trial-and error method
• Use of LRFD Tables
– An axially loaded column is laterally
restrained in its weak direction as shown in
Figs. 1 and 2
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1 Pu
This brace must be a section which

Prevents lateral movement and twisting
Of the column. L
A rod or bar is not satisfactory.
2
L
L
2
Pu
11
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
x y
Q Figure 2
x
y L
2
Bracing
L
2
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Trial-and-error Procedure:
• A trial section can be selected as described
previously.
• Then the slenderness values (KL/r)x and (KL/r)x
are computed.
• Finally, φc Fcr is determined for the larger value
of (KL/r)x and (KL/r)x and multiplied by Ag to
obtained φc Pn.
• Then if necessary, another size can be tried,
and so on.
12
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– It is assumed that K is the same in both
directions. Then, if equal strengths about
the x and y axis to be obtained, the
following relation must hold:
Lx L y
= (2)
rx ry
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– For Ly to be equivalent to Lx, the following
relation would hold true:
rx
Lx = Ly (3)
ry
– If Ly (rx/ry) is less than Lx, then Lx controls.
– If Ly (rx/ry) is greater than Lx, then Ly
controls.
13
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q How to handle the situation when (KL/r)x is

larger than (KL/r)y ?
Use of LRFD Tables:
• Based on the preceding information, the LRFD
Manual provides a method with which a section
can be selected from tables with little trial and error
when the unbraced lengths are different.
• The designer enters the appropriate table with
KyLy, selects a shape, takes rx/ry value in the table
for that shape, and multiplies it by Ly.
• If the result is larger than KxLx, then KyLy controls and
the shape initially selected is the correct one.
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q How to handle the situation when (KL/r)x is

larger than (KL/r)y ?
Use of LRFD Tables (cont’d):
• If the result of the multiplication is less than KxLx,
then KxLx controls and the designer will reenter the
tables with a larger KyLy equal to KxLx/(rx/ry) and
select the final section.
14
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
Select the lightest satisfactory W12 for the
following conditions: Fy = 50 ksi, Pu = 900 k,
KxLx = 26 ft, and KyLy = 13 ft.
a. By trial and error
b. Using LRFD tables
a. Using trial and error:
KL
Assume = 50
r
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
y Pu
x K =1
KL = L = 26 ft
x L
y L 2
2 L
L
2
L Bracing
2
Pu
15
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
φc Fcr = 35.40 ksi (from Table 3.50 of Manual)
Pu 900
Arequired = = = 25.42 in 2
φc Fcr 35.40
Try W12 × 87(A = 25.6 in 2 , rx = 5.38 in, ry = 3.07 in )
 KL  12 × 26
  = = 57.99 ≈ 58 controls
 r x 5.38
 KL  12 ×13
  = = 50.81
 r y 3.07
φc Fcr = 33.2 ksi ∴ φc Pn = 33.2(25.6 ) = 850 k < 900 k NG
A subsequent check of the next larger W section (W12 × 96) shows it will work.
Therefore, USE W12 × 96
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
16
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
LRFD Design Tables

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
See P. 4-25 of Manual
b. Using LRFD tables:
Enter tables with KyLy = 13 ft, Fy = 50 ksi,
and Pu = 900 k.
r 
Try W12 × 87 x = 1.75  with φc Pn based on K y Ly
r 
 y 
K L
Equivalent K y Ly = x x = 13(1.75) = 22.75 ft < K x Lx
rx / ry
Therefore, K x Lx controls.
K x Lx 26
Reenter tables with K y Ly = = = 14.86
rx / ry 1.75
USE W12 × 96 φ c Pn = Pu = 935 k OK
17
Built-up Columns
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Compression members may be

constructed with more shapes built-up
into a single member.
Q They may consist of parts in contact
with each other, such as cover-plated
sections:
Built-up Columns
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Or they may consist of parts in near

contact with each other, such as pair of
angles:
Q These pairs of angles may be separated

by a small distance from each other
equal the thickness of the end
connection or gusset plates between
them.
18
Built-up Columns
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q They may consist of parts that are

spread well apart, such as pairs of
channels:
Q Or four angles, and so on.
Built-up Columns
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Two-angle sections probably are the

most common type of built-up members.
They are frequently used as the
members of light trusses.
Q When a pair angles are used as a
compression member, they need to be
fastened together so they will act as a
unit.
Q Welds may be used at intervals or they
may be connected with bolts.
19
Built-up Columns
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q For long columns, it may be suitable to

use built-up sections where the parts of
the columns are spread out or widely
separated from each other.
Q These types of built-up columns are
commonly used for crane booms and
for compression members of various
kinds of towers.
Q The widely spaced parts of these types
must be carefully laced or tied together.
20
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
DESIGN OF AXIALLY
LOADED COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
By
6b

CHAPTER 6b. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS Slide No. 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Built-Up Columns with Components

in Contact with Each Other
Q If a column consists of two equal size
plates as shown in Fig. 1, and if those
plates are not connected together, each
plate will act as a separate column, and
each will resist approximately half of the
total column load.
Q This means that the total moment of
inertia of the column will equal two
times the moment of inertia of one plate.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Figure 1. Column consisting of two plates not
connected to each otherP P
u u
 bd 3  bd 3 2 2
I = 2  =
 12  6
b Plates deform
equal amounts
d d
Pu Pu
(a) Column cross section (b) Deformed shape of Columns
2 2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q The two “columns” will act the same and
have equal deformation, as shown in
part (b) of Fig. 1.
Q If the two plates are connected together
sufficiently to prevent slippage on each
other, they will act as a unit as shown in
Fig. 2.
Q Their moment of inertia may be
computed for the whole built-up section.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Figure 2. Column consisting of two plates
fully connected to each other
Pu
b(2d )
3
I=
12
=
( )
b 8d 3 Plates deform
12 equal amounts
4 3
= bd
6
Pu

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q The moment of inertia for this built-up
section will be four times as large as it
was for the column of Fig 1, where
slipping between plates was possible.
Q Also, the column of Fig 2 will deform
different amounts as the column bends
laterally.
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Should the plates be connected in a few
places, the strength of the resulting
column would be somewhere in
between the two cases just described.
Q The greatest displacement between the
two plates in Fig 1 tend to occur at the
ends and the least displacement tends
to occur at middle depth.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Greatest Strength of Built-up Column
As a result, connections placed at column

ends which will prevent slipping between
the parts have the greatest strengthening
effect, while those at middepth have the
least effect
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Not in Contact with Each Other
Q The following example presents the
design of member built up from two
channels that are not in contact with
each other.
Q The parts of such members need to be
connected or laced together across their
open sides.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Q Example 1
Select a pair of 12-in standard channels for
the column and load shown using Fy = 50
ksi. For connection purposes, the back-to-
back distance of the channels is to be 12
in.
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Pu = 580 k
20 ft
12 in
Pu = 580 k

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

KL
Assume = 50
r
Then from Table 3.50 of the LRFD Manual,
φc Fcr = 35.40 ksi
Pu 580
Arequired = = = 16.38 in 2
φc Fcr 35.40
Try 2C12 × 30’s (for each channel, A = 8.81
in2, Ix = 162 in4, Iy = 5.12 in4, x = 0.674 in )
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf


ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Not in Contact with Each Other 6 in
I x = 2 × 162 = 324 in 2
[ ]
I y = 2 5.12 + 8.81(5.326) = 510 in 4
2
distance of channels x
Note that 5.326 = −x
2
12
= − 0.674 = 5.326 in
2
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Ix 324
rx = = = 4.29 in Controls
A (2 × 8.81)
Iy 510
ry = = = 5.38 in
A (2 × 8.81)
∴ rx = 4.29 in to be used
K = 1.0(From Table 1, pinned ends )

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Table 1
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

KL = (1.0 )(20 ) = 20 ft
KL KL 12 × 20
= = = 55.94
r rx 4.29
From Table 3.50 of the Manual and by interpolation :
φc Fcr = 33.82 ksi
Therefore, φc Pn = φc Fcr Ag = 33.82(2 × 8.81) = 596 k > 580 k OK
Thus, USE 2C12 × 30

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Checking width/thickness ratios:
 d = 12.0 in, b f = 3.17 in, t f = 5.12 in 

 
C12 × 30 1 
 t w = 0.51 in, k = 1 in = 1.125 in 
 8 

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

bf 3.17 E 29 × 103
tf
=
0.501
= 6.33 < 0.56
Fy
=
50
= 13.49 OK
h 12.0 − 2(1.125) E 29 × 103
= = 19.12 < 1.49 = 1.49 = 35.88 OK
tw 0.510 Fy 50
∴ USE 2C12 × 30, Fy = 50 ksi
10
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Built-Up Columns
Q Figure 4. Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Built-Up Columns
Stiffened Elements
11
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
BEAMS
By
8a

CHAPTER 8a. INTRODUCTION TO BEAMS Slide No. 1
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
A beam is generally considered to be

any member subjected to principally to
transverse gravity or vertical loading.
The term transverse loading is taken to
include end moments.
There are many types of beams that are
classified according to their size,
manner in which they are supported,
and their location in any given structural
system.
1
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. Loading on Beams
Beam
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Beams can be
– Straight as shown in Figure 2c.
• For example the straight member bde.
– Curved as shown in Figure 2c.
• For example the curved member abc.
Beams are generally classified
according to their geometry and the
manner in which they are supported.
2
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 2. Classification of Beams

c Load
Cable
b
e
d
(a) a
(c)
(d)
(b)
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Geometrical classification includes such

features as the shape of the cross
section, whether the beam is
– Straight or
– Curved
Or whether the beam is
– Tapered, or
– Has a constant cross section.
3
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Beams can also be classified according

to the manner in which they are
supported. Some types that occur in
ordinary practice are shown in Figure 3,
the names of some of these being fairly
obvious from direct observation.
Note that the beams in (d), (e), and (f)
are statically indeterminate.
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 3. Types of Beams Based on the

Manner in Which They are Supported.
(a) Cantilever (b) Simply supported
(c) Overhanging (d) continuous
(e) Fixed ended

(f) Cantilever, simply supported
4
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
5
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Beams used in Buildings and Bridges

– Girders
• Usually the most important beams, which are
frequently at wide spacing.
– Joists
• Usually less important beams, which are
closely spaced, frequently with truss-type webs.
– Stringers
• Longitudinal bridge beams spanning between
floor beams.
Types of Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Beams used in Buildings and Bridges

(cont’d)
– Purlins
• Roof beams spanning between trusses.
– Girts
• Horizontal wall beams serving principally to
resist bending due to wind on the side of an
industrial building.
– Lintels
• Members supporting a wall over window or
door openings.
6
Sections Used As Beams

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Among the steel shapes that are used

as beam include
– W shapes, which normally prove to be the
most economical beam sections, and they
have largely replaced channels and S
sections for beam usage.
– Channels are sometimes used for beams
subjected to light loads, such as purlins,
and in places where clearances available
require narrow flanges.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 4. W Section as a Beam
L
x
x
y
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Another common type of beam section

is the open web joist or bar joist.
This type of section, which commonly
used to support floor and roof slabs, is
actually a light shop-fabricated parallel
chord truss.
It is particularly economical for long
spans and light loads.
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Bending moment produces bending

strains on a beam, and consequently
Under positive moment (as normally the
case), compressive stresses are
produced in the top of the beam and
tensile stresses are produced in the
bottom.
Bending members must resist both
8
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Stresses in Beams
– For introduction to bending stress the
rectangular beam and stress diagrams of
Fig. 5 are considered.
– If the beam is subjected to some bending
moment that stress at any point may be
computed with the usual flexure formula:
Mc (1)
fb =
I
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5. Variation in Bending Stresses
fb Fy Fy Fy Fy
N.A.
fb Fy Fy Fy Fy
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
9
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Stresses in Beams
– It is important to remember that the
expression given by Eq. 1 is only
applicable when the maximum computed
stress in the beam is below the elastic limit.
– The formula of Eq. 1 is based on the
assumption that the stress is proportional
to the strain, and a plane section before
bending remains plane after bending.
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Stresses in Beams
– The value of I/c is a constant for a
particular section and is known as the
section modulus S.
– The flexure formula may then be written as
follows:
M
σ= (2)
S
10
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Plastic Moment
– In reference to Fig. 5:
• Stress varies linearly from the neutral axis to
extreme fibers, as shown in Fig. 5b.
• When the moment increases, there will also be
a linear relationship between the moment and
the stress until the stress reaches the yield
stress FY, as shown in Fig. 5c.
• In Fig. 5d, when the moment increases beyond
the yield moment, the outermost fibers that had
previously stressed to their yield point will
continue to have the same but will yield.
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Plastic Moment
– In reference to Fig. 5 (cont’d):
• The process will continue with more and more
parts of the beam cross section stressed to the
yield point as shown by the stress diagrams of
parts (d) and (e) of Fig. 5., until finally a full
plastic distribution is approached as shown in
Fig. 5f.
11
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Plastic Moment
– Definition
“The plastic moment can be defined as
the moment that will produce full
plasticity in a member cross section
and create a plastic hinge”.
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Shape Factor
– Definition
“The shape factor of a member cross
section can be defined as the ratio of
the plastic moment Mp to yield moment
My”.
– The shape factor equals 1.50 for
rectangular cross sections and varies from
about 1.10 to 1.20 for standard rolled-
beam sections
12
Plastic Hinges
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The Concept of Plastic Hinge

– The plastic hinge concept is illustrated as
shown in the simple beam of Fig. 6.
– The load shown in the figure is applied to
the beam and increased in magnitude until
the yield moment is reached and the
outermost fiber is stressed to the yield
stress.
– The magnitude of the load is further
increased with the result that the outer
fibers begin to yield.
Bending Stresses
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 6. Plastic Hinge

Pu
W shape Plastic hinge
Area of yielding
13
Plastic Hinges
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The Concept of Plastic Hinge (cont’d)

– The yielding spreads out to other fibers
away from the section of maximum
moment as indicated in Fig. 6.
– The length in which this yielding occurs
away from the section in question is
dependent on the loading conditions and
the member cross section.
– For a concentrated load Pu applied at the
center line of a simply-supported beam
with a rectangular cross section, yielding in
Plastic Hinges
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

extreme fibers at the time the plastic hinge
is formed will extend for one-third of the
span.
– For a W section in similar circumstances,
yielding will extend for approximately one-
eighth of the span.
– During the same period, the interior fibers
at the section of maximum moment yield
gradually until nearly all of them have
yielded and a plastic hinge is formed.
14
Plastic Hinges
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The effect of the plastic hinge is assumed
to be concentrated at one section for
analysis purposes.
– However, it should be noted that this effect
may extend for some distance along the
beam.
– For the calculation of deflection and for the
design of bracing, the length over which
yielding extends is very important
15
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
BEAMS
By
8b

CHAPTER 8b. INTRODUCTION TO BEAMS Slide No. 1
Elastic Design
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q For many years the elastic theory has

been the basis for steel structural
design and analyses. This theory is
based on the yield stress of a steel
structural element.
Q However, nowadays, it has been
replaced with a more rational and
realistic theory, the ultimate stress
design that is based on the plastic
capacity of a steel structure.
1
Elastic Design
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q In the elastic theory, the maximum load

that a structure could support is
assumed to equal the load that caused
a stress somewhere in the structure
equal the yield stress Fy of the material.
Q The members were designed so that
computed bending stresses for service
loads did not exceed the yield stress
divided a factor of safety (e.g., 1.5 to 2)
Elastic Design
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Elastic Versus Ultimate-based Design of

Steel Structures
Rn m m
FS i=1 i =1
ASD LRFD
• According to ASD, one factor of safety (FS) is
used that accounts for the entire uncertainty in
loads and strength.
• According to LRFD (probability-based),
different partial safety factors for the different
load and strength types are used.
2
Elastic Design
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Engineering structures have been

designed for many years by the allowable
stress design (ASD), or elastic design with
satisfactory results.
Q However, engineers have long been aware
that ductile members (e.g., steel) do not fail
until a great deal of yielding occurs after
yield stress is first reached.
Q This mean that such members have
greater margin of safety against collapse
than the elastic theory would seem to
suggest.
The Elastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The yield moment My equals the yield

stress Fy times the elastic modulus S:
M y = Fy S (1)
where
I
S=
c
I = moment of inertia
c = distance from N.A. to outer fiber of cross section
3
The Elastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The elastic modulus for a rectangular

section b × d as shown in Fig. 1 can be
computed by using:
– The flexural formula, or
– The internal couple method
d Figure 1
The Elastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Using the Flexural Formula

– Rectangular Cross Section:
M yc My My
Fy = = =
I I /c S
M y = Fy S
bd 3 d I bd 3 / 12 bd 2
I= , c= ⇒S= = =
12 2 c d /2 6
Fy bd 2
∴ M y = Fy S =
6
4
The Elastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Using the Internal Couple Method:

– Rectangular Section: Figure 2
Fy
1 d  F db
C= Fy  × b  = y
d 2 2  4
2
d N.A. 2
d
3
d
2 1 d  Fy db
T= Fy  × b  =
2 2  4
Fy
b
2
 Fy db   2  Fy bd
M y = Force × moment arm =   ×  d  =
 4  3  6
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The resisting moment at full plasticity

can be determined in a similar manner.
Q The result is the so-called plastic
moment Mp.
Q It is also the nominal moment of the
section, Mn
M p = Mn (2)
5
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The plastic ( or nominal) moment equals

T or C times the lever arm between
them as shown. Figure 3
Fy
d d  F db
C = Fy  × b  = y
2 2  2
d N.A. 2
d
3
d d  Fy db
T = Fy  × b  =
2 2  4
Fy
b
d d  Fy db  d bd 2
M p = Force × lever arm = T = C =   × = Fy
2 2  2  2 4
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The plastic moment is equal to the yield

stress Fy times the plastic modulus Z.
Q From the foregoing expression for a
rectangular section, the plastic modulus
Z can be seen to equal bd2/4.
 bd 2 
M p = Fy Z = Fy  
 4 
bd 2
Z=
4
6
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The shape factor, which is equal

Mp Fy Z Z
= =
My Fy S S
Q Is also equal to
bd 2
Z
Shape Factor = = 4 2 = 1.5
S bd
6
So, for rectangular section, the shape factor
equal 1.5.
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Shape Factor
– Definition
“The shape factor of a member cross
section can be defined as the ratio of
the plastic moment Mp to yield moment
My”.
– The shape factor equals 1.50 for
rectangular cross sections and varies from
about 1.10 to 1.20 for standard rolled-
beam sections
7
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Shape Factor
The shape factor Z can be computed from
the following expressions:
M
Shape Factor = P (3)
My
Or from
Z (4)
Shape Factor =
S
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Neutral Axis for Plastic Condition

– The neutral axis for plastic condition is
different than its counterpart for elastic
condition.
– Unless the section is symmetrical, the
neutral axis for the plastic condition will not
be in the same location as for the elastic
condition.
– The total internal compression must equal
the total internal tension.
8
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Neutral Axis for Plastic Condition

– As all fibers are considered to have the
same stress Fy in the plastic condition, the
areas above and below the plastic neutral
axis must be equal.
– This situation does not hold for
unsymmetrical sections in the elastic
condition.
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Plastic Modulus
– Definitions
“The plastic modulus Z is defined as the
ratio of the plastic moment Mp to the
yield stress F Y.”
“It can also be defined as the first
moment of area about the neutral axis
when the areas above and below the
neutral axis are equal.”
9
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Determine the yield moment My, the plastic
or nominal moment Mp (Mn), and the plastic
modulus Z for the simply supported beam
having the cross section shown in Fig. 4b.
Also calculate the shape factor and
nominal load Pn acting transversely
through the midspan of the beam. Assume
that FY = 50 ksi.
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
15 in. 1 in.
Figure 4
Pn
1 in. 17 in.
15 in.
12 ft 12 ft
8 in. 1 in.
(a) (b)
10
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Elastic Calculations:
A = 15(1) + 15(1) + 8(1) = 38 in 2
1 in.
15(1)(16.5) + 15(1)(8.5) + 8(1)(0.5)
15 in.
yC = = 9.974 in from lower base
38
1 in.
N.A.
8(9.974 ) 7(8.974) 15(7.026) 14(6.026)
3 3 3 3
17 in.
Ix = − + −
9.974 in. 15 in. 3 3 3 3
= 1,672.64 in 4
8 in. 1 in.
I 1,672.64 50(167.7 )
S= = = 167.7 in 3 M y = FY S = = 698.75 ft - kip
c 9.974 12
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Plastic Calculations:
• The areas above and below the neutral axis
A1 must be equal for plastic analysis
1 in.
A1 = A2
15 in.
1 in. 15(1) + (15 − y N )(1) = 8(1) + y N (1)

N.A.
17 in.
15 + 15 − y N = 8 + y N
yN. 15 in.
2 y N = 15 + 15 − 8 = 22
y N = 11 in
8 in. 1 in.
A2
11
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Plastic Calculations (cont’d):
Z = 8(1)(11.5) + 11(1)(5.5) + 15(1)(4.5) + 4(1)(2 ) = 228 in 3
A1
15 in. 1 in. 50(228)

M p = M n = Fy Z = = 950 ft - kip
12
1 in.
N.A.
17 in. Mn 950
Shape Factor = = = 1.36
11 in. 15 in. M y 698.75
Note, the shape factor can also be calculated from

8 in. 1 in.
A2 Z 228
Shape Factor = = = 1.36
S 167.7
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– In order to find the nominal load Pn, we
need to find an expression that gives the
maximum moment on the beam. This
maximum moment occurs at midspan of the
simply supported beam, and is given by
Pn
Pn L
M P = M L/2 =
4
12 ft 12 ft
L
12
The Plastic Modulus

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Pn
Pn L 12 ft 12 ft
M P = M L/2 =
4 A1 L
Pn (24) 15 in. 1 in.
950 =
4 1 in.
Therefore, N.A.
17 in.
4(950)
11 in. 15 in.
Pn = = 158.3 kips
24
8 in. 1 in.
A2
Theory of Plastic Analysis

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The basic theory of plastic analysis is

considered a major change in the
distribution of stresses after the
stresses at certain points in a structure
reach the yield stress Fy.
Q The plastic theory implies that those
parts of the structure that have been
stressed to the yield stress Fy cannot
resist additional stresses.
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q They instead will yield the amount

required to permit the extra load or
stresses to be transferred to other parts
of the structure where the stresses are
below the yield stress Fy, and thus in the
elastic range and able to resist
increased stress.
Q Plasticity can be said to serve the
purpose of equalizing stresses in cases
of overload.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram for Steel

– The stress-strain diagram is assumed to
have the idealized shape shown in Fig. 5.
– The yield stress and the proportional limit
are assumed to occur at the same point for
this steel.
– Also, the stress-strain diagram is assumed
to be a perfectly straight line in the plastic
range.
– Beyond the plastic range there is a range of
strain hardening.
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5. Stress-Strain Diagram for Steel
Plasticity g
ardenin
Strain h
Fy
Unit Stress, f
f
E = Slope = (Elasticity)
ε
Unit Strain, ε

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram for Steel

– The strain hardening range could
theoretically permit steel members to
withstand additional stress.
– However, from a practical standpoint, the
stains occurring are so large that they
cannot be considered.
– Furthermore, inelastic buckling will limit the
ability of a section to develop a moment
greater than Mp, even if strain hardening is
significant.
15
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
BEAMS
By
8c

CHAPTER 8c. INTRODUCTION TO BEAMS Slide No. 1
The Collapse Mechanism

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Statically Determinate Beam

– A statically determinate beam will fail if one
plastic hinge developed.
– Consider the simply-supported beam of Fig.
1. That has a constant cross section and
loaded with a concentrated load P at
midspan.
– If P is increased until a plastic hinge is
developed at the point of maximum moment
(just underneath P), an unstable structure
will be created as shown in Fig 1b.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Statically Determinate Beam (cont’d)

P
Figure 1
(a)
Real hinge Pn Real hinge
Plastic hinge
(b)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Statically Determinate Beam (cont’d)

– Any further increase in the load will cause
collapse.
– Pn represents the nominal or theoretical
maximum load that the beam can support.
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Statically Indeterminate Beam

– For statically indeterminate beam to fail, it
is necessary for more than one plastic
hinge to form.
– The number of plastic hinges required for
failure of statically indeterminate structure
will be shown to vary from structure to
structure, but never be less than two.
– The fixed-end beam of Fig. 2 cannot fail
unless the three hinges shown in the figure
are developed.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Statically Indeterminate Beam (cont’d)

P
Figure 2
(a)
Plastic hinge Pn Plastic hinge
Plastic hinge
(b)
3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– Although a plastic hinge may have formed in a
statically indeterminate structure, the load can
still be increased without causing failure if the
geometry of he structure permits.
– The plastic hinge will act like a real hinge as
far as the increased loading is concerned.
– As the load is increased, there is a
redistribution of moment because the plastic
hinge can resist no more moment.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– As more plastic hinges are formed in the
structure, there will eventually be a
sufficient number of them to cause
collapse.
– Actually, some additional load can be
carried after this time before collapse
occurs as the stresses go into the strain
hardening range.
– However, deflections that would occur are
too large to be permissible in the design.
4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The propped beam of Fig. 3 is an example
of a structure that will fail after two plastic
hinges develop.
– Three hinges are required for collapse, but
there is a real hinge on the right end.
– In this beam the largest elastic moment
caused by the design concentrated load is
at the fixed end.
– As the magnitude of the load is increased a
plastic hinge will form at that point.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

P
Figure 3
(a)
Plastic hinge Pn Real hinge
Plastic hinge
(b)
5

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The Mechanism
– The load may be further increased until the
moment at some point (here it will be at the
concentrated load) reaches the plastic
moment.
– Additional load will cause the beam to
collapse.
– Therefore, the Mechanism is defined as the
arrangement of plastic hinges and perhaps real
hinges which permit the collapse in a structure
as shown in part (b) of Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
Plastic Analysis of Structure

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q There are various methods that can be

used to perform plastic analysis for a
given structure.
Q Two satisfactory method for this type of
analysis are
– The virtual-work Method (Energy Method)
– Equilibrium Method
Q In this course, we will focus on the
virtual-work method.
6

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The Virtual-Work Method

– The structure under consideration is
assumed to be loaded to its nominal
capacity, Mn.
– Then, it is assumed to deflect through a
small additional displacement after the
ultimate load is reached.
– The work performed by the external loads
during this displacement is equated to
internal work absorbed by the hinges.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The Virtual-Work Method
External work = Internal work

(1)
Wext. = Wint.
– For this case, the small-angle theory is
used.
– For this theory, the sine of a small angle
equals the tangent of that angle and also
equals the same angle expressed in
radians.
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Determine the plastic limit (or nominal)
distributed load wn in terms of the plastic
(or nominal) moment Mn developed at the
hinges.
wn (k/ft)
L = 18 ft

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The collapse mechanism for the beam is
sketched. wn (k/ft)
L = 18 ft
wn L
A
θ θ C
δ
Collapse Mechanism B 2θ
L L
2 2
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Because of the symmetry, the rotations θ
at the end plastic hinges are equal.
– The work done by the external load (wnL) is
equal wnL times the average deflection δavg
of the mechanism at the center of the
beam.
– The deflection δ is calculated as follows:
δ
tan θ ≈ θ = (small angle theory)
L/2
θL
∴δ =
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The internal work absorbed by the hinges
is equal the sum of plastic moments Mn at
each plastic hinge times the angle through
which it works.
– The average deflection δavg throughout the
length of the beam is equals one-half the
deflection δ at the center of the beam, that
is
1 1  θL  θL
δ avg = δ =   =
2 2 2  4
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Applying Eq. 1 (conservation of energy),
yield a relationship between wn and Mn as
follows:
Wext. = Wint.
(wn L )δ avg = (M n )θ + (M n )2θ + (M n )θ
Left Middle Right
A B C
 θL 
wn L  = 4θM n
 4 

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Therefore,
L
wn L  = 4M n
4
16M n
wn =
L2
– For 18-ft span, the plastic limit distributed
load is computed as
16 M n 16 M n Mn
wn = = =
L2 (18)2 20.25
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
For the propped beam shown, determine
the plastic limit (or nominal) load Pn in
terms of the plastic (or nominal) moment
Mn developed at the hinges.
Pn
10 ft
L = 20 ft

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The collapse mechanism for the beam is sketched.
Pn
10 ft
L = 20 ft
wn L
A
θ θ C
δ
L L
2 2
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Because of the symmetry, the rotations θ
at the end plastic hinges are equal.
– The work done by the external load (Pn) is
equal Pn times the deflection δ of the
mechanism at the center of the beam.
– The deflection δ is calculated as follows:
δ
tan θ ≈ θ = (small angle theory)
L/2
θL
∴δ =
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
which it works.
– Note that in example, we have only two
plastic hinges at points A and B of the
mechanism. Point C is a real hinge, and no
moment occurs at that point.
– Also note that the external work is
calculated using δ and not δavg. because of
the concentrated load Pn in that location.
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
yield a relationship between Pn and Mn as
follows:
Wext. = Wint.
(Pn )δ = (M n )θ + (M n )2θ
Left Middle
A B
 θL 
Pn   = 3θM n
 2 

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Therefore,
L
Pn   = 3M n
2
6M n
Pn =
L
– For 20-ft span, the plastic limit load Pn is
computed as
6 M n 6 M n 3M n
Pn = = = = 0.3M n
L 20 10
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
For the fixed-end beam shown, determine
the plastic limit (or nominal) load Pn in
terms of the plastic (or nominal) moment
Mn developed at the hinges.
Pn
L 2L
= 10 ft = 20 ft
3 3
L = 30 ft

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
The collapse mechanism for the beam is sketched.
Pn
L 2L
= 10 ft = 20 ft
3 3
L = 30 ft
Pn
A E
θ2 θ1 C
δ
B (θ1 + θ 2 )
Collapse Mechanism
L 2L
3 3
14

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Because of the unsymmetry, the rotations
θ1 and θ2 at the end plastic hinges are not
equal.
– We need to find all rotations in terms, say
θ1
– The work done by the external load (Pn) is
equal Pn times the deflection δ of the
mechanism at the center of the beam.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
From triangles ABE and BCE:
Pn
δ 2L
ABE : tan θ1 ≈ θ1 = ⇒δ = θ1 (2) A E
2L / 3 3 θ2 θ1 C
δ L δ
BCE : tan θ 2 ≈ θ 2 = ⇒ δ = θ2 (3)
L/3 3 B (θ 1 + θ 2 )
Thus, from Eqs. 2 and 3 : L 2L
2L L 3 3
θ1 = θ 2 or θ 2 = 2θ1
3 3
Therefore,
At C : θ C = θ1
At A : θ A = θ 2 = 2θ1
At B : θ B = θ1 + θ 2 = θ1 + 2θ1 = 3θ1
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
which it works.
– Note that in example, we have three plastic
hinges at points A, B, and C of the
mechanism. Also there is no real hinge.
– Also note that the external work is
calculated using δ and not δavg. because of
the concentrated load Pn in that location.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
yield a relationship between Pn and Mn as
follows:
Wext. = Wint.
(Pn )δ = (M n )2θ1 + (M n )3θ1 + (M n )θ1
2L Left Middle Right
δ= θ1 from Eq. 2 A B
3 C
 2L 
Pn  θ1  = 6θ1M n
 3 
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– Therefore,
 2L 
Pn   = 6M n
 3 
9M n
Pn =
L
– For 30-ft span, the plastic limit load Pn is
computed as
9M n 9M n
Pn = = = 0.3M n
L 30

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Complex Structures
– If a structure (beam) has more than one
distributed or concentrated loads, there
would be different ways in which this
structure will collapse.
– To illustrate this, consider the propped
beam of Fig. 4.
– The virtual-work method can be applied to
this beam with various collapse
mechanisms.
17

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Complex Structures (cont’d)
0.6 Pn Pn
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
L = 30 ft
Figure 4

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The beam with its two concentrated loads
is shown in Fig. 5 together with four
possible collapse mechanisms and the
necessary calculations.
– It is true that the mechanisms of parts (a),
(c), and (d) of Fig. 5 do not control, but
such a fact is not obvious for those taking
an introductory course in plastic analysis.
– Therefore, it is necessary to consider all
cases.
18

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5a. Various Cases of Collapse Mechanism

0 . 6 Pn Pn
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
L = 30 ft
Real hinge
2θ θ
10θ
20θ
M n (5θ ) = 0.6 Pn (20θ ) + Pn (10θ )
3θ
M n = 4.4 Pn
Pn = 0.227 M n

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5b. Various Cases of Collapse Mechanism

0 . 6 Pn Pn
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
L = 30 ft
Real hinge
θ 2θ
10θ
20θ
3θ M n (4θ ) = 0.6 Pn (10θ ) + Pn (20θ )

M n = 6.5 Pn Controls
Pn = 0.154 M n Controls
19

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5c. Various Cases of Collapse Mechanism

0 . 6 Pn Pn
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
L = 30 ft
Real hinge
θ θ
10θ
M n (3θ ) = Pn (10θ )
2θ
M n = 3.33Pn
Pn = 0.3M n

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5d. Various Cases of Collapse Mechanism

0 . 6 Pn Pn
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
L = 30 ft
Real hinge
θ θ
10θ 10θ
M n (3θ ) = 0.6 Pn (10θ ) + Pn (10θ )

θ
θ
M n = 5.33Pn
Pn = 0.1875M n
20

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

– The value for which the collapse load Pn is
the smallest in terms of Mn is the correct
value.
– or the value where Mn is the greatest in
terms of Pn.
– For this beam, the second plastic hinge
forms at the concentrated load Pn, and Pn
equals 0.154 Mn.
21
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
BEAMS
By
8d

CHAPTER 8d. INTRODUCTION TO BEAMS Slide No. 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Location of Plastic Hinge for

Uniform Loadings
Q Location of Plastic Hinge
– For a uniformly loaded fixed-end beam
shown in Fig. 1, the location of the plastic
hinge along the length of the beam is at the
midspan of the beam.
– This was concluded due to the fact that
beam is symmetrical in terms of both the
uniform loading and the end supports.
1
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
Figure 1. Uniformly Loaded Fixed-end Beam
wn (k/ft)
L = 18 ft
wn L
A
θ θ C
δ
L L
2 2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
Q Location of Plastic Hinge (cont’d)
– For other beams with uniform loads, such
as propped or continuous beams, the
determination of the location of plastic
hinge may be rather difficult.
– For this reason, a value, expressed as
fraction of the length L, that determines the
location of the plastic hinge is needed for
the analysis of both the propped and
continuous beams.
2
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
– Consider the propped beam of Fig. 2.
– The elastic moment diagram for this beam
is shown as the solid line in part (b) of the
figure.
– As the uniform load is increased in
magnitude, a plastic hinge will first form at
the fixed end.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
Figure 2. Propped Beam
wn (k/ft )
(a)
L
Mn
(b)
x
Mn
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
– At this time the beam will, in effect, be a
“simple” beam with a plastic hinge on one
end and a real hinge on the other.
– Subsequent increases in the load will
cause the moment to change as
represented by the dashed line in part (b)
of Fig. 2.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
– The process will continue until the moment
at some other point (a distance x from the
right support in the figure) reaches Mn and
create another plastic hinge.
– The virtual-work expression for the
collapse mechanism for the beam shown in
Fig. 3 is written as follows:
[wn L]  1 (θ )(L − x ) = M n θ + θ + L − x θ  (1)
2   x 
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings ( ) wn k/ft
Figure 3.
Collapse
Mechanism L
Mn
L−x
α1 = θ x
x
Mn
α 2 = θ + α1 θ (L − x ) Real Hinge
L−x α1
=θ + θ θ
x
α2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
Or  L−x  1 
M n θ + θ + θ  = [wn L ]  (θ )(L − x ) (2)
 x   2 
[wn L]  1 (θ )(L − x )

Mn = 2 

θ + θ +
L − x 
θ (3)
 x 
Solving for Mn by taking the derivative of
Mn with respect to x and equate it to zero,
that is dM n
=0 (4)
dx
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Uniform Loadings
– Solving for x, it can be shown that Eq. 4
yields a value of x as given by
x = 0.414 L (5)
– This value is applicable to uniformly loaded

end spans of both propped and continuous
beams with simple supports.
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Continuous beams are very common in

engineering structures (Fig. 4).
Q They can be analyzed by both the
elastic and the plastic theories.
Q However, the plastic analysis can be
more complicated.
Q Plastic analysis can be applied to
continuous beams as it is to one-span
beams.
6
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 4. Continuous Beams
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The resulting values definitely give a

more realistic picture of the limiting
strength of a structure than can be
obtained by elastic analysis.
Q Continuous statically indeterminate
beams can be handled by virtual-work
method as they were for single-span
statically indeterminate beams.
7
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Virtual-Work Method for Continuous

Beams
– For each span of the continuous beams,
virtual-work expressions are written
separately.
– From the resulting expressions, it is
possible to determine the limiting or
maximum loads that the beams can
support.
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
A W18 × 55 (Zx = 112 in3) has been
selected for the beam shown in the figure.
Using 50 ksi steel and assuming full lateral
support, determine the value of wn.
wn (k/ft )
24 ft 30 ft
8
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The nominal (plastic) moment of the beam
is calculated first:
50(112 )
M n = Fy Z = = 466.7 ft - k (6)
12
– The virtual-work expressions are written
separately for each span of the continuous
beams.
– The collapse mechanisms for the two
spans are drawn as shown in Fig. 5b.
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

wn (k/ft )
(a)
24 ft 30 ft
Real hinge
α θ θ θ
δ2 δ1
(b)
α +θ 2θ
x 24 ft - x 15 ft 15 ft
9
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Calculation of rotation angles:
Using Eq. 4, the location of the plastic hinge for
the left span is
x = 0.414 L = 0.414(24 ) = 9.94 ft
• From the triangle of the right span:

δ1
tan θ ≈ θ = ⇒ δ 1 = 15θ
15
• From the triangle of the left span:
24 − x = 24 − 9.94 = 14.06 ft
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
• Also
δ2
tan θ ≈ θ = ⇒ δ 2 = 14.06θ
14.06
• Therefore,
δ2 14.06θ
tan α ≈ α = = = 1.414θ
9.94 9.94
– Virtual-work applied to right span:

Wext. = Wint.
10
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
(wn L1 )× (δ 1 )avg = M n (θ + θ + 2θ )
(wn × 30) 1 ×15θ  = M n (4θ ) Controls
2 
2(4 M n ) k
∴ wn = = 0.01778M n = 0.01778 (466.7 ) = 8.30
30(15) ft
– Virtual-work applied to left span:

(wn L2 )× (δ 2 )avg = M n (α + θ + θ )
(wn × 24) 1 ×14.06θ  = M n (1.414θ + θ + θ )
2 
2(3.414 M n ) k
∴ wn = = 0.0.02023M n = 0.02023 (466.7 ) = 9.44
24(14.06 ) ft
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Using a W21 × 44 (Zx = 95.4 in3) consisting
of A992 steel, determine the value of Pn for
the beam shown.
Pn 1.5 Pn Pn
15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft
30 ft 30 ft 30 ft
11
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Collapse Mechanisms:
Pn Pn
1.5 Pn
(a)
15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft
30 ft 30 ft 30 ft
(b) θ θ θ θ θ θ
15θ 15θ 15θ
Real hinge 2θ 2θ 2θ
Real hinge
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
– The nominal (plastic) moment of the beam
is calculated first:
50(95.4 )
M n = Fy Z = = 397.5 ft - k
12
– The virtual-work expressions are written
separately for each span of the continuous
beams.
– The collapse mechanisms for the three
spans are drawn as shown in Fig. 6b.
12
Continuous Beams
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
For the first and third spans:
Wext. = Wint.
Pn (15θ ) = M n (θ + 2θ )
M n (3)
Pn = = 0.2 M n = 0.2 (397.5) = 79.5 kips
15
For the center span:
Wext. = Wint.
Controls
1.5 Pn (15θ ) = M n (θ + θ + 2θ )
M n (4 )
Pn = = 0.1778M n = 0.1778 (397.5) = 70.7 kips
1.5(15)
13
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR
MOMENTS
By
9a

CHAPTER 9a. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR MOMENTS Slide No. 1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q A fairly long, simply supported beam

can be subjected to gravity transverse
loading.
Q Due to the application of this loading,
the beam will bend downward, and its
upper part will be placed in compression
and will act as a compression member.
Q The cross section of this “column” will
consist of the portion of the cross
section above the neutral axis.
1
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. Deformation of Beam due to

Lateral Loading
P
w
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 2. Distribution of Normal Stress

in a Beam Cross Section
Figure 9
y P
This part acts as a
w
Neutral axis compression member
FC c
c
x
y
FT dA dy
R Vr
2
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q For the usual beam the “column” will

have a much smaller moment of inertia
about its y or vertical axis than its x or
horizontal axis.
Q If its y axis is not braced perpendicularly,
it will buckle laterally at a much smaller
load than would otherwise have been
required to produce a vertical failure.
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Lateral Buckling of Beams

– Lateral buckling will not occur if the compression
flange is braced laterally or if twisting of the
beam is prevented at frequent intervals.
– Types of beams with respect to lateral buckling:
1. The beams can be assumed to have continuous
lateral bracing for their compression flanges.
2. Next, the beams can be assumed to be braced
laterally at short intervals.
3. Finally, the beams can be braced laterally at larger
intervals.
3
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Lateral Buckling of Beams (cont’d)

– Fig. 3 shows that beams have three
distinct ranges or zones of behavior
depending on their lateral bracing situation:
• Zone 1: closely spaced lateral bracing, beams
fail plastically.
• Zone 2: moderate unbraced lengths, beams fail
inelastically.
• Zone 3: Larger unbraced lengths, beams fail
elastically
Introduction
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Figure 3. Mn as a function of Lb
Plastic
Behavior-full Inelastic Elastic
Plastic moment buckling buckling
(Zone 1) (Zone 2) (Zone 3)
Mn
L pd Lp Lr
Lb (laterally unbraced length of compression flange
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Yielding Behavior- Full Plastic

Moment, Zone 1
– The full plastic moment Mp (or Mn) is limited
to a value of 1.5 My.
– If Lb of the compression flange of a
compact I- or C-shaped section does not
exceed Lp (for elastic analysis) or Lpd (for
plastic analysis), then the member bending
strength about its major axis (e.g., x) may
be determined as follows:

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment, Zone 1
Q LRFD Specification (cont’d)
M n = M p = Fy Z ≤ 1.5M y
(1)
M u = φb M n with φb = 0.90
– When elastic analysis is used, Lb may not
exceed the value Lp to follow if Mn is to
equal FyZ:
E (2)
L p = 1.76ry
Fyf
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment, Zone 1
– For solid rectangular bars and box beams
with A = cross-sectional area (in2) and J =
torsional constant (in4), Lb may not exceed
the value Lp to follow if Mn is to equal FyZ:
0.13ry E
Lp = JA (3)
Mp

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment, Zone 1
– When plastic analysis is used to
established member forces for symmetric
I-shaped members with compression
flanges larger than their tension flanges
loaded in the plane of the web, Lb may not
exceed the value Lpd to follow if Mn is to
equal FyZ:
  M  E 
L pd = 0.12 + 0.076 1  ry (4)
M F 
  2  y 
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Moment, Zone 1
– In Eq. 4, M1 is the smaller moment at the
end of the unbraced length of the beam
and M2 is the larger moment at the end of
the unbraced length.
– The ratio M1/ M2 is positive when the
moments cause the member to be bent in
double curvature and negative if they bend
it in single curvature.
– According to LRFD, only steels with Fy
value of 65 ksi or less may be considered.
Design of Beams, Zone 1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Beams are generally designed so that

they will provide sufficient design
moment capacities φMn and checked
to see if any of the following items are
critical:
1. Shear
2. Deflections
3. Crippling
4. Lateral bracing for compression flanges
5. Fatigue
7

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q The factored moment will be computed,

and a section having that much design
moment capacity will be initially
selected from the LRFD Manual.
Q Table 5-3 of the Manual, entitled “W-
Shaped Selection by Zx can be used.
Q From this table, steel shapes having
sufficient plastic moduli to resist certain
moments can quickly be selected.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Two items to be considered when

using the LRFD table in selecting
shapes:
1. Steel sections cost so many cents per
pound and it is therefore desirable to
select the lightest possible shape having
the required plastic modulus. The table
has sections arranged in various groups
having certain ranges of plastic moduli.
The heavily typed section at the top of
each group is the lightest in that group.
8

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
2. The plastic moduli values in the table are

given about the horizontal axes for
beams in their upright positions. If a
beam is to be turned on its side, the
proper plastic modulus can be found in
Table 5-3 of the Manual or LRFD tables
giving dimensions and properties of
shapes in Part 1 of the LRFD Manual. A
W shape turned on its side may only be
10 to 30 percent as strong as one in the
upright position when subjected to gravity
loads.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Beam Weight Estimates

– Beam design should include the weight of
the beam.
– However, because this information is not
possibly available before the design, a
simple procedure or method for
estimating the beam weight should be
used.
– This method involves:
1. calculating the maximum factored bending
moment Mu.
9

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
2. Select a section from LRFD Table 5-3.

3. Then, the weight of that section or a little bit
more (since the beam’s weight will increase
the moment somewhat) can be used as the
estimated beam weight.
4. Finally, this estimated load can be added to
the external dead load acting on the beam.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Select a beam section for the span and
loading shown in the figure, assuming full
lateral support is provided for the
compression flange by the floor slab above
(that is Lb = 0) and Fy = 50 ksi.
D = 1 k/f (not including beam weight)
L = 3 k/f
21 ft
10

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Beam weight estimate:
kips
wu (beam weight excluded ) = 1.2(1.0 ) + 1.6(3.0 ) = 6.0
ft
wu L2 6(21)
2
Mu = = = 330.75 ft - kips
8 8
M  330.75 
Z required = u =   ×12 = 88.2 in 3
φt Fy  0.90(50 ) 
Referring to Table 5-3 in Part 5 of the

LRFD Manual, a W21 × 44 (Zx = 95.8 in3)
is the lightest section available.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Assume beam weight = 44 lb/ft, therefore
the design distributed load wu will be
revised as follows:
kips
wu = 1.2(1.044 ) + 1.6(3) = 6.05
ft
wu L 6.05(21)
2 2
Mu = = = 333.5 ft - kips
8 8
 333.5 
Z required = 
0 . 90(50 )
 × 12 = 88.9 in 3 < Z = 95.8 in 3 OK
 
Therefore,
USE W21 × 44 with Fy = 50 ksi
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
The 5-in reinforced-concrete slab shown in
the figure is to be supported with steel W
sections 8 ft 0 in on centers. The beams,
which will span 20 ft, are assumed to be
simply supported. If the concrete slab is
designed to support a live load of 100 psf,
determine the lightest steel section
required to support the slab. It is assumed
that the compression flange of the beam
will be fully supported laterally by the

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
concrete slab. The concrete weighs 150
lb/ft3, and Fy = 50 ksi.
5 in
Span = 20 ft Span = 20 ft
8 ft 8 ft 8 ft 8 ft
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
wu L2 1.906(20)
2
Mu = = = 95.3 ft - kips
8 8
20 in. 20 in.
am =
o f Be
Span
8f
t

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Calculation of Dead and Live Loads:
5 lb kips
slab weight =  (8)(1)× 150 = 500 = 0.5
 12  ft ft
lb kips
live load = 100(8) = 800 = 0.8
ft ft
Initial design excluding beam weight:
kips
wu (beam weight excluded ) = 1.2(0.5) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.88
ft
w L2 1.88(20 )
2
Mu = u = = 94.0 ft - kips
8 8
M  94.0 
Z required = u =   × 12 = 25.07 in 3
φt Fy  0.90(50 ) 
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Referring to Table 5-3 in Part 5 of the
LRFD Manual, a W10 × 22 (Zx = 26.0 in3)
is the lightest section available.
Assume beam weight = 44 lb/ft, therefore

the design distributed load wu will be
revised as follows:
kips
wu = 1.2[0.5 + 0.022] + 1.6(0.8) = 1.906
ft

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
wu L2 1.906(20 )
2
Mu = = = 95.3 ft - kips
8 8
 95.3 
Z required =   × 12 = 25.4 in 3 < Z = 26.0 in 3 OK
 0.90(50 ) 
Therefore,
USE W10 × 22 with Fy = 50 ksi
14
LRFD Method
CHAPTER
DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR
MOMENTS
By
9b

CHAPTER 9b. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR MOMENTS Slide No. 1
Lateral Support of Beams

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Most beams are designed in such a way

that their flanges are restrained against
lateral buckling.
Q The upper flanges of beams used to
support concrete building and bridge
floors are often incorporated in these
concrete floors.
Q Therefore, these type of beams fall into
Zone 1.
1

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q If the compression flange of a beam is

without lateral support for some
distance, it will have a stress distribution
similar to that of columns.
Q When the compression flange of a
beam is long enough and slender
enough, it may buckle unless lateral
support is provided

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Twisting or Torsion of Beams

– When the compression flange begin to
buckle, twisting or torsion will occur, and
the smaller the torsional strength of the
beam the more rapid will be the failure.
– Standard shapes such as W, S, and
channels used for beam sections do not
have a great deal of resistance to lateral
buckling and the resulting torsion.
– Some other shapes, notably the built-up
box shapes are tremendously stronger.
2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Lateral Support not Provided by Slab

– Should lateral support of the compression
flange not be provided by a floor slab, it is
possible that such support my be provided
with connecting beams or with special
members inserted for that purpose.
– Depending on the spacing of the support,
the beam will fall into Zones 1, 2, or 3.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Introduction to Inelastic
Buckling, Zone 2
Q Inelastic buckling can occur when the
bracing is insufficient to permit the
member to develop and reach a full
plastic strain distribution before buckling
occurs.
Q Because of the presence of residual
stresses, yielding will begin in a section
at applied stresses equal to
Fy − Fr (1)
3
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
Q In Eq. 1, Fy = yield stress of the web,
and Fr = compressive residual stress,
and assumed equal to 10 ksi for rolled
shapes and 16.5 ksi for welded shapes.
Q When a constant moment occurs along
the unbraced length Lb of a compact I-
or C-shaped section and Lb is larger
than Lp, the beam will fail inelastically
unless Lb is greater than a distance Lr.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
Q Lateral Buckling of Beams
– Fig. 1 shows that beams have three
distinct ranges or zones of behavior
depending on their lateral bracing situation:
• Zone 1: closely spaced lateral bracing, beams
fail plastically.
• Zone 2: moderate unbraced lengths, beams fail
inelastically.
• Zone 3: Larger unbraced lengths, beams fail
elastically
4
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2 Figure 1. M as a function of L
Plastic n b
Mn
L pd Lp Lr
Lb (laterally unbraced length of compression flange)

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
Q Bending Coefficients
– A moment coefficient, designated by Cb, is
included in design formulas to account for
the effect of different moment gradients on
lateral-torsional buckling.
– The use of this coefficient is to take into
account the effect of the end restraint and
loading condition of the member on lateral
buckling.
5
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
Q Bending Coefficients (cont’d)
– In Fig 2a, the moment in the unbraced beam
causes a worse compression flange
situation than does the moment in the
unbraced beam of Fig. 2b.
– For one reason, the upper flange in Fig. 2a
is in compression for its entire length, while
in Fig. 2b the length of the “column”, that is
the length of the upper flange that is in
compression is much less (shorter column).

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
wu wu
Cb = 1.14 Cb = 2.38
L L
wu L2
8 wu L2
24
Length of upper wu L2
Length of upper wu L2
Flange “column” Flange “column”
12 12
(a) Single curvature Figure 2 (b) Double curvature
6
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
– Values of Cb:
• For the simply supported beam of Fig .2a:
Cb = 1.14
• For the fixed-end beam of Fig. 2b:
Cb = 2.38
– The basic moment capacity equations for
Zones 2 and 3 were developed for laterally
unbraced beams subjected to single
curvature with
Cb = 1.0

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
– LRFD Specification provides moment or Cb
coefficients larger than 1.0 which are to be
multiplied by the computed Mn values.
– The results are higher moment capacities.
– The value of Cb = 1.0 is a conservative value.
– In should be noted that that value obtained
by multiplying Mn by Cb may not be larger
than the plastic moment Mp of Zone 1, which
is equal to FyZ.
7
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
The Manual provides an equation for
calculating the coefficient Cb as follows:
12.5M max
Cb = (2)
2.5M max + 3M A + 4M B + 3M C
Mmax = largest moment in unbraced segment of a beam

MA = moment at the ¼ point
MB = moment at the ½ point
MC = moment at the ¾ point

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
– Cb = 1.0 for cantilevers or overhangs where
the free end is unbraced.
– Some special values of Cb calculated with
Eq. 2 are shown in Fig. 3 for various beam
moment situations.
– Most of these values are also given in
Table 5.1 of the LRFD Manual
8
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
Figure 3a
wu (k/ft ) wu (k/ft )
Cb = 1.14 L/2 L/2

Cb = 1.30
Pu Pu
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
Cb = 1.32 Cb = 1.67

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
Figure 3b Pu Pu Pu
wu (k/ft )
L/2 L/2 L/3 L/3 L/3

Midsection Cb = 1.0
Cb varies
End section Cb = 1.67
Pu Pu Pu Pu
L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

Cb = 1.0
For two center sections Cb = 1.11
For two end sections Cb = 1.67
9
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2
Figure 3c
M1
M1 wu (k/ft )
Cb = 2.27 Cb = 2.38
Pu
wu (k/ft )
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
Cb = 2.38 Cb = 1.92

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Buckling, Zone 2 Pu
Figure 3d
L/2 L/2
Cb = 2.27
Pu
L/2 L/2
Cb = 1.32
10
Moment Capacity, Zone 2

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q If the distance between points of

torsional bracing is increased beyond Lp
(see Fig. 1), the moment capacity of the
section will become smaller and
smaller.
Q Finally, at an unbraced length Lr, the
section will buckle elastically as soon as
the yield stress is reached.

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Effect of Residual Stresses

– Due to the rolling operation on steel
shapes, there is residual stress in the
section equal to Fr.
– Thus, the elastically computed stress
caused by bending can only reach Fy – Fr
as given by Eq. 1. Assuming Cb = 1, the
design moment for a compact I- or C –
shaped section may be determined as
follows if Lb = Lr:
φb M r = φb S x (Fy − Fr ) (3)
11

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Provisions for Zone 2 Design by the LRFD

– If decrease the unbraced length Lb from Lr to
Lp, buckling does not not occur when the yield
stress is first reached.
– This range between Lr and Lp is called Zone 2
and is illustrated in Fig. 1.
– For these cases, when the unbraced length
falls between Lr and Lp, the design moment
strength will fall approximately on a straight
line between
φM n = φb Fy Z at L p and φb S x (Fy − Fr ) at Lr

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Provisions for Zone 2 Design by the

LRFD
– For intermediate values of the unbraced
length, the moment capacity may be
determined by proportions or by
substituting into expressions.
– If Cb is larger than 1.0, the section will
resist additional moment but not more than
φb Fy Z = φb M p (4)
12

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Provisions for Zone 2 Design by the LRFD

The moment capacity can determined by the
following two expressions:
[ ]
φb M nx = Cb φb M px − BF (Lb − L p ) ≤ φb M px (5)
or
  L − L p 
M n = Cb  M p − (M p − M r ) b  ≤ M p (6)
  L − L 
 r p 

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Provisions for Zone 2 Design by the

LRFD
– In Eq. 5, BF is a factor given in LRFD
Table 5-3 for each section, which enables
us to do the proportioning with simple
formula.
– Note that in Eq. 6, after the moment Mn has
been computed, it should be multiplied by
φb to obtain φb Mn.
13

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 1
Determine the moment capacity of a W24 ×
62 with Fy = 50 ksi if Lb = 8.0 ft and Cb =
1.0.
For Fy = 50 ksi, the LRFD Table 5-3 (P. 5-46)
gives the following for W24 × 62:
L p = 4.84 ft, Lr = 13.3 ft,
φb M r = 396 kip - ft
φb M p = 578 kip - ft, and
BF = 21.6 kips

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Since (L p = 4.84′) < (Lb = 8.0′) < (Lr = 13.3′)
The moment capacity falls in Zone 2, and
[ ]
φb M nx = Cb φb M px − BF (Lb − L p ) ≤ φb M px Eq. 5
φb M n = C [φ M
b b p ]
− BF (Lb − L p ) ≤ φb M p
φb M n = 1.0[578 − 21.6(8.0 − 4.84 )] = 509.7 ≤ φb M p = 578
Therefore,
The moment capacity = 509.7 ft - kip
14
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Plastic Figure 1. Mn as a function of Lb
Mn
Lb = 8.0 ft
L pd Lp = Lr =
4.84 ft 13.3 ft

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 2
Select the lightest available section for a
factored moment of 290 ft-kips if Lb = 10.0
ft. Use 50 ksi steel and assume Cb = 1.0.
Enter LRFD Table 5-3 (P. 5-47) and notice
that φbMp for W18 × 40 is 294 ft-kip.
For this section:
L p = 4.49 ft, Lr = 12.0 ft,
BF = 11.7 kips
15

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Since (L p = 4.49′) < (Lb = 10.0′) < (Lr = 12.0′)
[ ]
φb M nx = Cb φb M px − BF (Lb − L p ) ≤ φb M px
φb M n = C [φ M
b b p ]
φb M n = 1.0[294 − 11.7(10.0 − 4.49 )] = 229.5 ≤ φb M p = 294
Therefore,
The moment capacity = 229 ft - kip < M u = 290 ft - kip NG

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Moving up in the table and after several
trials, try a W21 × 48 that has the following
properties:
L p = 6.09 ft, Lr = 15.4 ft,
BF = 13.2 kips
Since (L p = 6.09′) < (Lb = 10.0′) < (Lr = 15.4′)
16

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
[ ]
φb M nx = Cb φb M px − BF (Lb − L p ) ≤ φb M px
φb M n = C [φ M
b b p ]
φb M n = 1.0[401 − 13.2(10.0 − 6.09 )] = 249 ≤ φb M p = 401
Therefore,
The moment capacity = 349 ft - kip > M u = 290 ft - kip OK
Hence, USE W21 × 48
Elastic Buckling, Zone 3

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q When a beam is not fully braced, it may

fail due to buckling of the compression
portion of the cross section laterally
about the weak axis.
Q This will be accompanied also with
twisting of the entire cross section about
the beam’s longitudinal axis between
points of lateral bracing.
Q For the moment capacity to fall into
Zone 3, Lb ≥ Lr
17
ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf

Plastic Figure 1. Mn as a function of Lb
Mn
L pd Lp Lr

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q LRFD Specifications for Zone 3

The classic equation for determining the
flexural-torsional buckling moment is given
by
2
π  πE 
M cr = Cb EI y GJ +   I y Cw (7)
Lb L
 b
G = shear modulus of steel = 11,200 ksi
J = torsional constant (in4)
Cw = warping constant (in6)
NOTE: These properties are provided in Tables 1.25 to 1.35
Of the LRFD Manual for rolled sections
18

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Q Example 3
Compute φMcr for a W18 × 97 consisting of
50 ksi steel if the the unbraced length Lb is
38 ft. Assume Cb = 1.0.
For W18 × 97, Table 5-3 (P. 5-46) of the
Manual gives
L p = 9.36 ft, Lr = 27.5 ft,
BF = 12.8 kips

ENCE 355 ©Assakkaf
Since (L p = 9.36′) < (Lr = 27.5′) < (Lb = 38′)
From P.1-17
From Part 1 of the Manual, tables for torsion properties (P. 1-91):
I y = 201 in 4 , J = 5.86 in 4 , and Cw = 15,800 in 6
Therefore, using Eq. 7
2
 π   π 29 ×103 
M cr = (1)  29 ×10 (201)(11,200)(5.86) + 
3
 (201)(15,800)
 12 × 38   38 ×12 
= 4,916.9 in - kip = 410 ft - kip
Therefore, φbMcr = 0.9 (410) = 369 ft-kip
19

Introduction To Structural Design

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Introduction To Structural Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Reinforced Concrete Design STEEL.

ENCE 355 - Introduction to Structural Design

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 1

Q ENCE 355 – Introduction to Structural

Q MWF 9:00 am – 9:50 am, EGR 2112

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 3

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 5

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 7

GENERAL COURSE DESCRIPTION (UM

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 9

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS (cont’d):

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS (cont’d):

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 11

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS (cont’d):

EXAMS AND QUIZZES:

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 13

COURSE WEBSITE: Students are encourage to access

Q Schedule for Lectures

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 15

Q Schedule for Lecture (cont’d)

Q Schedule for Lecture (cont’d)

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 17

Q Schedule for Lecture (cont’d)

Q Schedule for Lecture (cont’d)

Week Lec. Date Section Topic Homework

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 19

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 21

Q Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine

Cement + Aggregates = Concrete

Q Materials and Mechanics of Bending

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 23

Pure Bending: Prismatic members

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 25

Q RECTANGULAR R/C CONCRETE

Dead and Live Loads

Q Reinforced Concrete Beams: T-Beams

T-Beam Doubly Reinforced

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 27

Q Development Length, Splices, and

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 29

Q Reinforced Concrete Columns

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 31

Q Introduction to Structural Steel Design

ASIC American Institute of Steel Construction

Q Analysis and Design of Tension

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 33

Q Introduction to the Design of Axially

Q Introduction to the Analysis and Design

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 35

Q Introduction to the Analysis and Design

Dead and Live Loads

Computers and Software

Q Computers Evolution Era (Chapra &

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 37

Computers and Software

Q Computers Evolution Era (Chapra &

Computers and Software

Q Computers Evolution Era (Chapra &

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 39

Computers and Software

Computers and Software

INTRODUCTION a. SYLLABUS, MAJOR TOPICS, & COMPUTERS Slide No. 41

Structural Design and Analysis,

ENCE 355 - Introduction to Structural Design

“Structural design can be defined as a