ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

FUNCTION OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The main function of endocrine glands is to secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream. Hormones are chemical substances that affect the activity of another
part of the body (target site). In essence, hormones serve as messengers,
controlling and coordinating activities throughout the body.

Upon reaching a target site, a hormone binds to a receptor, much like a key fits into
a lock. Once the hormone locks into its receptor, it transmits a message that causes
the target site to take a specific action. Hormone receptors may be within the
nucleus or on the surface of the cell.

Ultimately, hormones control the function of entire organs, affecting such diverse
processes as growth and development, reproduction, and sexual characteristics.
Hormones also influence the way the body uses and stores energy and control the
volume of fluid and the levels of salts and sugar in the blood. Very small amounts
of hormones can trigger very large responses in the body.

Although hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of hormone

influences only certain organs and tissues. Some hormones affect only one or two
organs, whereas others have influence throughout the body. For example, thyroid-
stimulating hormone, produced in the pituitary gland, affects only the thyroid
gland. In contrast, thyroid hormone, produced in the thyroid gland, affects cells
throughout the body and is involved in such important functions as regulating
growth of cells, controlling the heart rate, and affecting the speed at which calories
are burned. Insulin, secreted by the islet cells of the pancreas, affects the
processing (metabolism) of glucose, protein, and fat throughout the body.

Most hormones are proteins. Others are steroids, which are fatty substances
derived from cholesterol.

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemical messages we

call hormones. These signals are passed through the blood to arrive at a target
organ, which has cells possessing the appropriate receptor. Exocrine glands (not
part of the endocrine system) secrete products that are passed outside the body.
Sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive glands are examples of exocrine
glands.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM

FUNCTION OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system is a system that connects to the digestive system. It starts at
the mouth and continues down the esophagus, after that it travels down to the large
chamber of the liver and stomach. It travels past the pancreas and the gall bladder.
You swiftly follow the path of the small intestine and finally goes to the large
intestine and finally to the rectum. The kidneys, main organs are filters. There are
two of them located near the spine in the middle of the back. The main organs of
the excretory system are the bladder, kidneys, lungs, liver and skin. Cells produce
water and carbon dioxide as by-products of metabolic breakdown of sugars, fats,
and proteins. Chemical groups such as nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorous must be
stripped, from the large molecules to which they were formerly attached, as part of
preparing them for energy conversion. The continuous production of metabolic
wastes establishes a steep concentration gradient across the plasma membrane,
causing wastes to diffuse out of cells and into the extracellular fluid.

Single-celled organisms have most of their wastes diffuse out into the outside
environment. Multicellular organisms, and animals in particular, must have a
specialized organ system to concentrate and remove wastes from the interstitial
fluid into the blood capillaries and eventually deposit that material at a collection
point for removal entirely from the body.

1. Collect water and filter body fluids.

2. Remove and concentrate waste products from body fluids and return other
substances to body fluids as necessary for homeostasis.

3. Eliminate excretory products from the body.

URINARY SYSTEM
 FUNCTION OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
Urinary system functions through its constituents parts or organs, like the kidneys,
ureters, bladder and urethra, to eliminate waste products from the body in the form
of urine. Learn more about the functions of the urinary system.

As has been mentioned already, the basic urinary system functions are removal of
waste products from the body in the form of urine. Each part of the system is
concerned with some specific functions. The kidneys are concerned with
elimination of the urea from the bloodstream. Urea is the waste product generated
during protein metabolism. Generally, all the nutrients present in our food are
absorbed by the body to preform the vital functions, while the waste products are
left behind either in the blood or the bowel. Urinary system collects the waste
products from the bloodstream with the help of the kidneys. Kidneys while
eliminating wastes from the blood, helps to maintain the blood volume, and
thereby regulate blood pressure. 

In addition to this, kidneys secrete an enzyme, known as renin, that is associated

with the regulation of blood pressure. Kidneys also secrete a hormone,
erythropoietin, which can activate the production of red blood cells. So, kidneys or
the urinary system eliminates urea from the blood, combine it with water and other
waste products (ammonia, creatinine and bilirubin) to form urine, promote red
blood cell production, regulates blood pressure, blood volume and blood pH, and
takes part in the synthesis of vitamin D. Kidneys are also associated with
maintaining the ionic composition of blood, by regulating the quantities of sodium,
calcium, potassium and chloride ions. Know more about urine color and urine
odor.

The urine formed in both the kidney is carried to the bladder by two narrow tubes,
known as ureters. Ureters prevent the back flow of urine during urination, when the
bladder contracts to pass urine to the urethra. If this function of the ureters is
impaired, then diseases like, cyctitis and kidney infection may occur. The urinary
bladder is a triangular hollow organ, which stores urine, until it is expelled from
the body. It is located in the lower abdomen region, and it has the ability to expand
for storing urine and then, contract to expel it. Find out information on urinary
system diseases and kidney diseases.

Urine is expelled though the urethra, which is a tube like structure. The sphincter
muscles are circular muscles, that play an important role in keeping the urine
within the bladder. In other words, they prevent the leakage of urine, by closing
tightly around the opening of the bladder. The nerves present in the bladder
controls the process of urination or micturition. When the bladder is full and it is
time urinate, the nerves of the bladder transmit this information to the brain. The
brain then, signals the bladder muscles to contract and sphincter muscles to relax,
so as to facilitate urination. Know more about human body systems.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 FUNCTION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Each muscle has its own special name. Muscles, however, are also
described by their function. Muscles that bend a limb are flexors; those
which straighten a limb are extensors (e.g. elbow flexors and elbow
extensors.) Muscles which move a limb to the side, away from the body,
are abductors; those which move a limb sideways toward the body
are adductors (e.g. hip abductors and hip adductors.) Other functional
groups are elevators, depressors, rotators, doriflexors, planar flexors,
and palmar flexors. 

The muscular system has a variety of roles within the human body. It is
made up of muscles, joints, tendons, bones, ligaments and connective
tissue that help to support internal organs. All of these
systems work together to provide the body with stability and posture,
motion, heat, circulation and help in digestion. There are three types of
muscles tissues, which contribute to the functions: skeletal, cardiac and
smooth muscle.

Read more: What Are the Functions of the Muscular System? |

eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_5086848_functions-muscular-
system.html#ixzz127q3PCJz

Stability and Posture

 Skeletal muscle attaches to bones through tendons where the bone acts
like a lever and the muscle contracts or relaxes, controlling the bone.
Muscles provide strength for stability and proper posture by allowing the
bones to align properly. Certain muscles being too tight and others being
too loose cause the bones to become misaligned, creating poor posture.
Skeletal muscle can be stretched or strengthened to support the bone
correctly, allowing for maximal stability and form. Skeletal muscle is also
important to provide the body with balance and coordination.

Motion

 Locomotion or motion occurs in conjunction with the central nervous

system, which tells muscle fibers when to contract or relax, providing
movement. Muscular strength is needed to provide the body with the
capability to lever the bones necessary for motion. Motion includes
swimming, hiking, climbing, jumping, running, walking, crawling, lifting,
biking or any variation of these, providing movement. Motion is generally
voluntary, initiated by the brain telling the muscles what to do.

Heat Production

 The body needs to produce heat to maintain and regulate body

temperature. Muscle contractions produce heat when it is needed. As body
temperature drops, the muscles contract involuntarily in the form of
shivering. As body temperature rises, heat from the muscles is redistributed
to the skin to evaporate and cool the body. When the muscle contractions
are not enough to keep the body warm, hypothermia may occur. Muscle
contractions produce a significant amount of body heat by utilizing energy,
which also is a mechanism for weight loss.

Circulation

 Muscle aids in circulation in several ways. Not only is the heart a muscle
responsible for pumping blood throughout the body, but
physical exercise through the contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles
increases heat production and circulation, promoting cardiovascular health.
Also, arteries are made of smooth muscle that constricts or dilates in
response to circulation needs. The cardiac muscle (heart) is controlled
unconsciously to continually support circulation of blood throughout the
body.

Digestion

 Digestion is an involuntary action that takes place throughout the entire

digestive tract from mouth to anus. The mouth may involuntarily or
voluntarily chew food by way of the jaw muscles; the esophagus moves
food from the mouth to stomach by peristalsis, the contraction of smooth
muscles in the digestive tract. The stomach is a muscle that churns food
before it can be absorbed by the body; the churned food moves into the
intestines, where smooth muscle again contracts and relaxes, pushing
nutrients and feces throughout the digestive tract.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FUNCTION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system is illustrated to the right. “Eggs” are produced in
the ovaries, but remember from our discussion of meiosis, that these are not true eggs,
yet, and will never complete meiosis and become such unless/until first fertilized by a
sperm. Within the ovary, a follicle consists of one precursor egg cell surrounded by
special cells to nourish and protect it. A human female typically has about 400,000
follicles/potential eggs, all formed before birth. Only several hundred of these “eggs”
will actually ever be released during her reproductive years. Normally, in humans,
after the onset of puberty, due to the stimulation of follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) one “egg” per cycle matures and is released from its ovary. Ovulationis the
release of a mature “egg” due to the stimulation of leutenizing hormone (LH), which
then stimulates the remaining follicle cells to turn into acorpus luteum which then
secretes progesterone to prepare the uterus for possible implantation. If an egg is not
fertilized and does not implant, the corpus luteum disintegrates and when it stops
producing progesterone, the lining of the uterus breaks down and is shed.

Each “egg” is released into the abdominal cavity near the opening of one of
the oviducts or Fallopian tubes. Cilia in the oviduct set up currents that draw the egg
in. If sperm are present in the oviduct (if the couple has recently had intercourse), the
egg will be fertilized near the far end of the Fallopian tube, will quickly finish
meiosis, and the embryo will start to divide and grow as it travels to the uterus. The
trip down the Fallopian tube takes about a week as the cilia in the tube propel the
unfertilized “egg” or the embryo down to the uterus. At this point, if she had
intercourse near the time of ovulation, the woman has no idea whether an unfertilized
“egg” or a new baby is travelling down that tube. During this time, progesterone
secreted by the corpus luteum has been stimulating the endometrium, the lining of
the uterus, to thicken in preparation for possible implantation, and when a growing
embryo finally reaches the uterus, it will implant in this nutritious environment and
begin to secrete its own hormones to maintain the endometrium. If the “egg” was not
fertilized, it dies and disintegrates, and as the corpus luteum also disintegrates, its
progesterone production falls, and the unneeded, built-up endometrium is shed.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system does three main jobs in the body. It
Drains fluid back into the bloodstream from the tissues
Filters lymph
Fights infections
 
Draining fluid into the bloodstream

As the blood circulates, fluid leaks out into the body tissues. This fluid is important
because it carries food to the cells and waste products back to the bloodstream. The
leaked fluid drains into the lymph vessels. It is carried through the lymph vessels to the
base of the neck where it is emptied back into the bloodstream. This circulation of fluid
through the body is going on all the time.

  Filtering lymph

This is the job of the spleen. It filters the lymph to take out all the old worn out red blood
cells. These are destroyed and replaced by new red blood cells that have been made in
the bone marrow.

 Fighting infection

When people say "I'm not well, my glands are up" they are really saying they have
swollen lymph nodes because they have an infection. The lymphatic system helps fight
infection in many ways such as

Helping to make special white blood cells (lymphocytes) that produce antibodies
Having other blood cells called macrophages inside the lymph nodes which swallow up
and kill any foreign particles, for example germs

FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system is made up of the

 spinal cord and
  brain

The spinal cord

 conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both

somatic and autonomic) to the brain

 conducts motor information from the brain to our various effectors

o skeletal muscles

o cardiac muscle

o smooth muscle

o glands

 serves as a minor reflex center

The brain

 receives sensory input from the spinal cord as well as from its own nerves
(e.g., olfactory and optic nerves)

 devotes most of its volume (and computational power) to processing its

various sensory inputs and initiating appropriate — and coordinated —
motor outputs.

fMRI exploits the changes in the magnetic properties of hemoglobin as it carries

oxygen. Activation of a part of the brain increases oxygen levels there increasing
the ratio of oxyhemoglobin to deoxyhemoglobin.

The probable mechanism:

 The increased demand for neurotransmitters must be met by increased

production of ATP.

 Although this consumes oxygen (needed for cellular respiration),

  it also increases the blood flow to the area.

 So there is an increase — not a decrease — in the oxygen supply to the

region, which provides the signal detected by fMRI.

FUNCTION OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Every morsel of food we eat has to be broken down into nutrients that can be
absorbed by the body, which is why it takes hours to fully digest food. In humans,
protein must be broken down into amino acids, starches into simple sugars, and
fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The water in our food and drink is also absorbed
into the bloodstream to provide the body with the fluid it needs.

The digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal and the other abdominal

organs that play a part in digestion, such as the liver and pancreas. The alimentary
canal (also called the digestive tract) is the long tube of organs — including the
esophagus, the stomach, and the intestines — that runs from the mouth to the anus.
An adult's digestive tract is about 30 feet long.
 FUNCTION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
 the internal skeleton that serves as a framework for the body.
This framework consists of many individual bones andcartilages.
There also are bands of fibrous connective tissue—
the ligaments and the tendons—in intimate relationship with the
parts of the skeleton. This article is concerned primarily with the
gross structure and the function of the skeleton of the normal
human adult.

The human skeleton, like that of other vertebrates, consists of

two principal subdivisions, each with origins distinct from the
others and each presenting certain individual features. These are
(1) the axial, comprising the vertebral column—the spine—
and .
REPRODUTIO
N OF PLANTS
AND ANIMALS

REPRODUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Some living things reproduce by cloning; producing offspring that are genetically
identical to the parent. Organisms that procreate sexually create genetic novelty.
Many single-celled organisms reproduce by binary fission; the splitting of a parent
cell after genetic material has been duplicated. Each “daughter cell” is a clone, an
exact copy of the parent.
Eukaryotes and Asexual Reproduction
Some multicellular organisms can also reproduce asexually, to produce clones
(offspring genetically identical to parent).

The hydra, a relative of jellyfish, can reproduce via budding. A miniature version
of the parent grows as a bud of mitotically dividing cells. When the bud is
sufficiently developed, it detaches from the parent and becomes an independent
hydra.

Another example of asexual reproduction is the fragmentation of starfish. If part of

an arm breaks off, the starfish not only regenerates the arm, but the broken piece of
arm can grow into an entire starfish!

Read on 

Starfish (aka seastars) prey on abalone, a type of mollusk. Human who harvest
abalone must compete with starfish for the shellfish delicacies. At one time it was
common practice for abalone fishermen to try to reduce the number of starfish by
catching them, cutting them up and dumping the starfish pieces back into the sea.
Ooops! The fishermen were inadvertently increasing the number of starfish!

Asexual Reproduction Is Mitosis

When these eukaryotic, multicellular organisms, like starfish and hydra reproduce
via budding or fragmentation, the reproduction is accomplished through mitosis; a
type of cell division in which cells divide to produce more, genetically identical
clone cells.

This is the same process of cellular division that allows our bodies to grow and
develop from a fertilized egg into an adult human. Mitosis also enables our cells to
repair our body, producing new cells to replace older cells or damaged tissue. Most
cells in the body are produced by mitosis.

Only gametes (sperm and eggs) are produced by meiosis, a different type of cell
division that produces only sex cells.

Sexual Reproduction – Meiosis

Although sexually reproducing organisms often resemble their parents more
closely than they resemble less related individuals, offspring that result from
sexual reproduction are not clones of their parents and are not identical to their
siblings.
Genetic Shuffling of Meiosis

Sexual reproduction allows for multiple instances of ‘genetic shuffling’; including

the independent assortment and crossover of meiosis and the combination of genes
from two parents.

Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting a set of chromosomes from

each parent; half of the genes from a female parent and half from a male parent.
These genes, and the chromosomes in which they reside, are transmitted to the
offspring through the parents’ gametes (sperm of the father and the egg of the
mother). The fusion of two gametes to produce a single zygote.