SAFE SURFING

THROUGH THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

materials for the students of

COMPUTER SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE

at the

UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

VELIKA GORICA

by Marina Manucci, M.Sc.

Velika Gorica, 2010

UNIT 1 – WORDS, WORDS, WORDS
(Be aware of language and beware of language!)

@ ARE COMPUTER WORDS DIFFICULT?

Are you someone who practically lives in front of the computer – a mouse potato? Or are you
nervous about new technology – a technophobe? In either case, if you want to master the
English language, you will need to be familiar with those new computer words that seem to be
popping up everywhere.
Luckily, most computer words are easy to learn. For one thing, many of these words probably
already have similar forms in your own language.
Another reason why computer words are easy to learn is that many of them are so colourful.
They often make us smile when we first hear them, such as snail mail (traditional post rather
than Internet-based mail) or wysiwyg (what-you-see-is-what-you-get).

One reason why computer words are so user-friendly is that many are metaphors (= a word or
phrase that means one thing and is used for referring to another thing in order to emphasise the
similar qualities). For example, mouse compares a pointing device to a small animal because they
have similar shapes. It is certainly nicer to talk about a mouse, rather than an X-Y position
indicator, which is what the computer mouse was originally called.

@ Can you find some more examples of metaphors used in computing and explain the
similarities?!

@ Read the following text and do the activities at the end:

METAPHOR AND NEW TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
The growth of computer technology has led to a need for words to describe many new objects and
activities – and most of these new words have been produced metaphorically. For example, the Internet is a
system of linked computers, not a place or a group of places, but we talk about it as though it were a
physical location: we speak of going to the Internet, and of visiting web sites as if they were actual places.

Activity 1
Read the text below and match the underlined words to their definition. Check them in the dictionary
afterwards.

When you want to spend some time surfing the Net, you get
connected and start to browse. You spot a website that looks
interesting, and use your mouse to click on the link that takes you
to the website. The site’s home page may have a menu with links to
different areas of the site. Having visited the website, you like it
so much that you will want to return, so you bookmark it. The
website may send a file called a cookie to your computer’s hard disk
so that if you visit the site again, the file can collect information
about your computer use.

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a) to use a website

b) a compute system that allows people in different parts of the world to

exchange information
c) a place on the Internet where information is available

d) a small object connected to a computer that you move in order to do things

on a computer screen
e) a connection between one Internet file or section and another

f) the main page of a website on the Internet where a person or organisation

gives information about themselves

Activity 2
Now look at the words in italics in Activity 1. Each of them is a metaphor taken from a common area of
activity in the real world. Match the word to the area of activity.

a reading ______________________________________________________

b the office ______________________________________________________

c food ______________________________________________________

d water sports ______________________________________________________

e reading or shopping ____________________________________________________

f eating out ______________________________________________________

Activity 3
Look at the following computer terms and try to decide which real world category they are based on. If you
need help, look in your dictionary. The other senses in the dictionary entry will help you.

edit / window / mailbox / bug / desktop / folder / notebook

/ worm / wallpaper / web page / mouse / email

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

@ But there is also a reverse situation when computer words affect the real life:
In computing a bug is a problem in a computer program, while debugging refers to fixing such a
problem. In the examples below, however, these words no longer have a specific computer
meaning:
There are lots of bugs in this proposal.
Some parts of the business plan still need to be debugged.

@ Do you know why errors (in computer programs) are called bugs? Read the following text
and find out:

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
WHY ARE ERRORS CALLED BUGS?

In 1947, the late Grace Murray Hopper was investigating why the MARK II electromechanical
computer was not processing data the way the program she had written specified. She discovered a small,
dead moth in the machine and when she removed it, the program worked fine. From then on, computing
errors were called "bugs", and the process of finding and removing them has been known as debugging.
Hopper's logbook recording the event, as well as the actual computer bug, is currently on display at the
U.S. Naval Museum in Dahlgren, Virginia.

 Look at the following text and fill in the gaps with the words from the list:
CD / hard drive / program / mouse pad / keyboard / 3½ inch floppy
virus / application / web / memory / cursor

Life before the computer

____________ was something you lost with age

An _______________ was for employment

A _________________ was a TV show

A _________________ used profanity

A _________________ was a piano

A ___________ was a spider's home

A _______________ was the flu

A __________ was a bank account

A _________________ was a long trip on the road

A _________________ was where a mouse lived

And if you had a ____________________

...... you just hoped nobody found out.

@ In the above text – what are the meanings of the following words?

keyboard CD
program memory
cursor mouse pad
memory application
hard drive web

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 USING A DICTIONARY
If possible, you should have two dictionaries: a good bilingual dictionary and a good English –
English (monolingual) dictionary. The bilingual dictionary is quicker and easier for the non-native English
speaker (learner) to understand, and the monolingual dictionary contains more information about a word or
phrase, and it is also a good idea to work in English as much as possible.

 How should a dictionary be used?

When you see an unfamiliar English word in a text, first try to guess the meaning, carry on reading to see if
your guess seems correct. Use your dictionary then to check the meaning if necessary.

REMEMBER: many words have more than one meaning, and the first meaning in the dictionary is not always
the one you want. Read through the different meanings.

@ Nowadays you may also find available various vocabulary sources (dictionaries, glossaries,
thesauruses, etc.) on the Internet, web sites and on CDs.
(try to find some useful links and then share the information with your colleagues)

Some of the online dictionaries:

http://www.netlingo.com/ - to find the meaning of internet-related terms
http://www.webopedia.com/ - a great site to find out clear explanations of computer terms
http://www.yourdictionary.com/ - to find general meanings of terms
http://www.m-w.com/dictionary - to find general meanings of terms
http://www.acronymfinder.com - to find the meanings of acronyms

@ Visit on-line dictionaries to find the correct IT and general meanings of the terms in the list:

word IT meaning general meaning

cookie
browser
flame
chip
server
boot
finger
window

UNIT 2 – EFFECTIVE READING

@ PREDICTING LANGUAGE
Before you read a specialist text try to predict some of the words you might find. This can help you to
understand when you read.

@ Work in groups: write as many words as you know in English related to computers. Then read the text
and underline the words that you have predicted. Write another list of words which are the same in
Croatian and check whether they have the same meaning. Write out a list of unfamiliar words and look them
up in a dictionary.

COMPUTER
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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 A computer is a machine for manipulating data according to a list of instructions known as a program.
Computers are extremely versatile. In fact, they are universal information-processing machines.
According to the Church–Turing thesis, a computer with a certain minimum threshold capability is in
principle capable of performing the tasks of any other computer. Therefore, computers with capabilities
ranging from those of a personal digital assistant to a supercomputer may all perform the same tasks, as
long as time and memory capacity are not considerations. Therefore, the same computer designs may be
adapted for tasks ranging from processing company payrolls to controlling unmanned spaceflights. Due to
technological advancement, modern electronic computers are exponentially more capable than those of
preceding generations (a phenomenon partially described by Moore's Law).
Computers take numerous physical forms. Early electronic computers were the size of a large room,
while entire modern embedded computers may be smaller than a deck of playing cards. Even today,
enormous computing facilities still exist for specialized scientific computation and for the transaction
processing requirements of large organizations. Smaller computers designed for individual use are called
personal computers. Along with its portable equivalent, the laptop computer, the personal computer is the
ubiquitous information processing and communication tool, and is usually what is meant by "a computer".
However, the most common form of computer in use today is the embedded computer. Embedded
computers are usually relatively simple and physically small computers used to control another device. They
may control machines from fighter aircraft to industrial robots to digital cameras.

@ Comprehension check:
1. What are the main considerations regarding computer performance?

2. Explain the words: versatile, ubiquitous, embedded?

3. What kinds of computers are mentioned in the text?

UNIT 3 – SPELLING / PUNCTUATION

@ Read the following text but be careful – there are deliberate spelling and grammar
mistakes. Try to find them:

THE PARTS OF A COMPUTER

CD-ROM Drive: This device reads data from a disc. These CDs look like a music CD, but hold

data instead of musics.

CPU: The CPU, or central processing unit, is the “brian” of the computer.

Graphics Card: The graphics card is the part of the computer that sends the imadges to the

monitor.

Hard Drive: The hard drive is also called the hard disk. Perhaps you will never see it because it

is inside your computer. The computer keeps files, programs, and documents there.

Keyboard: This device is the most important way of inputting data into many programs.

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Memory: This is the device that holds informations in an electrical or magnetic form. There is

two basic types. Read-only memory (ROM) contains program data that never change, and random-

access memory (RAM) contains program data that often change and are often accessed by the

CPU. ROM and RAM are typically meazured in megabytes (MB).

Modem: This device connect’s a computer to a phone so that the user can access the Internet.

Monitor: An output device that shows you what you are doing.

Motherboard: The motherboard is the circiut board that everything in the computer plugs into.

Mouse: The mouse is another input device. It is good for moving and pointing to objects on the

screen.

Printer: A printer is an essenzial part of the computer if you want to see your work on paper.

Scanner: A scanner is useful if you are working with lots of pictures or photos. It can copy

written documents, pictures or photos into your computer.

Sound Card: Your computer uses this device to play music, sounds and voices. Make sure you

have a sound card if you are planning to play multimedia games.

@ Are the following statements True of False:

1. A CD-ROM contains music. T F

2. The hard drive is located on the inside of the computer. T F

3. The computer has two different types of memory. T F

4. A scanner can make a hard copy of our work on paper. T F

5. You cannot listen to music if you have not got a sound card. T F

 COMPUTER QUIZ

Supply the words asked for in the clues. The first one has been done for you:

0) the set of software that controls a computer system operating system

1) a very small piece of silicon carrying a complex electrical circuit m
2) a big computer system used for large-scale operations m
3) the physical portion of a computer system h
4) a device moved by hand to indicate position on the screen m
5) a visual symbol used in a menu instead of natural language i
6) data, programs, etc., not forming part of a computer, but used when s
operating it
7) used for the temporary storage of application programs and data; can be R

written to and read from

8) surface on which pictures or data are shown s
9) a computer that is small enough to hold in the hand p
10) an electronic pen s
11) to erase or omit d

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12) used for storing part of the operating system and application software known R
as "firmware"; can only be read; cannot be written to or altered in any way
13) the information that the computer processes d
14) an individual dot on a computer screen p
15) a request for information from a database q
16) a list of instructions which are used by the computer to perform the user's p
requirements
17) used to describe data that contain numbers and letters a
18) remove bugs from a program d
19) a fixed disk inside a computer which may not be removed h____ d ____
20) an input device like a typewriter for entering characters k

@ Effective writing
On a computer, it’s much easier to change what you have written. Look at your writing three
times. First, quickly write down your ideas. Then go back and organise them into logical
paragraphs. Finally go back again and check the spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

@ PUNCTUATION

 PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation as an aid to instant clarity. Try this series of sentences. You will discover a good reason for
giving attention to punctuation. Read the following five sentences quickly. Just read them – nothing more:
1- If you wish to shoot the attendant will load the gun for you.
2 – While I was watching my father changed the tyre.
3 – While we were eating the dog began to bark.
4 – I ran quickly for the bus was about to start.
5 – To write a history of the past ten years of research is a minimum requirement.

Did you understand the intent of these sentences at first sight? Or did you have to read some or all of
them a second or third time to be sure of their meaning? Obviously, a signal is missing in each sentence – to
warn the reader to slow down. Now, go back and put in the slow-down commas which make the sentences
instantly clear!

(shoot, watching, eating, quickly, past,)

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 The following passage shows the main punctuation marks in use:

question mark

inverted commas / semi-colon

quotation marks "Why study English?" is the title of a book;
it is also a question. full stop
capital letter An English-speaking pupil, comma

hyphen
apostrophe or a student, might answer "Because
I've got to!" – especially if they are at school

exclamation dash
mark

brackets colon
(where it is part of the syllabus:
compulsory until the age of sixteen).

@ SPELLING

 Discuss the following statements:

- Spelling is not important and can be neglected. (stationary vs. stationery??)
- Spelling is necessary only in writing.
- Spelling is the exact transcription of sounds of a language into alphabetic letters. (“hrvacki”??)
- Native speakers have a much better spelling ability than second-language speakers.

@ You will find the answers in the following text

Proper spelling is the writing of a word or words with all necessary letters and diacritics present in an
accepted, conventional order. It is one of the elements of orthography and a prescriptive element of
language. As a means of transcribing the sounds of language into alphabetic letters, spelling, however
officially sanctioned, often offers but a rough and inconsistent approximation.
Since traditional language teaching methods emphasize written language over spoken language, a
second-language speaker may have a better spelling ability than a native speaker despite having a poorer
command of the language.

 Spelling may sometimes seem unimportant (although misspelling always shows some kind of illiteracy),
e.g. as in passenger (very often spelt by foreign English speakers as passanger) because the latter has no
difference in meaning.
However, there are many examples when spelling may cause great confusion (or a good laugh).
Look at the following pairs and find the differences.
E.g. stationary: adj. without movement or change in condition;
stationery: noun, writing paper, envelopes, staplers, ring binders… – office supplies
(angel/angle, ingenious/ingenuous, peace/piece, lend/land, etc.)

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 Check the spelling in the following text. Can you find the mistakes?

WHAT CAN COMPUTERS DO?

Computers and microchips have become part of our everyday lifes: we visit shops and offices witch have

been designed with the help of computers, we read magazines which have been produced on computer, we

pay bills prepared by computers. Just picking up a telephone and dialling a number involves the use of a

sofisticated computer system, as does making a flight reservation or bank transaction.

We encounter daily many computers that spring to life the instant they're switched off (e.g. calculators,

the car's electronic ignition, the timer in the microwave, or the programmer inside the TV set) all of which

use cheap technology.

What makes your computer such a miraculous device? Each time you turn it on, it is a tabula rasa that, with

apropriate hardware and software, is capable of doing anything you ask. It is a calculating machine that

speeds up financial calculations. It is an electronic filling cabinet which manages large collections of data

such as customers' lists, accounts, or inventoryes. It is a magical typewriter that allows you to type and

print any kind of document – letters, memos or legal documents. It is a personnel communicator that

enables you to interact with other computers and with people around the world. If you like gadgets and

electronic entertainment, you can even use your PC to relax with computer gams.
Key:

 HOW GOOD IS YOUR SPELLING?

If you have a spell checker that works with email then it is not really a problem (or is it? – can you
think of reasons why!!) – but many people don't. Underline the spelling mistakes in the email and write
the corrections into your notebook. There are 25 mistakes:

Hi John! Thanks for your email witch I recieved some time ago. Sorry I havn't replyed before now, but I've

been realy busy. Actualy, its good news – I've got a job! I went for loads of interviews and finaly I was

sucessful – I'm working for a small indipendent record company. The job is very interesting – I help to

organise tours for the groups, make rangements for there accomodation in the cityes where they play,

things like that. I've been doing it since the begininig of Februry, and its grate – completely difrent to my

old job working in a restarant! Its a good opportunity for me. Hopefuly, if the people in the company like

me, I'll get more responsabilities then I have at the moment, and more mony. Then I could even think about

visiting you in england! Anyway, keep in touch, and I look forward to seing you soon.

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 BUT EVEN IF YOU HAVE A SPELL CHECKER – READ THE FOLLOWING POEM AND DO NOT SAY
YOU HAVEN'T BEEN WARNED.
You might think twice about using the spell checker on your computer after reading it:

WHAT PRICE A SPELL CHECKER?

Eye have a spelling chequer
It came with my pea sea
It plainly marques four my revue
Miss steaks eye can knot sea.
Eye strike a key and type a word
And weight four it two say
Weather eye am wrong oar write
It shows me strait a weigh.
As soon as a mist ache is maid
It nose bee fore two long
And eye can put the error rite
Its rare lea ever wrong.
Eye have run this poem threw it
I'm shore your pleased two no
Its letter perfect awl the weigh
My chequer tolled me sew.
Found on the Internet – author unknown

- What is wrong and what is right in this poem? – Copy it correctly!

UNIT 4 – BTW – HOW R U?

 ACRONYMS / ABBREVIATIONS
An acronym - a word formed from the initial letters of other words and is pronounced as a word (e.g.
AIDS, NATO, RADAR, LASER, CAD, CAM, PIN, WYSIWYG ...).
Can you think of some more?

An abbreviation - may be formed from the initial letters in a phrase or name and is read letter-by-letter
(e.g., IBM, CD, PC, ITS, etc.).
Can you think of some more?

 Visit www.acronymfinder.com and find the highest-frequency definitions of these everyday

abbreviations:

BLT ________________________________ PIN ________________________________

DVT ________________________________ CCTV ______________________________

MTV ________________________________ FAQ _______________________________

TGIF ________________________________ BTW _______________________________

 Latin words and abbreviations

Latin words and abbreviations are often used in citation terms or in texts:

Latin short for.. English equivalent

c./ca. circa about, approximately, (e.g. c. 1000)
cf. confer compare with
e.g. exempli gratia for example, for instance
et al. et alii and others
etc. et cetera and the rest, and all the others, and so on
et seq. et sequens and the following pages
ibid. ibidem in the same place (used to refer again to a text just referred to)
i.e. id est which is to say, in other words, that is
N.B. nota bene take a special note of; note well
viz. videlicet namely, that is to say, in other words

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 Read the text and then decide whether the sentences below are true or false.

THE LOOK OF SCREENS TO COME

Have you noticed how much your computer screen flickers? This may be because your computer
monitor uses CRT technology. This kind of technology offers colour and high-resolution pictures for relatively
little money but the monitors are large, use a lot of energy, can flicker and emit electromagnetic radiation.
In recent years flat screens have become increasingly popular. Users talk of benefits such as more
desk space, how easy they are to adjust for tilt and height, crisper, clearer images and the total elimination of
screen flicker. It’s like having a different PC, they say, a new window on the world.
Most flat screens are based on LCD technology which has a lot of benefits over CRT technology. Among
them:
• LCDs are inherently flat, CRT monitors are not, so LCDs require much less space
• LCDs use less power than CRTs
• LCDs are distortion-free while typical CRTs are curved, which may cause image distortion
• most LCD displays use a TFT system offering a wider angle of vision and high-quality images.
But there is one major drawback to flat screens: their cost. They are expensive compared with CRT
monitors. Prices are falling, however, and they’ll soon find their way into homes, schools and businesses.
Monitor manufacturers like Philips, Apple, Sharp or Panasonic offer compatible flat screens including built-
in stereo speakers, headphone connection, and a USB port. Some models can also be removed from the stand
and mounted on the wall. They come with stylish designs for a variety of applications. LCDs range from small-
size PC screens and TVs to large-screen projectors.

 Now decide whether these statements are true or false. Correct those which are false.

Most computers still use CRT monitors. T F

Typical CRT-based displays occupy less space than LCD displays. T F

Liquid-crystal displays are curved. T F

Flat LCD screens are becoming very popular. T F

LCD technology consumes less power than CRT technology. T F

Flat screens are cheaper than CRT monitors. T F

Users of flat-screen monitors can’t adjust the angle of vision. T F

 Find the abbreviations in the text. Do you know what they stand for?

CRT ____________________________________

LCD ____________________________________

TV _____________________________________

PC _____________________________________

TFT _____________________________________

USB _____________________________________

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 To make their Internet writing seem more informal, people use various abbreviations:
B4 before
BTW by the way
FYI for your information
GR8 great
IMHO in my humble opinion
LOL laughing out loud or lots of love
OTOH on the other hand

 In some emails you can find very abbreviated forms. The writer wants to write very quickly and
the meaning is clear from the context. There are three techniques:
1. using a letter to stand for a sound ("c" = see)
2. making a short form of a common word ("yr" = your)
3. writing the first letters of a well-known phrase ("asap" = as soon as possible)

 Write out the following emails in full:

Email 1
Subject: Yr order ref no KD654
In relation to yr order rec'd today, we cannot supply the qty's you need at this moment. Pls confirm asap if
a part-delivery wd be acceptable, with the rest to follow L8R. Rgds, Stefan.

Email 2
Subject: Thx for yr msg
Re yr msg left on my ans machine – yes, I'm free 4 lunch on Wed next wk. Btw, good news about yr
interview. Hv 2 work now. CU, Jane.

Email 3
Subject: Options for Tech Help
We have a Tech Assistance section on our website, with an extensive list of FAQs. Customers find this v
convnt as it is avail 24/7. Otoh, if you need to spk to sb in person, you can call during wkng hours. Bw, Alan

Connect the countries with their Internet pages:

www.fr Luxembourg
www.fi Portugal
www.cy Ireland
www.dk Italy
www.cz Slovenia
www.nl the Czech Republic
www.be Finland
www.pt United Kingdom
www.lu Cyprus
www.ie Denmark
www.uk Belgium
www.it the Netherlands
www.de Estonia
www.sk Slovakia
www.si France
www.ee Germany

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@ WEB ADDRESSES IN ENGLISH

When giving someone a web address over the phone, it is important to use terms so that everybody
understands what you mean. World Wide Web is written as www and read aloud as /tripl d^bl ju:/.

Slash is the / sign. Slashes are used to indicate directories and subdirectories www addresses. Because
the top of the slash leans forwards, it is sometimes called a forward slash. If there are two, call them
double slash. (Note that web addresses never contain a backslash \.)
Dot is the term for the full stop punctuation mark in web addresses and email addresses.
Dash is the mid-position short horizontal line. The t-de is read as t, dash, d, e.
Underscore is the term to use for letters and spaces that are underlined. Thus h_c is read as h,
underscore, c.
Tilde /’tıldə/ is the sign from Spanish and Portuguese that looks like ~. Thus ~xy is read as tilde, x, y.

A full web address like http://www.oup.com is read as:

h, t, t, p, colon, double slash, w, w, w, dot, o, u, p, dot, kom

@ The @ sign:
The @ sign is called at in English. This comes from bookkeeping / invoicing (4 tyres @ GBP 45 each). It is
interesting how other languages have found different names for this sign. The French call is arobas,
Spaniards arroba, Italians use chiocciola (snail). The German name is Klammeraffe (spider monkey). Dutch
has apestaart (monkey tail), and in Russian it is called sobachka (dog). In Norwegian, it is krøllalfa (curly a),
Swedish uses snabel-a (elephant’s trunk), and snabel is used in Danish.
Which expression do you use?
Use the term dot to indicate a full stop on the line to divide the letters or words in the address.

UNIT 5 - TENSES

 In the following text underline all the verbs and put those in brackets into the simple past tense:

The History of Computers

There are some who say that computers have a very short history but, because they are machines that

manipulate numbers, others disagree. More than 5000 years ago, a need to count was recognized, and

somebody (have) _________ the idea of using first his fingers, then pebbles to keep track of the count.

History is not clear as to whether the need (be) ______ recognized before or after the idea (occur)

________. Since that time, the abacus was invented and some form of it was used well into the 16th

century. During the 17th and 18th centuries many easy ways of calculating were devised. Logarithm tables,

calculus and the basis for the modern slide rule were born out of that period of time. It (be) ______ not

until the early 1800s that the first calculating machine (appear) __________ and not too long after,

Charles Babbage (design) __________ a machine which (become) __________ the basis for building

today's computers. A hundred years later the first analogue computer was built, but the first digital

computer was not completed until 1944. Since then computers have gone through four generations from

digital computers using vacuum tubes in the 1950s, transistors in the early 1960s, integrated in the mid-

60s, and a single chip in the 1970s. At the rate computer technology is growing now, we can expect more

changes in this field by the end of this decade.

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 Provide translations of the following time phrases:

5000 years ago – not too long after –

since that time – a hundred years later –
well into the 16th century – mid-60s –
during the 17th century – by the end of this decade -
it was not until the early 1800s –

Revision of tenses
Practice using tenses by answering the questions in complete sentences – state the name of the tense
you have used:
1. What do you do every day?
2. What did you do yesterday?
3. What will you do tomorrow?
4. What are you doing right now?
5. What were you doing at this time yesterday?
6. What will you be doing at this time tomorrow?
7. What have you done since you got up this morning?
8. What had you done before you went to bed last night?
9. What will you have done by the time you go to bed tonight?
10. What are you doing? How long have you been doing that?
11. What were you doing before the teacher walked into the classroom today? How long had you been
doing that?
12. What will you be doing before the teacher walks into the classroom tomorrow? How long will you
have been doing that?

 Supply the correct forms of the verb “to STUDY” according to the context of the sentences:

1. I ------- last night.

2. I -------- when they came.

3. I --------- for two hours before my friends came.

4. I ---------- tomorrow.

5. I ---------- already ---------- Chapter One.

6. I ---------- every day.

7. I ---------- for two hours.

8. I ---------- already ---------- Chapter One before I began to study Chapter Two.

9. I ---------- right now.

10. I ------------ for two hours by the time you arrive.

11. I ------------ when you come.

12. I ------------ already ---------- Chapter Four before I study Chapter Five.

Now look at the summary chart of verb tenses and match your sentences.

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16
 Look at the explanations of activities and decide which sentence would best illustrate it – which
tense is used:

1 - an activity at or around the time of speaking

2 - a regular or characteristic happening
3 - a fixed future plan
4 - an activity which started in the past and continues to the present
5 – an activity at a non-specific time in the past

sentences: a) We have been working on this project since last year.

b) Next year we are building a new depot.
c) Our contractor has built a new supporting wall.
d) At present we are using plastic packaging.
e) How often do you receive shipments?

@ Which of these events happened first?

a) The CD
b) The first business application
c) The first commercial computer
d) The first computer game
e) The first high-level programming language
f) The first process computer
g) The RAM chip
h) The transistor

17
@ Now put the events (a–h) in the correct order.

_______|______|_______|_________|__|_______|______|_____|____
1940 1942 1947 1951/1951 1962 1971 1979

@ Read the article and check your answers.

The Computer
In some ways computers have been around (1) tisućama godina. For example, the abacus was invented by

the Babylonians (2) prije gotovo 4.000 godina. Of course, an abacus is very different from our computers

today, but (3) za mnoge it’s the starting point (4) za razvoj računala.

In the Industrial age (5) 19. stoljeća there were lots of machines invented with the purpose of calculating

sums. One of the most famous was Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine invented (6) 1834. godine. These

machines were the true prototypes of modern computers (7) ali tek je u četrdesetim godinama prošlog

stoljeća that the age of the computer really started.

(8) Tisućudevetstočetrdesete Konrad Zuse, a German engineer and computer pioneer, founded the first

computer company (9) a dvije godine kasnije he developed the first process computer – the S1.

(10) Zatim, three years later, he came up with Plankalkul, the first high-level programming language.

But, it was probably the invention of the transistor in 1947 at the Bell Laboratories in the USA that was to

have the greatest impact on the design of computers. The small size and low cost of transistors has made

the digital age a reality and lead to computers becoming (11) manji i jeftiniji. For example, in 1946 – the

year before the development of the transistor – the ENIAC was (12) najsnažnije računalo na svijetu

capable of doing (13) oko 50,000 calculations (14) u sekundi. However, it had 18,000 electronic valves and

(15) težio je approximately 27,000 kg – not really something you’d want in your bedroom!

The year 1951 is special in the history of computers. (16) Te godine the first commercial computer was

launched – the UNIVAC – and the first ‘real-time’ computer (17) je izgrađen na MIT-u (the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology). It was also the first year that the first business application was run on a

computer by J. Lyons, a British food company.

In 1962 Steve Russell, a student at MIT, wrote the first ever computer game called Spacewar. Players

tried to shoot spaceships using a type of joystick. However, not many people were likely to play the game

as the cost of computers was still quite high – for example, in 1964 the DEC PDP-8, the first ‘mini computer’

cost around $16,000.

(18) Danas, when we think about the computers we have in our homes we think of companies like Microsoft,

Apple and Intel. The first of these companies to start was Intel in 1968, then Microsoft in 1975 and, (19)

godinu dana kasnije, Apple.

The 1970s also saw (20) brojne ključne izume such as the RAM chip in 1971, the first programme that

could send emails between machines developed by Ray Tomlinson and, eight years later in 1979, the

compact disc (CD).

18
(21) Od tada the cost of computers, the size of the memory and the speed at which they operate have

changed drastically. It’s amazing to think that just over 20 years ago there was no such thing as the

Internet and that the idea of most people having their own personal computer was only just becoming a

possibility. To go back to our history lesson - in 1977, the (22) osnivač of Digital Equipment Corporation in

the USA said, ‘There is no reason anyone would want a computer in (23) svom domu.’

@ Activities:

1 - Read the text and supply proper translations for the underlined expressions in Croatian into English
from (1) to (23).

2 - For the words written in BOLD supply synonyms that could have been used instead in the text.
(e.g. example - instance, etc.)

3. And finally – translate the text into Croatian

UNTIT 6 - FACTS AND FIGURES

@ Interesting?

 HOW MANY BYTES?

Is there something bigger than a Terabyte?
Please, don't say two Terabytes.
QUESTION POSED ON: 27 JUN 2002
QUESTION ANSWERED BY: Jim Booth

Sure. There are lots of things bigger than a terabyte. But for completeness, I will go through all of them.

• 1000 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte

• 1000 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte
• 1000 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte
• 1000 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte
• 1000 Terabytes = 1 Petabyte
• 1000 Petabytes = 1 Exabyte - In 2000, 3 exabytes of information was created
• 1000 Exabytes = 1 Zettabyte
• 1000 Zettabyte = 1 Zottabyte
• 1000 Zottabyte = 1 Brontobyte - that is a 1 followed by 27 zeroes

Jim

 Ask your colleague about the facts mentioned in the following tables:
(note: How many bytes / How much information...)

Information object How many bytes

A binary decision 1 bit
A single text character 1 byte
A typical text word 10 bytes
A typewritten page 2 kilobyte s ( KB s)

19
 A low-resolution photograph 100 kilobytes
A short novel 1 megabyte ( MB )
The contents of a 3.5 inch floppy disk 1.44 megabytes
A high-resolution photograph 2 megabytes
The complete works of Shakespeare 5 megabytes
A minute of high-fidelity sound 10 megabytes
One meter (or close to a yard) of shelved books 100 megabytes
The contents of a CD-ROM 500 megabytes
A pickup truck filled with books 1 gigabyte GB )
The contents of a DVD 17 gigabyte s
A collection of the works of Beethoven 20 gigabytes
A library floor of academic journals 100 gigabytes
50,000 trees made into paper and printed 1 terabyte ( TB )
An academic research library 2 terabytes
The print collections of the U.S. Library of Congress 10 terabytes
The National Climactic Data Center database 400 terabytes
Three years' of EOS data (2001) 1 petabyte ( PB )
All U.S. academic research libraries 2 petabytes
All hard disk capacity developed in 1995 20 petabytes
All printed material in the world 200 petabytes
Total volume of information generated in 1999 2 exabyte s ( EB s)
All words ever spoken by human beings 5 exabytes

How Many Bytes for a Web Site

The following table is derived from "How Much Storage Space Will You Need?," by Roy Harper, a
WorkZ.com Contributing Editor.

Information object How many bytes

The amount of text on an average print page (when
1 kilobyte ( KB )
converted into HTML)
A button-size image for a Web page 1 KB to 5 KB
A larger image for a Web page 30 to 60 KB and larger
An average Web site 5 megabyte s ( MB )
The range for typical PDF files 100 to 800 KB
Typically range from 500 KB to
A video or audio downloadable file
10 MB
An MP3 (music) downloadable file 2 to 5 MB
Will usually tell you before you
A downloadable program or driver
download it

How Much Information

Since 2000, researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, have continued to estimate each year

20
how much information exists on the planet Earth. The Executive Summary of their report, "How Much
Information? 2003" is available at their Web site. Here are just a few highlights:

Information object How many bytes

How much information each person on earth produces per year 1 to 2 exabytes
How much of the above is printed information .03% of the total
How much e-mail information per year 11,265 terabytes
How much radio information 788 terabytes
How much TV information 14,150 terabytes
How much telephone information 576,000 terabytes
How much postal information 150,000 terabytes
How much office document information 195 terabytes

 NUMBERS
 Cardinal numbers
379 – three hundred and seventy nine
5,084 – five thousand and eighty-four
2,860 – two thousand eight hundred and sixty
470,000 – four hundred and seventy thousand
2,550,000 – two million, five hundred and fifty thousand

Note:
1,000,000,000 – BE: one milliard or a thousand million; US: a billion – Cro: milijarda
1,000,000,000,000 – BE: one billion or a million million; US: a trillion – Cro: bilijun
a billion: US / France: 1 x 109
BE / German: 1 x 1012
billion (abbreviation: bn) is used today in both BE and AE to mean a thousand million (109). Formerly in BE,
“billion” used to mean a million million (1012), but this is now old-fashioned. When “billion” is used with a unit
of time, distance, temperature, money, etc. it takes a singular verb: “2.5 billion dollars is required”.
Otherwise, a plural verb is used: “One point two billion people were watching the match on TV”. Note that
when “billion” follows an exact number or the words “a”, “a few”, or “several”, it takes a plural verb: “There
are several billion stars in our galaxy”. Billions is the plural of billion and refers to an inexact very large
number (usually with “tens of” or “hundreds” in front).
milliard – means a thousand million (109) and is used so rarely in English that it is best avoided. Use billion
instead.
trillion – means a million million (1012). This is the standard meaning of “trillion” in international scientific
English and modern BE and has always been the meaning in AE. The meaning of “trillion” in BE used to be a
million million million (1018), but this is now considered old-fashioned.

-teen: 13 – 19 (fifteen /fıf’ti:n/)

-ty: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 (fifty /’fifti/)

Even numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, ….
Odd numbers: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,….

Note: There is no plural “s” after hundred, thousand, million and billion when they are part of a number. On
their own, they can be plural, e.g. hundreds of aircraft, millions of insects.
a couple – 2 / a few (Cro: par, dva, nekoliko)
a dozen – 12 dozens – (Cro: deseci)

21
a score – 20 (e.g. He has been looking for it for three score years. – How long?)

 Ordinal numbers
1st – first, 2nd – second, 3rd – third, 4th – fourth, 5th – fifth, 6th – sixth, …..
These are used either to indicate rank of the order of events.

 Fractions and decimals

1¼ - one and a quarter
1½ - one and a half
1¾ - one and three quarters
⅓ - one third
but 1/5 – a fifth, 1/6 – a sixth….
1/937 – one over nine hundred and thirty-seven
a/b – a over b
1.25 – one point two five
0.47 – nought point four seven
0.001 – nought point oh oh one (zero is not often used in reading decimal values)
We say each number individually after the point.

Division of a fraction by an integer is accomplished by dividing the numerator / or by multiplying the

denominator by the integer.
(4/5 ÷ 2 = 2/5; 4/5 ÷ 2 = 4/10 = 2/5)

 Percentages
26% - twenty-six per cent
More than 50% is the majority; less than 50% is the minority.

 Arithmetic
There are four basic processes for working out (=calculating) a problem:
+ - addition (to add) e.g. 6+4=10 (six plus/and four equals/is ten)
- - subtraction (to subtract) e.g. 6-4=2 (six minus four equals/is two)
x - multiplication (to multiply) e.g. 6x2=12 (six multiplied by two equals/is twelve)
÷ - division (to divide) e.g. 6÷2=3 (six divided by two equals/is three)

 Raising to the power:

32=9 three squared equals nine
y3=5 y cubed equals five
24=64 two (to the) power (of) four equals sixty-four
x-5= x (to the) power (of) minus five

 Finding the root:

√9=3 the square root of nine is three
3√8=2 the cube root of eight is two
4√16=2 the fourth root of sixteen is two

 Saying “0”
This can be spoken in different ways in different contexts:
telephone numbers: 603 700 (six oh three seven double oh) (AE: zero)
mathematics: 0.7 – nought point seven, 6.02 – six point oh two
temperature: -10º = ten degrees below zero / minus ten degrees
90ºF = ninety degrees Fahrenheit above zero
football: 2 : 0 – two nil tennis: 30 : 0 – thirty love

 Answer these questions. Write your answers in words:

22
 1. When were you born?

2. How much to you weigh?

3. What is the number of the flat or house where you live?

4. Is that an odd or an even number?

5. What is the approximate population of your town?

6. What is the approximate population of your country?

7. What is the normal temperature of a healthy person?

8. How many kilometres are there in a mile?

 Numbers in digits
20/20 – means perfect eyesight without glasses or contact lenses
The doctor said I still have 20/20 vision.
24/7 – means 24 hours and 7 days a week
4x4 – means a vehicle with four-wheel drive

 Numbers given by prefixes

It is often possible to work out what an unusual word means by looking at its prefix. For example, the
Pentagon is derived from a word meaning five-sided. Here are some examples of prefixed that indicate a
number and words that are formed in this way:

uni- / mono (one) – unilateral negotiations – one-sided

bi- / duo (two) – bilateral negotiations – two parties involved
tri- / trio (three) – a triangle – a three-sided plane figure
quad- / tetra (four) – quadruplets – four babies in one birth
quin- / penta (five) – pentagon – five-sided
sex- / hexa (six) – sextet – six musicians in a group
sept- / hepta (seven) – September – originally the 7th month in the Roman year
octo- / octa (eight) – octopus – animal with eight tentacles
nono- / nona (nine) – nonagon – nine-sided figure
deci- / deca (ten) – decimal – ten numeral system

€$£ CURRENCY UNITS

national symbols for currency units: ₤, €, $.....
three-digit currency codes listed in ISO 4217 - greater precision (EUR – euro / USD - US dollar)
(using USD avoids confusion with various types of $ around the world)
the latest ISO listings of currency codes on web site www.iso.ch
Note that the currency code is always written before the amount, but read after the amount in English:
written as read as
EUR 55.50 Fifty-five euro fifty (cent)
USD 25.50 Twenty-five US dollars fifty (cents)
GBP 3.20 Three pounds sterling twenty (pence)

Euro means the single European currency and the EU’s official currency, which replaced the national
currencies in most EU member states on 2002-01-01. The indefinite article which is used with “euro” is “a”
not “an”. Officially, this is both the singular and plural form of the currency in English: “one euro”, “ten
euro”. The cent, formally known as the eurocent is also invariable, as in “ten cent” (see the example above).
Note that euro is not capitalized. EUR is the ISO currency code for the “euro”.

 Do the following:

23
 - Write out the names of the days in a week:

- Write out the names of the months in a year:

(Did you capitalize the first letters? – if you did not, remember that you should have.)

 Note: TIME OF DAY

12-hour clock 24-hour clock spoken equivalent
7:00 a.m. 0700 oh-seven hundred
9:15 a.m. 0915 oh-nine fifteen
10:30 a.m. 1030 ten-thirty

12:00 – noon 1200 twelve hundred

1:00 p.m. 1300 thirteen hundred
8:15 p.m. 2015 twenty-fifteen
12:00 – midnight 2400 twenty-four hundred

There are three systems for presenting the time of day:

The o'clock and a.m./p.m. systems are both based on the 12-hour clock
and there is also the 24-hour system.

 a.m. / p.m.
a.m. means "before noon" (Latin: ante meridiem) and is the period from midnight to noon;
p.m. means "after noon" (Latin: post meridiem) and is the period from noon to midnight.

There is often confusion between "12 a.m." which is midnight,

and "12 p.m." which is noon.
Consequently, it is recommended to use "midnight" or "12 midnight" and "noon" or "12 noon" instead.

 DIGITAL / NON-DIGITAL DATES

According to the ISO 8601 standard:
the digital form: ccyy-mm-dd or 2010-11-05
(=the 5th of November 2010)

e.g. 05/11/10 or 11/05/10- can lead to expensive misunderstandings

For the Americans: May 11, 2010

For the Europeans: 05 November 2010

Avoiding confusion with dates: always write the month in words.

Abbreviations for the longer months are often used: Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec., (March – July
are written in full).

Note: no full stops after the day

- the first letter of the month is always capitalized in English
- the ordinal form of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. is now considered old-fashioned for written dates in
business English
- however, when reading dates aloud, use the model: the seventh of August two thousand and ten in
BE and August the seventh two thousand and five in AE.

 Note: 11/9 - Is it the ninth of November or the eleventh of September – why?

UNIT 7 – WORD FORMATION

24
 In English many words are formed from combinations of other words, or from combinations of words and
prefixes or suffixes. It is often possible to see a connection between the meaning of a combination and the
meanings of its parts. So, if you find a new word, you may be able to guess what it means.

The stem or root or base is the main part of the word. Words may contain affixes: meaningful parts added
before the word (prefixes – from pre- "before" and -fix "attach") or after the word (suffixes – from sub-
"after" + -fix "attach").

Thus, an English word can be divided into three parts:

prefix – root – suffix

Suffixes change the word from one part of speech to another. For example, -ly added to the adjective
quick gives the adverb quickly. Prefixes, on the other hand, usually change the meaning of the word. For
example, un- changes a word to the negative. Unsafe is something that is not safe.

PREFIXES
Let us now consider some prefixes, their usual meanings, and how they change the meanings of English
words.
PREFIXES
NEGATIVE & TIME AND
SIZE LOCATION NUMBER
POSITIVE ORDER
un- semi- inter- pre- mono-
non- mini- intra- ante- bi-
in- micro- super- fore- hex-
dis- trans- post- oct-
re- extra- multi-
peri-

PREFIXES OF SIZE
Prefix Meaning Examples
semi- half, partly semifinal
equi- equal equidistant
mini- small minicomputer
micro- very small microcomputer
macro- macroeconomics
large, great
mega- megabyte

PREFIXES OF LOCATION
Prefix Meaning Examples
inter- between, among interactive, intercity
intra- within intraplant, intraurban
super- over supersonic
trans- across transfer, transport
ex- out exclude, extrinsic
extra- beyond extraordinary
sub- under subdivision
infra- below infra-red
peri- around peripheral

25
PREFIXES OF TIME AND ORDER
Prefix Meaning Examples
ante- antecedent
before
pre- prefix
prime- first primary, primitive
post- after postwar, postdated
retro- backward retroactive

PREFIXES OF NUMBERS
Prefix Meaning Examples
semi- half semicircle
mono- one monochromatic
bi- two binary, bicycle
tri- three triangle
quad- four quadruple
penta- five pentagon
hex- six hexadecimal
sept(em)- seven September
oct- eight octal, octopus
dec- ten decimal
multi- many multimodal

OTHER PREFIXES
Prefix Meaning Examples
before, in advance, forward program
pro-
progress
auto- self automatic
co- co-ordinate
together, with
con- connect

@ Fill in the gaps with the correct prefix from the following list:
(not all of the prefixes are used and maybe some are used twice??!!)

auto de intra inter

maxi mega micro mini
mono multi semi sub

1. Most people prefer a colour screen to a _______chrome one.

2. ______script is a character or symbol written below and to the right of a number or a letter,
often used in science.
3. A _______byte equals approximately one million bytes.
4. Once you finish your program, you will have to test it and ____bug it to remove all the mistakes.
5. The introduction of _______conductor technology revolutionized the computer industry.
6. If a computer system has two or more central processors which are under common control, it is
called a _____processor system.
7. When the user and the computer are in active communication on a graphics system we refer to this
as ________active graphics
8. An _______net is a private computer network within an organization.
9. _________net is a network between organizations.

26
 NOTE:
Be careful: English words can be very deceptive. In particular the area of antonyms (opposites) and
negative prefixes is scattered with anomalies. The prefixes in-, im-, dis-, and un- are often attached to
words to give a negative or opposite meaning: so direct and indirect are clearly opposites. But what is the
opposite of indelible? Indelible ink cannot be erased or washed out, so the opposite is erasable or
washable. There is no such word as delible.
Similarly, there is no positive form of the following "negatives": uncouth, unkempt, dishevelled, disgruntled,
disgusted, immune, impunity.
Perhaps more confusing than these are words like impassive, invaluable, and inflammable. These are not,
as one might have expected, opposites of passive, valuable and flammable, but, on the contrary, they are
very close in meaning.
impassive: showing no reaction;
invaluable: so valuable that it is impossible to estimate the value (like priceless);
inflammable: easily combustible, likely to burst into flames.
The last example may have very grave consequences in practice. Therefore the word flammable is often
used in preference to inflammable. The expression non-flammable may also be found.

 Make the following words negative by adding the appropriate prefix

(in-, un-, im- or dis-):

1 - ____frequently 2 - ______loyal 3 - _____advantages

4 - ____specific 5 - ______like 6 - _____real

7 - ____probably 8 - ______available 9 - _____do

SUFFIXES
SUFFIXES
NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
-ance -ise / ize -able -ly
-ence -ate -ible
-or -fy -less
-er -en -ful
-ist -ify -ic
-ness -ical
-ish
-ive

Note: words ending in –ing are formed from verbs. The –ing form may be used as a noun, part
of a noun phrase, or part of a verb:
- Programming is an interesting job.
- Programming in C is interesting.
- He is working as a programmer.

 How are computer words formed?

Computer words are easy to learn and remember because many of them use a few word forms that occur
again and again:

-ware refers to products used for running a computer: software, hardware, shareware, freeware
cyber- and e- mean "relating to the Inernet": cyberspace, cybercafé, email, e-commerce, e-cash
techno- means "relating to computers": technobabble, technostress, technophobia

 Do you know what spam is?

27
spam, noun, /U/ computing the practice of sending emails to large numbers of people on the Internet,
especially when these are not wanted

Spam is perhaps the most colourful computer metaphor. Spam is the trade name of an American brand of
tinned cooked meat, widely used during the Second World War when fresh meat was hard to obtain.
Because people had to eat so much of it, it became the object of many jokes. In the computer world, spam
is the Internet equivalent of "junk mail". The process of sending messages to thousands of people is called
spamming and it is very much disliked by Internet users.The spammers may find themselves flooded by
angry email messages known as flames – another computer metaphor.

 Why is SPAM such a big problem?

What can be done to stop spam?

 Check your answers to the questions above with the following text. Ignore the gaps for the
moment.

SPAM SPAM SPAM SPAM

If you've been deleting a lot of (0) e-mail recently, you're not alone. Perhaps WANT
the (1) ... headache for web users today is dealing with spam – those endless BIG
(2) ... we find in our e-mail inboxes. As many as 100 million spam messages are sent ADVERTISE
every day, and downloading and deleting them entails both (3) .. and expense, costing CONVENIENT
web users as much as $1bn a day in lost time. And perhaps even more (4) .. is the fact ANNOY
that the content of the spam can be (5) ... or even dangerous. But attempts to make EMBARRASS
spam (6) ... have met with opposition in the USA by supporters of free speech. LEGAL

So for now it is up to the individual to stop spam. But without help this can be a (7) ... LONG
process, deleting individual emails by hand. One (8) ... method has been to install a SUCCEED
spam filter which (9) ... which emails are spam and “kills“ them. Unfortunately, these IDENTITY
filters can also delete normal emails, too. Technology, it would seem, is no (10) … for COMPETE
an old fashioned stamp and envelope.

 In the text above use the word given in capitals at the end of each line to form a word that fits in the same
line.
e.g. 0 – unwanted

28
 Discuss:

1. What arguments can you think of for making spam illegal?

2. What arguments can you think of for protecting spam (e.g. "freedom of speech")?

3. Which arguments do you find the most convincing?

Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. You may have to change some words
slightly:

1 – electron, electronic, electronics, electronically

a) -An _____________________ pen is one example of an input device.

b) A computer solves problems _______________________.

c) Many _______________________ students go on to work as engineers.

2 – technology, technological, technologically, technologist

a) The computer is the greatest ______________________ invention of the 20th century.

b) There are two _____________________ involved in a clipboard PC.

c) Today's computers are _____________________ far superior to those used a few years ago.

3 – identify, identifying, identifiable, identity

a) The clipboard's pattern recognition software immediately ______________ the letters and numbers

written by the stylus.

b) Most computer companies will not allow people without an ________________ card to enter their

premises.

c) A password is a mechanism for _________________________ the computer-user and allowing access.

4 – compute, computing, computation, computerize, computerization

a) The ________________ of the manufacturing division will be expensive in the short term, but cost-

effective in the long term.

b) We should be able to ___________________ our profit for next year fairly accurately with the new

program.

c) I could tell from all the _______________________ on the board that a maths lesson was in progress.

5 – access, accessed, accessible, accessibility

a) All user requests to __________________ a database are handled by the database management

system.

b) _____________________ to the computer room is restricted to authorized personnel.

c) Those files are not ___________________________ unless you know the password.

29
UNIT 8 – WHAT DOES IT REFER TO?

@ REFERENCE WORDS

@ Writers use a variety of methods to make a text cohesive. These include the use of: reference
words (words which refer to other words and phrases)
- words which replace noun phrases: personal pronouns (he), impersonal pronouns (one), possessives
(theirs), relatives (which), demonstratives (this, those), reflexives (myself), quantifying words (one,
some, none, all), determiners (each, neither, such), (demonstrative) adjectives (the former, the
latter, this, that)

It refers back to a singular noun:

DHL is an international air express carrier. It delivers documents and packages all over the world.

They refers back to a plural noun:

There are 300 HMV Group stores around the world. They are located in eight countries.

We use this, that, these and those to refer back to:

- nouns – Many companies are multinationals. These include Daimler Chrysler, Sony, Reuters, etc.
- whole sentences or clauses: Many people believe companies do not care about the environment. This is
not true of companies such as the Body Shop.

One – to replace a singular countable noun:

He's looking for a job. He'd like one with Sony.
In the plural we use ones:

There are different types of companies. I buy from the ones with a strong code of practice.

@ What do the words in bold refer to?

A computer, like any other machine, is used because it does certain jobs better and more efficiently than

humans. It can receive more information and process it faster than any human. The speed at which a

computer works means it can replace weeks or even months of pencil-and-paper work. Therefore,

computers are used when the time saved offsets their cost which is one of the many reasons they are used

so much in business, industry, and research.

The spreadsheet’s basic component is a cell. This may contain a formula which performs a mathematical

operation. It could also contain a label or data. The former describes the information on the worksheet.

The latter is the information itself.

it (line 1) – a computer
It (line 2) – a computer
it (line 2) – information
their (line 4) – of computers
which (line 4) – time saved offsetting the cost of computers
they (line 4) – computers
This (line 6) – a cell
It (line 7) – a cell
former (line 7) – label
latter (line 8) – data

30
@ Read the following text and connect the underlined words in bold with the words or phrases they
refer to:

NOTEBOOK BATTERY LIFE

THREE EASY STEPS TO EXTEND THE LIFE OF YOUR NOTEBOOK BATTERY

Notebook computers.
At this point in the 21st century they have become an indispensible part of many people's everyday lives.
From the commuting business executive and the busy college student, we all want to be mobile with our
computers. The big drawback of that is the fact that there is not always a plug around when you need one.
A notebook computer's battery is its life-blood. Without proper care, your notebook battery could fail
much earlier than anticipated. By following a few simple steps, you can expect to get the greatest amount
of usage possible out of your notebook battery before a replacement is needed.

1. Upon purchase, charge the battery to full capacity. Whether you have purchased a new computer
or a new battery for your laptop, charging it fully as soon as you open the box is the best
recommendation. This allows the battery to reach full capacity before you begin to use it
„unplugged“. Most batteries come with a partial charge, enough to get you going if you absolutely
had to. Giving that battery a full charge when it is brand new will help set the charge capacity for
the battery at its highest possible level.
2. Once you reach a full charge, leave the computer plugged in for at least 2 hours. This action lets
the battery „rest“ at a full charge for a fairly lengthy period of time. At this point, the battery is
not drawing power from your wall socket to charge and it is also not supplying any power to your
system. Letting your battery rest for a time after a full charge helps to „lock-in“ that full charge
capacity.
3. Unplug the computer and drain the battery. It might sound silly, but now that you have gotten that
battery to a full charge, you need to drain the power almost completely. Again, this will help
determine the charge capacity of the battery. Leave your computer unplugged and use it until you
get a warning telling you that the battery is almost completely discharged. Then save whatever you
are working on and power the computer down. Plug back into the wall socket for a fresh charge.
Then use the computer at your leisure.

If you follow these steps about once a month, your notebook battery should last a nice long while. Not to
say that you will never have to replace it, but at least it will be a long time before you need to.

@ Supply the main idea of the text in Croatian. Be sure to mention the general idea and to
list the three steps suggested. Conclude your summary with your own remark /
commentary / suggestion.

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