Languages in the United States:

Diversity or Uniformity?

Student: Mariam Bedraoui

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Quick Facts about USA (2000 Census)

 Population: approximately 310 M.

 The constitution designates no official
language
 Common language: English
 Dominant variety: General American
 Minor languages: Spanish, French,
German, Yiddish, Chinese, Japanese,
Arabic, Native Indian Languages.
 Speakers of English: 82. 1 percent
 Speakers of Spanish: 10. 7 percent
 Speakers of other Indo- European
languages: 3.8 percent
 Speakers of Asian languages: 2.7 percent

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Languages in the USA: The Overall Picture

Indo-European languages Asian Languages Other languages

4% 3% 1%
Spanish
11%

English
82%

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Outline
I. An Overview of the Linguistic Situation in the USA
1. American English
2. Native American Languages
3. Spanish
4. French
5. German

II. Monolingualism and Multilingualism in the USA

1. The Underlying Ideology
2. Types of Policies
3. Examples of policies

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1- English Language: Early Times on American Soil

 In 1787, the population in the first

colonies was about 4 million.

 90% came from the British Isles.

 Early English settlers established

the linguistic tradition that would
assimilate nearly all the other
immigrant groups.

 Most subsequent settlers shifted

to English language in two
generations.

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 Immigration waves

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American English
In a letter addressed to the
Congress in 1780, John Adams
says:
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“English is destined to be in the next and
succeeding centuries more generally the
language of the world than Latin was or
French is in the present age. The reason of
this is so obvious, because the increasing
population of America, and their universal
connection and correspondence with all
nations will [....] force their language into
general use.”
“Its [English] highest perfection, with
every branch of human knowledge, is
perhaps reserved for this Land of light and
freedom.”
Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A
history of the English language.
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Linguistic
National
distinctivenes
consciousness
s
American English
American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness

1- Vocabulary
Linguistic  A number of words were imported from American
distinctiveness Native languages into English.
 Example: moose- raccoon- opossum- porgy

 New words about the landscape and produce were

coined.
 Examples: notch- watershed- foothill- clearing-
eggplants- sweet potato.
Vocabulary Pronunciation
 Theindividual character of the political system
required the introduction of new words.
 Example: Congressional- congressman- presidential-
statehouse.
 Some archaic uses of words were kept.
 Example: mad- fall- sick- rare
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American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness

2- Pronunciation
Linguistic
distinctiveness  American English is old-fashioned

 It has qualities that were characteristic of 17 th

and 18th century English

 American English pronunciation is rhotic.

Vocabulary Pronunciation  It retains the flat (a) as in flat, path, grass, dance,
half

 Americans speak more slowly and with less

variety in the intonation.

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American English: National Consciousness
In 1781, John Witherspoon writes in
the Pennsylvania Journal:
Prevalent political ideologies
“Being entirely separated
from Britain, we shall find
some centre or standard of o A distaste for anything that
our own, and not be subject perpetuates the former
to the inhabitants of that dependence
island, either in receiving
new ways of speaking or
rejecting the old” o Independence necessitates
Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history of
the English language.
separation at the linguistic
level.

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American English: National Consciousness
A number of notable political and intellectual figures made strong
claims about the need to promote American variety of English.

John Adams (1735- 1826)

• He was insistent on setting up an academy to protect, refine and
develop a standard language capable to cope up with the national
challenges

Noah Webster (1757- 1848)

• In 1828, he published the first dictionary of American English.
• He stresses American usages and pronunciation.
• He adopts a series of distinctive spellings
• He makes illustrations using quotes from American literature.

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 American English Spelling: Noah Webster

Change 1: Change 2 Change 3 Change 4 Change 5

c k ou o er re que k ce se
musik: music honour: honor theatre :theater checque : check defence: defense

physical favor Center Risk Pretense

Logic color meter Mask recompense

 Webster considers the alterations introduced to the American

ways of spelling as an event
“of vast political consequence. A national language is a band of national union. Every engine
should be employed to render the people of this country national, to call their attachments
home to their own country, and to inspire them with the pride of national character.” Source:
Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history of the English language.
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Dominance of English
speakers is less than 5 million.
According to 2000 census, the total number of monolingual non- English

A. Explicit Schemes A. Implicit Schemes

1. English is the language of • Integration programs for
schooling immigrants
2. It is the language of • Assimilation schemes for the
courtrooms indigenous population
3. It is required for federal grant • Sporadic punitive schemes
application • Prominent Media sources in
4. It is a specific requirement English language
for many jobs

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2- Native American Languages

Before colonial settlement  8 American native languages

 250 American native languages
 9 language families
 A great diversity between
languages
 A 20 Million population
 Most of them are extinct
 Old speakers
 A 2 million population

15 Now
3- Spanish
 It is English’s rival language.

 34 M. Hispanics in 2007.

 81% in the Midwest.

 Annexation of Louisiana in 1803 and

Texas in 1823.

 The influx of Spanish speaking

immigrants after the second World War .
 Most were Mexicans, and Cubans.

 The most popular foreign language at

secondary school.

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4- French
 13 M. Americans claim French
ancestry.

 Only 1.3 M of them speak French at

home.

 French was historically located in

Louisiana and Northern New England.

 It is the most spoken language in four

states: Louisiana, Maine, Vermont ,
New Hampshire.

 Two French varieties: Louisiana

Creole and French Cajun.

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4- German

Only 1.38 M. Americans

According to 2005 American speak German. Before WWI,
survey, 49 M American claim 96% speak of them speak about 6 M. American
that they had German English at home. students were receiving their
ancestry. schooling in German.

The Amish of Pennsylvania

German is the most spoken are the prominent German
language in two states: North groups. They still live in
Dakota and South Dakota. enclosed areas and in
isolation.

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Languages in the USA: Diversity or Uniformity?

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 Monolingualism and Multilingualism in
the United States

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!- The Ideology of Monolingualism
 Joshua Fishman: “America, America: spendthrift and gravedigger in the
front of multilingualism”

 It is evident that the process of language shift has been a dominant American
experience since the early colonial times.

 Two generations are enough to wipe out non- English language proficiency.

How have Americans become

monolingual English language
speakers?

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The ideology of English Monolingualism
 The English dominant groups in the USA have, throughout the three
centuries, identified four major arguments to justify the ideology of English
monolingualism.
Source: Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in the USA: Themes for the 21st century.

Argument2:
Argument 1: Economic
Immigration into the improvement= No
USA= A privilege linguistic minority
rights

Argument 3: Argument 4
Language maintenance= Diversity= a threat to
Self- imposed isolation national unity

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A Variety of Policies

The attrition of American Multilingualism has

not preceded uniformly throughout the past
two centuries; it can not be represented by a
single, monotonic downward line. Instead, the
recurring rise and fall of non- English
languages in USA reveal substantial variation
over time in both degree and role.
Source: Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in the
USA: Themes for the 21st century.

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2- Types of Language Policies
Kloss (1977) developed a useful schema to categorize
various types of official language policies and laws.

Promotion- oriented policies

Expediency- oriented policies

Tolerance- oriented policies

Restriction- oriented Policies

Repression- oriented policies

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English- Only Movement
 The current English –only movement has been triggered by the large
immigration movement of Hispanic population after WWII.

 The 1970’s was characterised by tolerance- based policies which

culminated in the enactment of the federal act of bilingual education.

 In 1981, Senator S. I. Hayakawa introduced a constitutional amendment

into the Senate that would make English language the official language of
the USA.

 He succeeded to found a high- profile organisation, “US English” and raise

huge funds to further its English- only agenda

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English- Only Movement
 Within the first four years of
the establishment of this
organisation, 48 states
contemplated constitutional
amendment promoted by
English-only movement.

 23 states have adopted the

amendment and declared
English as an official
language in their territories.

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English-Plus Movement
 A lot of criticism of English- only policies has come from leaders of ethnic
groups, minority- rights groups, immigrant groups and from educational
and professional organisations.

 Opponents of English- only movement formed “English-plus” movement

and advanced an alternative constitutional amendment called the “Cultural
Rights Amendment”.

 It encouraged cultural diversity and education in English as well as

education in secondary languages across the entire population, for natives
and immigrants alike.

 English- plus resolutions have been passed in the states of Oregon,

Washington, New Mexico and Rhode Island.

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 Conclusion

We have room for but one

language in this country, that
is the English language, for
we intend to see that the
crucible turns our people out
as Americans, of American
nationality, the single greatest
empowering tool that
immigrants must have.

Theodore Roosevelt

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References
• Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history of the English language. Prentice-Hall
International editions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International.
• González, R. D., & In Melis, I. (2000). Language ideologies: Critical perspectives on
the official English movement. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English.
• Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in the USA: Themes for the 21st
century. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Karavanta, M., Mitsikopoulou, B., & Dendrinos, B. (January 01, 2008). Introduction:
Theorizing New English(es). European Journal of English Studies, 12, 1, 1-14.
• Kloss, H. (1977). In The American bilingual tradition. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.
• http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_lang.html
• http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronunc-american-british.htm
• http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/rehling/nativeAm/ling.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org
• http://www.google.com/images

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