Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Summary
Discuss the issues associated with shrinking world resources with regard to one
identified natural product that is not a fossil fuel, identifying the replacement
materials used and/or current research in place to find a replacement for the named
material.
The uses of rubber are widespread, from household items to many uses in medicine and
industry: tires (the majority is used for this), hoses, belts, matting, flooring, gloves, toy
balloons, rubber bands, pencil erasers, textiles, even spacecrafts.
In addition, the rubber wood can be used as timber for quality furniture and construction once
the tree becomes unviable for rubber production. It is strong, flexible, resistant to microbes
and easy to work with.
Tapping: Outer layer of bark is cut off and latex is collected in containers supported by
wires attached to the trunk of the tree
Processing: processed into latex concentrate for dipped products, or coagulated under clean
conditions using formic acid
Grading: Rubber is process into various grades (higher grades have size reduction and
cleaning process to remove contaminants)
Page | 1
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Final processing and packaging: Rubber is dried, then baled, pelletized and packaged
ready for shipping
Over 90% of natural rubber production occurs in developing nations with tropical climates
including Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, South America and most recently, Africa. A
“slash-and-burn” approach is used, leading to land degradation, air pollution and
deforestation. End of season burn-offs are used to increase plantation area which has seen the
emergence of new diseases previously isolated within the forest.
Rubber growers have little economic incentive to improve the quality of their product as they
have little bargaining power compared to the intermediate traders. As a result, they often
leave contaminants in unrefined rubber in an attempt to be paid more for the weight of the
rubber. Scarcity of land for rubber plantations has led to escalating land prices, leaving
ownership of viable land to a few elite farmers. There are food shortages as the result of land
being used for Rubber plantations rather than crop staples.
-the potential to reduce environmental effects as it can tolerate more arid conditions
-less likely to cause allergic reactions than latex from rubber trees
Page | 2
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to gather information
and qualitatively analyse an equilibrium reaction
Materials:
Dilute solutions (0.1 M) of:
- Iron (III) chloride
-potassium thiocynate (KSCN)
-potassium chloride (KCl)
-Iron (III) nitrate (Fe[NO3]2)
-sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Method:
1. Place equal volumes of iron(III) chloride and potassium thiocyanate into a test tube
and allow equilibrium to be established; a blood-red solution will form.
2. Dilute solutions with distilled water until colour lightens
3. Place equal volumes of the diluted solution into five separate test tubes
4. Add a small volume of KCl to the first test tube
5. Repeat step 4 with Iron(III) nitrate for the second test tube
6. Repeat with KSCN for the third test tube
7. Repeat with NaOH for the forth test tube.
Results:
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Le Chatelier’s Principle
When a system that is at equilibrium is changed by altering temperature, concentration of
products and/or reactants or the volume/pressure of gas; the equilibrium shifts to counteract
the effect and return the system to equilibrium
Concentration
An increase in temperature will cause:
-An exothermic reaction to reverse. Products will decompose into reactants i.e. concentration
of products will decrease while concentration of reactants will increase. The reverse occurs if
the temperature of the system is lowered.
-An endothermic reaction to proceed as written. The reverse occurs if the temperature of the
system is increased.
Concentration
An increase in concentration will cause:
-equilibrium to shift to maintain the molarities of products and reactants i.e. if more reactants
are added, it will shift to produce more product and vice versa.
Page | 4
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
The extent to which an equilibrium reaction can be quantitatively defined using the
equilibrium constant, K. When the value of K is large, the equilibrium is towards the product
side. When K is small, it is towards the reactant side.
If we define the general homogenous (same chemical state i.e. solid, liquid or gas)
equilibrium reaction as: , then K is defined as:
Examples:
At a certain temperature 3.0 moles of F2 and 2.0 moles of I2 are introduced into a
10.0 L container. At equilibrium, the [I4F2] is 0.02 M. Calculate the K for the
reaction.
Reactants Products
Concentrations I2 F2 IF5 I4F2
(molL-1)
Initial 0.2 0.3 0 0
concentration
Δ concentration -3(0.02) = -0.06 -6(0.02) = -0.12 +2(0.02) = 0.04 +0.02
Equilibrium 0.14 0.18 0.04 0.02
concentration
Interpret the equilibrium constant expression (no units required) from the chemical
equation of equilibrium reaction
If K is large, the equilibrium lies to the right, so the concentration of products is high and the
reaction almost goes to completion. If K is small, the equilibrium lies to the left, so there is
very little reaction. The size of the K value is an indication of the relative strength of acids
and bases, or the solubility of a substance.
Points to remember:
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
*When calculating K, disregard any reactants or products in solid or liquid (solvents) state
*the concentrations used refer to the concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium
Identify that temperature is the only factor that changes the value of the equilibrium
constant (K) for a given equation
For endothermic reactions, K increases with increasing temperatures because the equilibrium
favours the products. Conversely, K decreases with decreasing temperatures, as it favours the
reactants
Heating the reaction vessel will shift the equilibrium to the left. This will increase the values
of [O2] and [SO2] and decrease [SO3], therefore K will be smaller. However, if the vessel is
cooled, equilibrium will shift to the right i.e. [SO3] will increase while [O2] and [SO2] will
decrease, so K will be larger.
3. Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals, with many applications:
*Used by fertiliser industry (~70% total production) to make ammonium sulfate and
superphosphate
*Removes oxides and grease from steel and iron before galvanising or electroplating
*Dehydration agent i.e. removes water liberated during manufacture of explosives, dyes,
detergents, polymers, esters, electrolysis of sodium chloride solution
*Electrolyte in vehicle batteries
*Used in the production of nitroglycerine for explosives and as a vasodilator (treatment of
heart conditions)
Page | 6
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Describe the processes used to extract sulfur from mineral deposits, identifying the
properties of sulfur which allow its extraction and analysing potential
environmental issues associated with its use
Elemental sulfur occurs in deposits near volcanoes, hot springs and underground. It is also
found in ores e.g. PbS, hydrogen sulfide in fossil fuel sources and sulfates in the ocean
Extraction of Sulfur
Frasch Process:
Sulfur is extracted from underground sources by the Frasch process. This process relies on the
following properties of sulfur:
Molten Superheate
sulfur d water
1. The mixture is cooled to condense the sulfur and passed over a heated catalyst:
Page | 7
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Environmental Issues
Sulfur dioxide readily dissociates with water to form sulphurous and sulfuric acid, thus
producing acid rain. Acid rain lowers the pH of soil and water sources, potentially damaging
the environment and also contributes to chemical weathering of statues and metal. Most of
the sulfur dioxide produced by metal smelting is used to make sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide
emissions into the atmosphere are strictly controlled by government regulations.
Also produced during mining and smelting is hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a gas more toxic than
cyanide. Soluble substances such as arsenic may be brought to the surface
Outline the steps and conditions necessary for the industrial production of H2SO4
from its raw materials
Describe the reaction conditions for the production of SO2 and SO3
Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to describe the
steps and chemistry involved in the industrial production of H2SO4 and use
available evidence to analyse the process to predict ways in which the output of
sulfuric acid can be maximised
Molten sulfur from the Frasch process is filtered to remove impurities and lime (calcium
hydroxide) is added to reduce the acidity, thus preventing corrosion. In the combustion
chamber excess dry oxygen is used to maximise the yield of SO2.
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
O2 SO2
SO2 SO2 Dry
smelter Water Electrostatic Drying SO
scrubber precipitator tower
Metal Steam
The production of SO3 from SO2 and O2 is an equilibrium reaction involving a compromise
between reaction rate, product yield and economic factors. The following conditions produce
a yield of over 98%:
*High temperatures increase rate of reaction, but the equilibrium is exothermic and high
temperatures may damage the catalyst. 450 - 600°C provides a compromise.
*The vanadium pentoxide or platinum catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the
activation energy for the reaction.
*A multi-stage process is used to convert the SO2 into SO3. With each new stage the
temperature is reduced, thus shifting the equilibrium to the right. This produces a yield of
over 98%.
*Increased pressure shifts the equilibrium to the right, but this is expensive, so pressures of
1-2 atmospheres are used
*Increasing the concentration of the reactants pushes the reaction to the right. From the
reaction, the stoichiometic ratio of O2:SO2 is 1:2. Industrially, twice as much O2 is used i.e.
1:1 ratio.
Production of H2SO4
Sulfuric acid is manufactured using the contact process. There are 4 main steps involved:
1. Combustion Chamber
Pure sulfur or sulfide ore is combusted in air at 1000°C to produce sulfur dioxide:
2. Converter
Sulfur dioxide is passed into a tower is passed into a tower made of stacked vertical beds of
vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) or platinum catalyst. It is oxidised to sulfur trioxide in an
exothermic equilibrium reaction, with temperatures of 450 - 600°C used as a compromise.
High pressures also shift the reaction to the right.
Page | 9
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
3. Absorption Tower
Sulfur trioxide cannot immediately be mixed with water, as it forms a fine mist which is
difficult to collect. Instead the gas is bubbled through very concentrated sulfuric acid in
absorption towers to form Oleum (disulfuric acid), H2S2O7.
The sulfuric acid used to dissolve the SO2 must be maintained at 70°C and 98%
concentration to ensure maximum absorption. The concentration is important because at 98%
concentration, the vapour pressure of SO3 above H2SO4 is a minimum. Concentrations
greater than 98% and the water vapour pressure (high vapour pressure at normal temperatures
= volatile) increases sharply, causing the resulting acid mist to evaporate. The acid is also
concentrated at a rate to minimise an increase in concentration
4. Hydration of Oleum:
Oleum is converted into concentrated sulfuric acid by the addition of dilute sulfuric acid and
water. The reaction is highly exothermic, so the acid needs to be cooled before storage.
Traditionally, mild steel was used for the manufacturing equipment. The trend is now to use
Teflon coated piping to reduce contamination of the acid due to iron corrosion.
Apply the relationship between rates of reaction and equilibrium conditions to the
production of SO2 and SO3
Page | 10
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Other Catalyst n/A Reduces Vanadium
activation pentoxide/platinu
energy and m
therefore,
reaction
temperature
Unreacted gases Recycling back Efficient; Recycling of
in reaction maximises Unreacted O2 and
vessel yield SO2
Perform a first-hand investigation to observe the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as:
-an oxidising agent
-a dehydrating agent
Aim: To observe the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as an oxidising agent and as a
dehydrating agent
Equipment:
-Concentrated sulfuric acid
-Granulated Zinc metal
-matches
-Table sugar (sucrose)
-Glass beaker
-Glass stirring rod
Safety: concentrated sulfuric acid is highly corrosive and toxic and may cause severe burns
to the body. ALWAYS add acid to water, stirring constantly. Use sodium bicarbonate to
neutralise any spills. Wear acid-resistant safety glasses, gloves and aprons at all times. Avoid
inhaling fumes, and use a well-ventilated area, or if possible, a fume cupboard. If contact
with acid occurs, run under cold tap water for at least 15 minutes
Method:
As an oxidising agent:
1) Place a small amount of granulated zinc metal into a glass beaker
2) Slowly add a small volume of concentrated sulfuric acid and place a lid over the
beaker. Zinc bubbles should begin forming on the zinc surface.
3) After several minutes, place a lit match into the beaker. You should hear a loud ‘pop’,
indicating the presence of hydrogen gas
As a dehydrating agent:
1) In a fume cupboard, add a small amount (50 g) of sucrose to a 250mL beaker
Page | 11
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
2) Slowly pour in concentrated sulfuric acid to just cover the sucrose. After a few
minutes you should observe the beaker becoming hotter,the cusorse reacting to form a
tower of black carbon and sulfur oxide fumes emerging from it.
Results:
As an oxidising agent:
The addition of hot concentrated sulfuric acid to zinc metal liberates sulfur dioxide gas and
water as shown: In the process zinc becomes
zinc sulfate i.e. zinc is oxidised (oxidation state changes from 0 to +2).
As a dehydrating agent:
The addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to sucrose forms carbon, water and sulfuric acid in
a highly exothermic reaction which causes most of the water to form steam:
The ionisation of sulfuric acid is a rapid, highly exothermic reaction. It occurs in two steps:
In the first dissociation, H2SO4 acts as a strong acid as Kc approaches infinity. In the second
dissociation, HSO4- is a weak acid, so Kc is small.
Identify and describe safety precautions that must be taken when using and diluting
concentrated sulfuric acid
Diluting sulfuric acid is potentially hazardous due to the vigorous exothermic nature during
ionisation.
Safety Precautions
Wear protective equipment and clothing, especially safety glasses.
ALWAYS ADD ACID TO WATER. Add a small amount at a time, stirring constantly
(sulfuric acid is much denser than water and this may cause a layer of concentrated acid to
form at the bottom, forming a steep temperature gradient). This produces a dilute solution,
releasing only a small amount of heat which can be absorbed by the water. Any splatters that
do occur are more likely to be dilute than concentrated. If spills do occur, clean up with large
amounts of water and sodium hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate soda).
If water is added to concentrated acid, the heat released will make the water boil violently,
splattering droplets of concentrated acid out of the container. The heat generated may be
enough to crack the container.
Page | 12
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Use available evidence to relate the properties of sulfuric acid to safety precautions
necessary for its transport and storage
Due to its corrosive nature (low pH), it must not be transported with foodstuffs,
dangerous-when-wet substances, oxidising agents, organic peroxides, toxic substances and
radioactive substances.
In high school science labs, dilute sulfuric acid is stored in glass/plastic containers with a
tightly-fitting lid, so that it does not react with moisture in the air. Commercially, it is
transported in its pure molecular form in steel containers as there is no water for it to ionise
and react with the metal. It MUST NOT be stored with foodstuffs, oxidising agents and
organic or combustible materials (it oxidises carbohydrates, causing them to char), or metals
(liberates explosive hydrogen gas). Its high vapour pressure means it is volatile, so it must be
stored in well-ventilated areas.
4. Sodium Hydroxide
Explain the difference between galvanic cells and electrolytic cells in terms of
energy requirements
There are two types of electrochemical cells: galvanic cells and electrolytic cells.
In galvanic cells a redox reaction takes place spontaneously to produce electricity. It consists
of two half cells with separate electrolytes and a salt bridge to complete the
circuit.
In galvanic cells, the anode is negative and the cathode positive
In electrolytic cells, the anode is positive potential and the cathode has the negative potential
Aim: To determine the products of the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride or brine
Page | 13
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Background: Electrolysis is a process that uses electricity to decompose ionic compounds.
The ion are caused to migrate to the charged electrodes and pure elements will form.
Electrolysis is also used in industry in the purification of active metals such as aluminium and
sodium.
Materials:
-carbon electrodes
-transformer
-brine or salt solution
-phenolphthalein in dropper bottle
-voltameter
Page | 14
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Voltameter Method:
1/ Place a few drops of phenolphthalein
indicator into a beaker containing
brine solution.
2/ Fill the voltameter with the brine
solution.
3/ Connect to the DC terminal of a
cathode
transformer and allow 8V to flow
anode
through the voltameter.
4/ Observe the voltameter and test the
gases collected above both the cathode
and the anode.
Results:
Equations:
Anode (positive electrode) reaction:
Page | 15
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
At the cathode, sodium ions are reduced to form pure sodium metal:
As there are only 2 species involved, the only products that will form are chlorine gas and
sodium metal.
The water reduction has a significantly lower voltage requirement, so it will proceed. If any
sodium metal did form, it would instantly react with the water anyway.
Because the voltage requirements are very similar, the reaction that occurs will depend on the
concentration of the reactants. In a dilute solution, oxygen gas would be produced as there
would be mostly water molecules. In a concentrated solution, however, a mixture of the two
would be produced. In the industrial process to manufacture NaOH, the salt solution used is
so saturated, that pure chlorine gas is produced.
The electrolysis of sodium chloride to produce sodium hydroxide and chlorine is known as a
chloralkali process.
Page | 16
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Electrolysis of sodium chloride to produce sodium hydroxide and chlorine is performed using
3 types of electrolytic cells: mercury, diaphragm and membrane cells. The main technical
difficulty in all methods is preventing the chlorine produced contacting (and therefore,
reacting) with the sodium hydroxide or hydrogen.
A saturated brine (NaCl) solution is used in all 3 cells. Impurities are first removed as a
sludge by precipitation reactions:
-Calcium:
-Magnesium:
-Iron
-sulfate:
Despite using different methods, all 3 cells achieve the same overall reaction:
Electrolysis prevents the amalgam reacting with the brine. The amalgam pumped to a
decomposing vessel where it is reacted with water to form sodium hydroxide and water:
Although the mercury is recycled, the mercury cell is being phased out due to concerns of
mercury pollution, particularly of aquatic environments. The NaOH produced is 50% (0.5 M)
concentrated- suitable for commercial purposes.
Page | 17
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
To Ti anode
Cl2(g) + Cl2(g)
In an aqueous environment the reduction of sodium does not occur. Chlorine gas is
discharged at the anode:
Sodium ions (spectator ions) from the brine are attracted to the cathode and with the
hydroxide ions produced at the cathode, are washed to the bottom where a caustic brine
(NaOH/NaCl) leaves the cell. The NaOH must be concentrated to 50% and the salt removed
via evaporation. The salt may then be reused to form brine.
Brine
H2(g) Cl2(g
Asbestos Spend solution
diaphragm This cell is slowly being phased out
Steel-mesh
due to the asbestos used, which poses a
Graphite serios health hazard as it is
anode carcinogenic and may cause
Steam
life-threatening respiratory diseases
such as asbestosis and mesothelioma.
NaOH solution Another disadvantage is that is
produces low purity NaOH- only
about 12% pure. This is because some of the chloride ions can seep through, thus
contaminating the NaOH.
Page | 18
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Membrane Cell
The membrane cell is the most recent cell due to the recent development of high-tech Teflon
membrane. It has a titanium anode (will not react with chlorine gas) and a nickel cathode.
Anode and cathode compartments are separated by an ion exchange that allows water and
positive ions i.e. Na+ to diffuse through, but not negative ions. Brine is pumped into the
anode compartment where chlorine ions are oxidised to form chlorine gas, which is pumped
away:
Sodium ions migrate to the cathode compartment where they combine with the hydroxide
ions to form NaOH. Unfortunately, the brine is able to migrate to the cathode compartment,
thus reducing the purity of the NaOH obtained, so further purification is needed. Overall cell
reaction is the same as for the diaphragm cell.
The membrane cell is likely to replace the other two, as it has the least environmental impact
and is very energy efficient as the electrodes can be placed very close to each other. It
produces NaOH of about 30-40% purity (mixture contains NaCl from brine), so further
purification is needed to increase purity to 50%.
Ti anode Ni cathode
Cl2(g H2(g
Na+(a
Page | 19
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
H2(g)
Anode Titanium coated with Titanium/titanium steel-alloy/graphite
rare-earth metal
Anode product Cl2(g)
NaOH purity 50% 12 – 15% ~40%
Operating voltage 4.0 – 4.5 4.0 – 5.0 3.0 – 4.0
Cell temperature 90 – 95 75 – 85 88 – 90
(°C)
1. Saponification
Background
Triglycerides
Page | 20
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
A triglyceride is the general name for a compound containing 3 “fatty acid” molecules joined
to one “glycerol” molecule. Triglycerides are esters.
Fatty acids are long-chain hydrocarbons with a carboxylic (-COOH) group at one end, which
is either saturated or unsaturated.
Polar and
hydrophilic/lipophobic
–COOH group
Non-polar and hydrophobic/lipophilic
hydrocarbon chain
Fats and oils are both types of triglycerides. The difference is that fats are solid at room
temperature due to all single C–C bonds, therefore they are said to be saturated. Oils are
liquid at room temperature due to the presence of many double C=C bonds i.e. it is
‘unsaturated’.
Page | 21
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Saponification is the reaction in which an ester is ‘hydrolysed’ with a strong base (e.g. NaOH,
KOH) to produce glycerol (alcohol) and salts of fatty acids (carboxylic acid). If the fatty acid
was oleic acid and the base KOH, then the soap
molecule produced would be potassium oleate,
C18H33KO2
The saponification (SAP) value is a measure of the amount of base required to saponify 1
gram of an ester. This value is a measure of the average molecular weight of the all the fatty
acids.
Long-chain fatty acids, found in fats, have low SAP values due to fewer –COOH groups
compared to short-chain fatty acids.
Laboratory Saponification
In the lab, soap can be made by heating a mixture of soap or oil with NaOH or KOH. The
soap produced can be precipitated by using a saturated sodium chloride solution and washed
to remove excess glycerol and base. Dilute acid can be used to neutralise and excess base.
Industrial Saponification
Industrially, soap can be prepared in one stage (Kettle Boiled Batch process) or two stages
(fatty acid neutralisation process). Obvious differences in both of these processes as
compared to laboratory scale are:
-a mixture of fats and oils are used e.g. palm, olive and coconut
-huge reaction vessels are used, up to 120 tonnes
-elevated temperatures and pressures (makes water more soluble in fats)
-metal-based catalyst
-the shape size and internal roughness of the reaction Bessel must be considered
-glycerol is removed and used for other purposes
The first step hydrolyses the triglycerides to form fatty acids and glycerol, the reverse of
esterification. A zinc-oxide catalyst improves the reaction rate. The fatty acids flow upwards
to a vacuum dryer, while the glycerol/water mixture is pumped away and separated via
distillation.
Page | 22
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
The second step neutralises the fatty acids with precise amounts of a strong base (determined
from SAP value) to form the sodium/potassium fatty-acid salt (soap).
At the end of this process, extra salt is added to help solidify the soap. Extra steam is added
and the mixture settled to remove the glycerol.
The main difference compared to the lab process is the use of high pressure steam to
hydrolyse the fats/oils.
What is an emulsion?
An emulsion is a mixture formed when two or more normally immiscible substances form a
stable mixture which does not separate. It is not to be confused with a solution, as non of the
molecules are associated with each other. Instead, one of the liquids is evenly dispersed
throughout the other, through the action of another chemical called an emulsifier.
Each emulsion has two different types. For example, if the two liquids were oil and water, the
two emulsions would be:
Soap as an emulsifier
The use of soap as a cleaning agent is dependent on its ability to emulsify dirt/grease in water.
Most dirt is non-polar and oils/grease is non-polar long-chain hydrocarbons. Water is polar,
thus it is immiscible with dirt and grease.
Page | 23
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
When soap is placed in water and agitated, its ions dissociate (the positive ion takes no part in
the cleaning action). The negative fatty acid ions, called the surfactant (surface acting agent)
do not disperse evenly. Instead, they form clumps with the polar –COOH heads sticking
outwards. The –COOH groups form hydrogen bonds with water. This spherical structure is
called a micelle.
Non-polar lipophilic
Hydrophilic -COOH group
forms hydrogen bonds hydrocarbon chains
with water dissolve triglycerides
Non-polar grease/dirt
molecules are
encapsulated and
dissolved by the non-polar
lipophilic core of the
micelle, thus forming an
emulsion between water
and oil. This emulsion keeps the grease molecules suspended, which can be carried away by
water.
Suspended grease
Detergents are artificial soaps, invented during the 1940’s and have largely replaced soap in
cleaning because they are more powerful emulsifiers and because they can be modified to
specialised applications.
While soaps are made from animal and vegetable oils and manufactured via saponification
(heating triglycerides with a strong base), detergents are derived from petroleum. An alkanol
from petroleum is reacted with Sulfuric acid to a sulfur-containing acid, which is then reacted
with a strong base.
Structurally, they both contain an ionic or polar head and a non-polar hydrocarbon tail.
However while soaps act only as anionic surfactants, detergents can act as anionic, cationic or
non-ionic surfactants.
Page | 24
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
distinguish between anionic, cationic and non-ionic synthetic detergents in terms of:
-chemical composition
-uses
Anionic
Anionic detergents contain a negative ion (most commonly sulfate, SO42- or sulfonate SO3-)
as the hydrophilic end of the molecule. The hydrocarbon chain contains a benzene ring at the
ends.
They are primarily used as cleaners for glass and ceramic dishes and clothing and are highly
sudsing. This is due to the fact that these substances have negative surface charges, which
repel the anionic detergents and can be easily washed away, carrying the emulsified
grease/dirt with it. They are usually combined with ionic detergents to provide enhanced
stability.
Cationic
Cationic detergents contain a positive ion (usually an ammonia compound). They emulsify
fats well, but are unsuitable for glass and ceramics as they contain negative surface charges.
They are commonly used as fabric softeners and hair conditioners because they reduce static,
thus causing fabric and hair to appear ‘fluffy’. Other uses include germicides, mouthwash and
antiseptic soaps owing to their germicidal properties.
Non-ionic
Non-ionic detergents do not form ions in a solution at all. Instead, they contain hydrophilic
groups (such as oxygen atoms, alcohol groups or polysaccharides) along the hydrocarbon
chain which form hydrogen bonds with water.
They are used for car-washing, cosmetics, dishwashing and froth flotation. One disadvantage
is their loss of solubility in warm water.
Page | 25
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
O
δ+ δ+
O O
δ- δ-
solve problems and use available evidence to discuss, using examples, the
environmental impacts of the use of soaps and detergents
Biodegradability
Soaps consists of fatty acids and can therefore be decomposed by bacteria when it enters
sewage or waterways. Therefore, it has no negative impact on the environment.
The sulfonic acid group found in anionic detergents and non-ionic detergents are highly
biodegradable.
Presence of phosphates
The main environmental impact of detergents was due to the addition of phosphates, as it was
discovered that they aided the effectiveness of detergents. The main problem with the use of
phosphates is their contribution to eutrophication in waterways.
Oil/fat
Olive oil (oleic acid)
Palm oil (palmitic acid)
Coconut oil (lauric, myristic acid)
Lard (palmitic, stearic, myristic acid)
Tallow (palmitic, oleic, stearic)
Soybean oil (mainly polyunsaturated)
Safflower oil (polyunsaturated)
Shea Oil
Sunflower oil
Rice bran oil
Wheatgerm oil
Page | 26
Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Background: Soaps and other cleaning agents are often produced by the saponification
process. Soap making has been an important industry for many centuries. This reaction
involves the adding of a caustic alkali solution to fats or oils. The ratio of alkali used to fat/oil
depends upon the chemical make-up of the oil.
Materials:
-beaker -olive oil
-potassium hydroxide -boiling chips
-boiling chips -electronic scales
-stirring rod -mould
-heating apparatus -universal indicator
-universal indicator
-hydrochloric acid
Precautions:
Clean up any spillage and make sure the laboratory is well
ventilated. There is a risk of spitting when the mixture is being
heated. Do not use the soap produced on your skin as there may
be excess KOH.
Method:
1/ Accurately weight 10g of olive oil in a clean beaker.
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
2/ Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide needed
according to the equation given above.
3/ Add the potassium hydroxide to the olive oil.
4/ Mix the reactants with a stirring rod.
5/ Add boiling chips to the beaker and gently heat.
6/ Continuously stir the reaction mixture while it is
being heated.
7/ When the soap has formed, wash it thoroughly to
remove any excess hydroxide.
8/ Add 5 drops of universal indicator.
9/ Add hydrochloric acid drop wise till the mixture is neutral.
10/ Place into mould and place in incubator to dry the soap
Conclusion:
What evidence suggests a reaction is occurring?
Macroscopic changes such as the reaction mixture forming a stable, foamy emulsion.
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information and describe the properties
of a named emulsion and relate these properties to its use.
Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of soap as an emulsifier
Aim:
-To examine the production of a soap/stain emulsion
-To compare the emulsifying ability of various commercially available soaps and detergent.
Background:
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more chemicals which under normal conditions would be
immiscible. Another chemical called an emulsifying agent is added to the immiscible
chemicals and allows them to mix. Detergents and soaps act as emulsifying agents when we
use them to clean materials.
Materials:
test tubes
test tube rack
olive oil or other suitable fat or oil
rubber stoppers or corks
a variety of commercially available soaps and detergents
Precautions:
Clean up any spillage and make sure the laboratory is well ventilated. Be careful when
shaking not to spill any of the chemicals.
Method:
Part A: Making an Emulsion
1. Place 10 mL of tap water into two test tubes.
2. Add 2 ml of oil to each test tube.
3. Add a small amount of soap to one of the tubes.
4. Place a rubber stopper or cork on each test tube and shake for 30 seconds.
5. Place both test tubes in a rack and allow to stand.
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
What observations can be used to determine the emulsifying ability of the soaps and
detergents?
The longer it takes for the emulsion to separate back into water and oil layers, the more
powerful its emulsifying ability
How could we gain a better idea as to which of the detergents and soaps were the best
emulsifiers?
Repeat trials using a variety of different types of oils/fats, as well as varying the ratio of water
to oil used.
Why must equal masses or volumes of soaps and detergents be used in the experiment?
To be able to compare the emulsifying abilities of different surfactants, it it necessary to use
equal amounts of the surfactants
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
6. Solvay Process
Identify the raw materials used in the Solvay process and name the products
Raw materials are sodium chloride (from seawater), ammonia and Calcium carbonate
(limestone). Products are sodium carbonate and calcium chloride (waste product).
Identify, given a flow chart, the sequence of steps used in the Solvay process and
describe the chemistry involved in:
-brine purification
-hydrogen carbonate formation
-formation of sodium carbonate
-ammonia recovery
Brine Purification
Seawater is pumped into shallow ponds, where water is evaporated to leave behind a 30%
concentrated brine. This is a mixture of magnesium and calcium salts, which must be
removed by precipitation.
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Coke (carbon) is also present in the kiln, producing more carbon dioxide when heated and
providing heat to decompose the lime:
The CaO is used in a later process. The purified brine from the previous step is added to
ammonia (NH4OH). The carbon dioxide from the limestone is bubbled through:
As chloride and sodium are spectator ions, the overall ionic equation:
The mixture is filtered, dried and heated to ~300C to decompose it into sodium carbonate,
water and carbon dioxide:
Ammonia Recovery
Calcium oxide from Hydrogen carbonate formation is dissolved in water to form calcium
hydroxide:
When ammonium chloride from hydrogen carbonate formation is added, ammonia gas is
liberated to be reused:
Discuss environmental issues associated with the Solvay process and explain how
these issues are addressed
Compared to previous methods, the Solvay process is less polluting as it reuses the products
ammonia and carbon dioxide. However, some environmental issues remain.
This has traditionally been done by using river water as the coolant and simply discharging
the hot water back into the waterway. This can have major effects on aquatic environments as
oxygen is less soluble at higher temperatures.
Modern plants use air-cooling towers and recycle the water instead.
Solid waste
The roasting of limestone in the kiln produces large amounts of silicates, clays as well as
unburnt limestone. Traditionally, this waste was discharged into waterways where it caused
problems by forming a sludge. This waste may be used for bricks or simply as landfill.
Dust Control
Dust is problematic and must be controlled by keeping vehicles in asphalt roadways, using
wetting solution to suppress dust in exposed areas, bag filters in the hydrogen carbonate plant
and installation of dust scrubbing systems.
Noise suppression
Noise is reduced by enclosing noisy areas, using silencers to dampen noise and community
monitoring to identify noise sources.
Perform a first-hand investigation to assess risk factors and then carry out a
chemical step involved in the Solvay process identifying any difficulties
associated with the laboratory modelling of the step
Materials:
-Large beaker -sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
-Sintered glass filter -dilute ammonia (NH4OH)
-dry ice/bottled CO2/CO2 from conc. HCl and CaCO3
-Retort stand and ring -ice
-Measuring cylinder -Bunsen burner
-cork/stoppers
-glass/rubber/plastic tubing
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Safety: clean up any spillage and ensure good ventilation (ammonia solution is corrosive). As
gas is used, be careful of pressure accumulation. Dry ice ‘burns in contact with skin. Wear
safety glasses at all times.
Method:
1/ Add sodium chloride to an ammonia solution until solution is saturated
2/ Filter the solution to remove excess solid salt
3/ Place ammonia/salt solution into measuring cylinder
4/ Place marble chips into a conical flask, add concentrated HCl and use the tubing to
bubble CO2 into the ammonia-salt solution.
5/ Allow the gas to bubble through the solution, but monitor gas inlet as Sodium
hydrogen carbonate may block it
6/ Place the measuring cylinder into a large beaker and cool by filling with ice
7/ Use sintered glass filter to filter sodium hydrogen carbonate that precipitates in flask
8/ Place sodium hydrogen carbonate into a clean, dry test tube/crucible
9/ Use Bunsen burner to gently heat the solid until water evaporates
10/ Allow the product to cool
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Questions:
NaHCO3 may precipitate at the gas inlet and block it, thus causing an accumulation of CO2
pressure in the flask containing acid and marble chips. As concentrated acid is used, this is a
potential safety hazard.
3. Write a balanced equation for the conversion of the sodium hydrogen carbonate into
sodium carbonate
5. Calculate the yield of sodium hydrogen carbonate if 5g of salt was initially used in the
reaction.
6. If 4.5 g of sodium chloride produced 0.9 g of solid sodium carbonate, calculate the
efficiency of the reaction
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Factors which influence the location of a Example – The Solvay plant in Osborne, SA
Solvay plant
Proximity to raw materials Osborne is located close to the coast. This
allows easy access to sea water, which can be
pumped into ponds for concentration and
purification.
The hot climate of Adelaide also helps
concentrate the brine
A limestone deposit is ~50 km away, with a rail
line allowing a deposit each day
Proximity to market for product/transport Osborne has excellent rail, road and harbour
links to market connections to supply sodium carbonate to glass
makers throughout Australia
Proximity to a population centre to Proximity to Adelaide means there is a reliable
provide a labour force and the community workforce, schools and shops for workers
infrastructure
Proximity to site for waste disposal Previously discharged into Port river
Now being used for landfill, brick manufacture
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Robert Lee Chin
HSC Chemistry Option Module: Industrial Chemistry
Summary
Limestone
H2O CaO
Filter Ammonia recovery
Lime Slaker
Heat
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Robert Lee Chin