CHAPTER VI

Waterflood Design
Surveillance, and Evaluation

Ibrahim Kocabas
UAEU, Al Ain
Design involves both technical and economical
considerations.
As a whole including reservoir, design and
economic aspects any design should contain
the following relevant information.
 Waterflood Design
Design Elements are:
• (Reservoir description) Reservoir evaluation and
d l
development off a conceptuall reservoir
i model
d l
• Selection of potential flooding plans
• Estimation of injection/production rates
• Forecast of recovery over the project life
• Preliminaryy facilities design
g
• Estimation of capital expenditures and future
operating expenses
• Conduct decision analysis and economic
evaluations
• Identify
Id tif variables
i bl that
th t may cause uncertainity
t i it
 Waterflood Design
The above design elements should be executed in the
following phases of design and operation:

I. Broad conceptual design

II. Evaluation of the reservoir
III. Developing preferred alternatives
IV
IV. O
Operating,
ti monitoring
it i andd evaluating
l ti the
th
waterflood

These phases will be detailed in the following

 I. Broad conceptual design
This part contains two substeps :

1. Identify business opportunities:

The waterflood objective is to enhance and/or accelerate the
recovery and maximize profit
profit. Then the motivations could be:
• Declining reserves
• Replacing or increasing reserves
• Performance under primary depletion
• Successful waterflood in the same or similar reservoirs

2. Perform a quick feasibility study on the attractiveness of

the project.
 II. Evaluation of the reservoir
Reservoir Evaluation consists of three steps:
1 Collecting
1. C ll i andd evaluating
l i the h information
i f i
for reservoir study and asset development
planning
l i
2. Reviewing collected information for
adequacy
d to enable
bl us construct
development alternatives for a detailed
study.
d
3. Describing the further testing needs
 II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
1. Collecting data for reservoir evaluation:

• Data on Field information;

y
• Physical description
p off the reservoir
• Areal and vertical extent of producing
fformation,, A and h
• Isopach maps of gross and net sand
• Correlation off layers
y and other zones
• Surrounding environment, any information
on adjacent
j layers
y and aquifers
q f
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation (cont
(cont.):
):
• Geologic data
Physical boundaries ( Reservoir boundaries,
boundaries
internal boundaries such as faults or other
impermeable
p boundaries))
3. Reservoir characteristics (engineering data)
• Areal permeability and porosity variation and
h
hence ((Pay quality
l andd continuity; zonation
and natural fracture heterogeneities; Fracture
orientation)
• Vertical variation of permeability with
thickness and zone
 II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation (cont.):

4. Unusual completions
5. Primary production history
• Primary producing mechanism
• Primary recovery data and remaining reserves
• Pressure distribution in the reservoir
• Existence of gas caps and aquifers
6. Production equipment installed
7. Well completion data
 II. Evaluation of the reservoir ((stepp 1))
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation
(cont.):

• Distribution of Resources
• Trapped gas saturation from solution gas
drive
• Vertical variation of saturation as a result of
ggravityy segregation
g g
• Presence of mobile connate water
• Areas alreadyy waterflooded
f byy natural drive
 II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 1)
Collecting data for reservoir evaluation
(cont.):
• R
Rock,
k fl
fluid
id andd rock/fluid
k/fl id properties
ti
(engineering data)
• Relative
R l ti permeability
bilit for
f the
th reservoiri rockk
• Gravity, FVF and viscosity as function of
reservoir
i pressure
• Capillary pressure data

The reservoir evaluation should lead to development

of a conceptual model of the reservoir !!
 II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 2)
2. Review data and based on the established
conceptual model decide (or Estimate);
(This part is the major decision making part
of reservoir engineering aspects of waterflooding.)
• Possible flood patterns
• Injection and production rates
• Timing of the project and
• anticipated recovery over project life
• Identify variables that may cause
uncertainty in the technical analysis
II. Evaluation of the reservoir (step 3)
3. Describe further testing needs;
( If we can nott have
h enoughh confidence
fid in
i step
t
2, the we should specify the need for )
• A pilot
il t field
fi ld test
t t
• Interwell tracer study
• Determination of residual oil distribution
• Injectivity tests
In this part pilot field tests,
tests and tracer study
deserves special attention and pilot tests will be
treated in detail in the following and tracer
tests will be dealt in surveillance part.
 II. Evaluation of the reservoir ((stepp 3)) :
Pilot project design considerations
In pilot or full scale project success lies in
acquiring the data needed to provide a
meaningful interpretation of the process
performance. For a pilot the purpose is to
provide data under representative field
conditions. We should keep in mind that our
understanding of the process and hence
successful expansion of the project to filed
scale depends on our ability to predict the
performance of the pilot.
A pilot test is:
• An experiment conducted in the field
• A simulation of the larger field effort
• A pplace
ace too make
a e our
ou mistakes
s a es before
be o e they
ey get
ge too
oo costly
cos y
• A place to work the bugs of the equipment
• A place to develop the controls and data needed to
insure the success of the project
• A place to put our best engineering talent to the test and
t train
to t i others
th
• A place for intensive planning
• A place for open minds and compromise
• A place for finding every problem imaginable with
their attendant delays
(step 3) : Pilot project design
considerations

A pilot test is not:

• A short term money making proposition

• A ttotal
t l field
fi ld simulation
i l ti
• A great place to demonstrate theory in
action
ti
III. Develop preferred alternatives
Detailed description of the technical and economic
aspects off the
h waterflood
fl d design
d i should
h ld containi
information on the attractiveness of each item
in the following:

a. Reservoir Engineering
g g Part

• Is reservoir description
p results adequate
q and
promising for implementing the
waterflood?
 III. Develop
pppreferred alternatives

• Attractiveness of Possible flood patterns

o Peripheral flood
o Aquifer injection
o Central flood
o P tt
Pattern flooding
fl di
• Pattern configuration
• Well spacing
 III. Develop
pppreferred alternatives

• Estimation of injection and production rates

o Information from injectivity tests
o Empirical correlations
o Local experience
• Anticipated recovery over the project life
o Material balance methods
o Empirical correlations
o Analytical models
o Reservoir simulators
 III. Develop
pppreferred alternatives
• Identify variables that may cause
uncertainty
ncertaint in the technical analysis
anal sis
• Original oil in place
• Sweep efficiency
• Injection rates
• Reservoir discontinuities
Based on the results of each item of the
alternatives one is selected and
alternatives,
implemented. The next step is monitoring
and evaluation of the design in practice.
practice
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood

Monitoring and evaluation includes :

• Monitoring reservoir, wells and facilities performance
• Modify “living” reservoir model as additional data are
obtained from operational and evaluation of results
• Evaluate performance and revise the earlier plan and
strategies based upon actual performance
• Identify
Id tif new opportunities
t iti for
f expansion
i
• Plan a strategy for terminating the operation

Following are details of some important items in waterflood

surveillance and monitoring.
 VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and
monitoring
An essential key to a successful waterflooding
project is a well-planned and well-executed
program of surveillance and monitoring.
monitoring This
program should be designed for each field
differently due to differing characteristics of
fields.

The basic elements of all surveillance

programs are as follows:
VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and monitoring
1. First element is that in general three major
categories of field conditions should be
included in any waterflood surveillance
program: reservoir conditions,
injection/production well conditions and
facilities/operating conditions.
2. The other element is record
keeping/performance control.
3. The final element consists of considerations
regarding economic conditions.
 VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and
monitoring
The surveillance
Th ill andd monitoring
it i program may
be divided into two general type of activities
namely,
l measurementt andd testing
t ti activities.
ti iti

Then the meas

measured
red qquantities
antities are employed
emplo ed in
a number of surveillance techniques for
interpretation and evaluation
e al ation and remediation
purposes.
 VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance and
monitoring
The First part of measurement and testing
activities is observation of the items that needs
to be regularly monitored.
monitored

The second part consist of carrying out special

tests for diagnosis of problems commonly
associated with waterfloods,
waterfloods in other words
application of a well planned and well
executed well testing program.
program
VI.2 Waterflood Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement
and
nd testing)
t tin )
Table 1 lists the items that should normally be included in the
three major categories of surveillance.
surveillance
Table 1. Listing of waterflood project items needing surveillance

Reservoir Wells Facilities/Operations

Pressure Perforations Water quality

Rates Fluid entry/exit Injection facilities
Volumes Cement integrity Production facilities
Cuts Downhole equipment Pipelines
Fluid samples Surface equipment Monitoring equipment
VI.2.1 Reservoir Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)
The followingg items require
q constant monitoringg in
reservoir surveillance

Reservoir
R i pressure, ( weekly
kl recording
di off
bottomhole pressure readouts in submersibly pumped
wells ) ( daily recording of pressures from surface
wells.)
headers, injection wellheads, producing well flow
lines and fresh source-water injection
j headers))
Injection and production rates, ( daily recording
of them)
VI.2.1 Reservoir Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement
and testing)

Fluid volumes, (daily recording of oil water

and gas volumes includes data from producing
wells, water supply wells, fresh water injection
into producers fro salt control, injection wells,
and saltwater dispsal wells)
WOR/GOR’s ( daily recording of them)
VI.2.1 Reservoir Surveillance (Part 1: Measurement
and testing)
Fluid samples ( weekly recording of producing well
water weights
i h andd H2S llevelsl in
i ther
h gas phase
h off
producing wells. Quarterly analysis of injection water
for oxygen content and oil carryover.
carryover Annual
chemical analysis of all injected and produced water.
However,, special
p problems
p attributed to H2S
corrosion, oxygen corrosion, inorganic scales and
organic debris such as bacteria, paraffin and oil in
water reverse emulsions can necessitate more frequent
analysis of the produced or injected water.)
 VI.2.2 Well surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)

For well surveillance ; there are four types of

wells requiring surveillance: production,
injection, water supply and water disposal.

Of these production and injection wells require

the most attention.
 VI.2.2 Well surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)

Monitoring well performance requires a

program of selected well tests to be conducted
regularly Types of well tests selected will
regularly.
depend on surface/downhole equipment, well
completion characteristics
characteristics, produced and
injected fluids the stage of the waterflood
project (early,
(early middle or late) and the reservoir
description.
VI.2.2 Well surveillance (Part 1: Measurement and
testing)

Key items for well surveillance are

• fluid entry into or exit from target zones,
• cement/completion integrity, and
• mechanical equipment, both downhole and
surface.
VI.2.3 Facilities and operations surveillance (Part 1:
Measurement and testing)

In general the ingredients common to most

operations needing surveillance regarding
facilities and operations are
• injection/production facilities,
• fluid transmission lines,
• field monitoring equipment and,
• most important, water quality.
 VI.2.3 Facilities and operations surveillance (Part
1: Measurement and testing)

Poor injection water quality is probably one of the

most damaging conditions that arise in
waterflooding operations. ( tests to perform on
water quality are
(1) geochemical analyses of the waters involved and
the description of suspended solids,
(2) membrane filter tests to describe plugging effects
off the
th suspended
d d solids
lid andd
(3) flow tests to study the effects of the injected water
on formation core permeability )
VI.3 Waterflood Surveillance (Part II. Special
testing)
a. Well testing Program
An iimportant key
A k to theh successful
f l application
li i andd
surveillance of waterflood is a detailed, accurate
d fi i i off fluid
definition fl id flow
fl paths.
h Fluid
Fl id flow
fl
distribution is governed by reservoir properties,
wellll conditions
di i andd operating
i practices.
i A wellll
planned and well executed well testing program
can provide
id or confirm
fi reservoir/well
i / ll condition
di i
information that cannot be adequately obtained
b other
by h means.
 (Part II. Special testing)
a. Well
W ll testing
i P Program

IIn waterflooding
fl di certain i reservoir
i andd /or
/ wellll
conditions can results in anomalous distribution of
injection water which in turn may result in inefficient
flood operations. If fluid flow distributions can be
ascertained then corrective measures can be
undertaken as needed. The corrective measures can
include injection and/or production well rate
adjustment, well shut in, intermittent well operations,
well conversions, injection profile modification and
flood pattern revision
revision.
 (Part II. Special testing)
a. Well
W ll testing
i P Program

Unequal directional flow in the reservoir

during waterflooding thus can be caused by
both reservoir characteristics and well and
operating conditions.

Reservoir characteristics include variations in

directional permeability
permeability, faults
faults, permeability
pinchouts, lenses, fractures and active
aquifers.
 (Part II. Special testing) a. Well testing Program

Well and operating conditions leading to

unequal directional flow are poor well
conditions, unbalanced injection production
rates, poor quality injection water.
Regardless of the cause, unequal directional
flow in a given reservoir must be
recognized, quantified and corrected.
For identifying the above problems, the
pressure transient testing and profile surveys
should be carried out semiannually.
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on
n th
the monitoring
nit in p procedures
d are

• Productivity index and inflow performance

plots coupled with well-test plots of water cut
and oil rates
Productivity index plots (barrels per day per
psia drawdown vs time ) and inflow performance
plots ( well operating pressure vs total reservoir
withdrawal rate) depend on the proper
measurement of oil rate, formation water rate, well
operating pressure and current reservoir pressure.
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are

Continuous plots of watercut, oil rate and

productivity index facilitate detection of
wellbore impairment, improve ability to
measure the effectiveness of wellbore
stimulations, and improve ability to determine
the impact of high volume lift installations.
Inflow performance plots are used to optimize
the design of high volume lift installations.
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are

• Reservoir withdrawal calculations

Reservoir withdrawal calculations are made on at
least a monthly basis to determine any changes in
reservoir voidage. Reservoir withdrawal calculations
are important
i t t during
d i all ll phases
h off waterflood
t fl d
operation.
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
For instance calculations during fill up time are
important to maintain sufficient injection to
production ratio. The injection rate should exceed the
production
d ti rate t by
b a factor
f t off three
th to t four.
f
This ratio allows for a reasonable fill up time usually
1 to 1 ½ years.
years Once the optimum reservoir pressure
is achieved all pay is opened in all wells and fluid
withdrawal rate is increased. Duringg this pperiod
reservoir withdrawal rate calculations are maintained
to ensure that injection rates equal reservoir fluid
rates.
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are

BHP transient test analysis

Pressure transient test analysis is used to

determine
Skin factors, kh product, p averages of water
and oil banks and so on.
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are
• Injectivity plots with profile survey
comparisons
i
Injectivity plots (barrels injected per day per psi differential
i j ti pressure)) couples
injection l withith injection
i j ti profile
fil plots
l t are usedd
to detect injection well problems and injection well responses
to stimulation, fracture treatment, and profile modification
attempts.

The use of these injectivity plot with profile survey techniques

coupled with chemical and transient pressure analysis can
indicate injectivity problems associated with calcium
carbonate scale,
scale bacteria
bacteria, ooxygen
gen corrosion products
prod cts and oil
carryover.
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques based
on the monitoring procedures are

• Geochemical program
Geochemical pprogram
g uses all the monitoringg
procedures but special emphasis is placed on the
chemical analyses of produced and injected water,
well to well injection tracers, produced water salinity
from all producers, H2S concentration in produced
gas oil
il carryover concentration
t ti in i produced
d d water.t
 6.3.2. Project surveillance techniques
All five of these primary surveillance techniques,
1. Productivity index and inflow performance plots,
2. Reservoir withdrawal calculations,
3. BHP transient test analysis,
4.. Injectivity
jec v y p plots
o swwith p
profile
o e susurvey
vey co
comparisons
p so s and
d
5. Geochemical program including tracer analysis
enables us to carry out systematic well workovers on
producing
d i andd injection
i j i wells. ll Also
Al based
b d on the
h
results of these techniques, frequently applied
modifications in producing and injection policies may
produce favorable results in injection wells,
producing
p g wells and field pproduction levels.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood (
A
Actual
l Examples
l off Evaluation)
l i )

I many engineering
In i i organizations
i i the
h waterflood
fl d
performance of a project is predicted only once
at the
h time
i theh project
j is i planned.
l d This
Thi is
i really
ll
unfortunate. The real pay-off in terms of
i
increasedd recovery, increased
i d profitability,
fi bili andd
increased knowledge comes from a comparison
off the
h predicted
di d performance
f off a reservoir
i with
ih
the way it is actually behaving.
 V. Operate,
p , monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Actual Examples of Evaluation)

The following are three examples (borrowed

from Craig) of some of the more common
differences one observes between actual and
predicted performance and what a study of
these differences can tell us about how to
improve our waterflooding operations.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.1)

Example data
shows a p
plot of
WOR versus
y
recovery.
 V. Operate,
p monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.1)

Previous figure shows a plot of WOR versus

recovery. The smooth curve is that which was
predicted at the outset of the project. The jagged
curve is that actually observed. We see that water
breakthrough has come earlier than predicted and
in addition it seems to be rising generally at a
faster rate than we predicted. What could be the
causes of these differences?
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 1)
(Ex.1)
First the reservoir may be more nonuniform than
expected. That is in moving from the injection to
producing well the injected water is contacting
less of the reservoir and recovering less oil than
we predicted. Perhaps the injected water is
bypassing the oil by moving through a gas cap or
an aquifer of formation fractures. Injectivity
profiles together with knowledge about the
reservoir itself could help us tell whether we
have a gas cap or aquifer bypassing.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(E 1)
(Ex.1)

Looking
L ki at theh location
l i off wells
ll experiencing
i i
the higher than expected WOR may tell us
whether
h h there
h are any reservoir i scale
l
fractures through which the water is
moving.
i Another
A h possibility
ibili isi that
h the h initial
i ii l
gas saturation is higher than expected so
that
h bbasically
i ll there
h is i less
l oil il possible
ibl to
recover by waterflooding.
 V. Operate,
p monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.1)

Reviewing
R i i the h production
d i history
hi off the
h
reservoir prior to waterflooding might give
us a clue
l as to whether
h h thishi is
i a possibleibl
explanation. Another possibility is that the
oil
il displacement
di l efficiency
ffi i is
i lower
l than
h
expected- perhaps due to selection of a non
representative
i set off relative
l i permeabilitybili
characteristics.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.1)

This example illustrates how one would check

the various factors that went into the
reservoir performance prediction to
determine the real cause for the difference in
performance Some of the possible reasons
performance.
for the difference, that is bypassing of the
injected water through a gas cap could
probably be remedied by injection well
workover.
workover
 V. Operate,
p , monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.1)

If on the other hand the reservoir is more non

uniform than expected or has a higher
initial gas saturation , a comparison of
actual and predicted performance might
allow us to make a more realistic prediction
for the future waterflood recovery.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 2)
(Ex.2)

The figure
shows better
performance
than expected!
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 2)
(Ex.2)
The previous figure shows the actual performance is
more favorable than that which we predicted. It’s
true that we rather infrequently find this but a
reservoir engineer should attempt to determine
the reason for this difference also. Perhaps the
reservoir is less heterogeneous than expected, or
perhaps the crossflow of injected water between
the different zones or layers in the reservoir has
caused improved sweep.
 V. Operate,
p , monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.2)

This may be an indication that the waterflood

recovery from this project will be higher
than that originally anticipated. In any event
the reason for this difference is important.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.3)

The next figure (slide 21) shows the actual and

predicted oil producing rate from a
waterflood project versus time.
time The
prediction had indicated an increased oil
producing rate but the actual performance
after showing an initial increase, has tended
to level off and even begin a downward
trend.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
( 3)
(Ex.3)
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(Ex.3)
Some ppossible reasons for this are that the water
injection rate is lower than expected or perhaps
the p
producingg wells are becoming g pplugged
gg by y
paraffin or scale or may need larger pumps to
maintain a reduced fluid level. This type
yp of
performance also could be caused by a portion
of the injected
j water enteringg a thief zone or
even by the existence of a higher initial gas
saturation than expected.
p
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(conclusion of examples)

A continuous evaluation of waterflood performance

can accomplish several things. It can provide a
basis for injection and production well
workovers and thus for higher rates and
increased daily income. The evaluation can lead
to a modification of the flooding pattern and thus
a higher recovery than might be ultimately
obtained with the present pattern.
 V. Operate, monitor and evaluate waterflood
(
(conclusion
l i off examples)
l )
The comparision of actual and predicted waterflood
performance
f can also
l yield
i ld an improved
i d estimate
i off the
h
actual reservoir heterogeneity. It can al the least lead to a
Better estimate of recovery performance.
performance

Thus to achieve maximum recoveryy the pproject

j
must be well and continuously engineered.

Next are two special topics to be covered if

time permits :
 VI. Whyy waterfloods fail ?

After discussing the design, surveillance and

e al ation tools it may
evaluation ma be appropriate to point
out some common reasons of why waterfloods
fail.
fail
Sometimes actual field performance does not
match the predicted performance because of
several reasons. Even before this failure issue
there are major economic differences as a
result of average and exceptional waterfloods.
 VI. Whyy waterfloods fail ?

Waterfloods can fail primarily due to:

• Poor sweep
s eep efficienc
efficiency
o Vertical permeability variations causing early
breakthrough and high water production
o Fractures and directional permeability
o Fluid distribution in thick reservoirs with veryy
high vertical permeability underruns the oil
o Viscous fingering and unfavorable mobility
ratio
i
o Unbalanced injectivity
 VI. Whyy waterfloods fail ?

Waterfloods can also fail due to: :

• Unexpected expenses
o Extensive remedial work
o Equipment
E i failure
f il andd underdesign
d d i off
producing and injection equipment
• Others
Oth
o Initial oil saturations too small to form an oil
bank
o Oil resaturation of gas cap
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Tracer tests deserve special attention for their role in

Geochemical surveillance, identifying primary
reasons why waterfloods fail and reservoir
characterization and will be treated in the following.
Interwellll tracers are usedd to trackk injection
i j i
fluid from injection wells to production wells.
Th produced
The d d tracer timing
i i andd concentration i
can be used to deduce reservoir properties as
they
h relate
l to preferential
f i l flow
fl paths. h The
Th use
of tracers to obtain some relevant information
i summarized
is i d as:
 VII. Interwell tracers testing
Continuation of sands and shales ( this can
be achieved by selective injection of tracer
into a given zone.
zone For instance if tracer is
injected in only one zone and is observed in
a neighboring producer completed in a
different zone then the shale separating
these zones is not continuous between these
wells)
 VII. Interwell tracers testing
Characterization of faults ( the absence of the
tracer p
production at an offset pproducer may y
be as a result of a fault between the injector
and p
producer. Fig.g E8)) ) Note: ALL Figures
g in
Tracer Section are borrowed from Waterflood
Asset Management book G. Takhur and
coauthor
The flow along the fault zones are so high than
the
h transverse direction
di i thus h early l tracer
breakthrough may be detected at a producer
near the
h fault.
f l
VII. Interwell tracers testing
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Volumetric sweep efficiency at

breakthrough The volumetric sweep
efficiency at breakthrough is a measure of
the seriousness of channeling because the
amount of fluid injected towards a producer
at the time of breakthrough provides some
qualitative information on the volume of the
high permeability channel. (see Fig. E11).
 VII. Interwell tracers testing
Breakthrough Efficiency
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Delineation of flow barriers(Any type of flow

restriction such as low permeability region
between an injector and producer pair will
reduce the movement of tracer to the
producer.(See Fig. E9)
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Delineation of flow barriers

 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Directional flow trends ((On the other hand if

localized fractures are present in the reservoir
early
y tracer breakthroughg mayy occur.
Preferential flow paths can be ascertained by
monitoringg tracer breakthroughg times at
neighboring production wells in different
directions from the injector.
j (See
( Fig.
g E10))
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Directional flow trends (cont):Breakthrough

times are combined with pressure drops
between wells to calculate the transmissibility.
If preferential flow directions are present
sweep efficiency could be improved by
adjusting the pattern and/or flow rates. (See
Fig. E10)
 VII. Interwell tracers testing
Directional flow trends
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Pattern balancing ( Pattern balancing is

i
important in
i maximizing
i i i the
h sweep efficiency
ffi i
and ultimate recovery from a waterflood.

The relative amount of tracer recovered at

each
h wellll provide
id an estimate
i off how
h muchh off
the injected fluid flows towards each producer.
Fi E12)
Fig.
 VII. Interwell tracers testing
Pattern balancing
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Identification of problem injectors ( problem

injectors can be identified by
b tagging the
injected fluid at each injector with a different
tracer.
tracer
As shown in Fig.E.13. early breakthrough at a
producer can be attributed to flow from a given
injector.
 VII. Interwell tracers testing
Identification of problem injectors
 VII. Interwell tracers testing

Delineate between coning and channeling

(Water production at a well can be due to
coning or channeling.
channeling The channeling of the
injected fluid can be detected by tagging this
fluid with a tracer.)
tracer )