CONTEXT AND CULTURE

DO YOU REMEMBER THIS?

 Hymes suggests that in order to be able to communicate
language, a person should acquire four types of
knowledge:

1. Possibility
2. Feasibility
3. Appropriateness
4. attestedness
CONTEXT AND CULTURE
 Hymes has led the study of language in a different
direction. His theory views language analysis through
the account of other factors other than the words
themselves.

 These factors are many. All of the following might be

involved in interpreting a real encounter:
Tone of voice and facial expression; the relationship between
speakers; their age, sex, and social status; the time and place; and
the degree to which speakers do or do not share same cultural
background.
CONTEXT AND CULTURE

 All the previous factors are known as context, and they

are all relevant to whether a particular action or utterance
is appropriate.
SYSTEMIZING CONTEXT: DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
 Linguists has claimed that the meaning of language in
context is so messy and subjective that it is beyond the
reach of systematic enquiry.

 However, in order to systemize this area of language,

applied linguistics developed discourse analysis (the
study of how stretches of language in context are
perceived as meaningful and unified by their users).
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
 There are three areas of study that contribute to the field
of discourse analysis:

Paralanguage
Pragmatics
genres
PARALANGUAGE
PARALANGUAGE

 Any meaningful nonlinguistic behavior which

accompanies linguistic communication, e.g. gestures and
intonation in speech, or pictures and font in writing
 Example:
 Gestures in an interview
PARALANGUAGE
 Convincing research suggests that paralinguistic
messages can outweigh linguistic ones, especially in
establishing and maintaining relationships.

 For this reason, understanding of paralanguage is

relevant in any professional activity involved with
effective communication, or developing effective
communication in others, such as media training, speech
therapy, and language teaching.
WHAT ABOUT WRITING?

 Writing has paralanguage too.

 Words can be scribbled, printed, or painted, and their

meaning can be amplified or altered by layout,
accompanying pictures, and diagrams.
WHAT IF WE HAVE A MIX?
 At this time where technology is used to mix writing
with visual effects in ways which can be altering
fundamentally the nature and process of communication,
there is a pressing need to integrate the findings of the
role of speech (psychology) and the role of writing
(typography).

 The study of visual communication and computer-

mediated communication are growing areas in applied
linguistics.
PRAGMATICS
PRAGMATICS

 Pragmatics:
is the discipline which studies the knowledge and
procedures which enables people to understand each
other’s words. Its main concern is not the literal
meaning, but what speakers intend to do with their
words.
EXAMPLE

 How are you?

 In language it is an interrogative sentence; taking
literally it asks about someone’s health.
 However. It can be answered differently depending on
the context
 ‘Mind your own business’
 ‘don’t make me sick’

 ‘Deeply depressed’

 ‘Thanks be to God’
GENRES
GENRES
 Meaning also changes with the kind of communicative
even which words belong to.

Example:
 Describe a person according to the following situation.
 Gossiping about that person
 Writing a job reference
 Introducing him/her to a friend
GENRES

 Genres is a term defined by the applied linguist John

Swales as a class of communicative events which share
some set of communicative purposes.
 Examples
 Conversations
 Consultations
 Lessons
 E-mails
 News bulletins
 Stories
 Jokes
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

 In conclusion, all these elements of discourse-

interpreting paralanguage, understanding pragmatic
intention, and distinguishing different genres- are part of
a person’s communicative competence.