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Bridge
Bridge
Wire wound
(precision) 10m~1M 0.1~1 ±0.005~±1 ±3~±30
Metal film
(precision) 10m~100k 0.1~1 ±0.05~±5 ±0.4~±10
Orange 3 - D Red
103 ±15 Blue Brown
-
Yellow 4 104 - ±25 F R = 560 Ω ± 2%
Green 5 105 ±0.5 D ±20 E
Blue 6 106 ±0.25 C ±10 C
Alphanumeric
Violet 7 107 ±0.1 B ±5 B R, K, M, G, and T =
Gray 8 108 - ±1 A x100, x103 , x106 , x109 , and x1012
-
White 9 109 - Ex. 6M8 = 6.8 x 106 Ω
- -
- ±20 M 59Ρ04 = 59.04 Ω
Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)
Resistor Values Commonly available resistance for a fixed resistor
R = x ± %∆x
Tolerance
Nominal value
Ex. 1 kΩ ± 10% ≡ 900-1100 Ω
10 12 15
R
E
R ≈ √10n For 10% resistor E = 12
n = 0; R = 1.00000…
where E = 6, 12, 24, 96 n = 1; R = 1.21152…
for 20, 10, 5, 1% tolerance n = 2; R = 1.46779…
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n = 3; R = 1.77827…
Resistance
Resistance Measurement
Measurement Techniques
Techniques
Bridge circuit
Voltmeter-ammeter
Substitution
Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter
V V
A A
R R
Substitution
A A
Decade resistance
Unknow box substituted in
Supply resistance Rx Supply place of the
unknown
Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
•Simple and theoretical oriented
•Requires two meter and calculations
•Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
I
+ VA -
A A
+ + + + IV Ix
I
VS V V Rx Vx VS V V Rx
- - - - -
Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
V V Rx
V V + VA V Measured Rx: Rmeas = = =
Measured Rx: Rmeas = = x = Rx + A I I x + IV 1 + IV / I x
I I I
if Vx>>VA Rmeas ≈ Rx if Ix>>IV Rmeas ≈ Rx
Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance small resistance
Ohmmeter
•Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
•Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to
be measured Nonlinear scale
Standard
resistance
15k
Rx k 5k
45 50
R1
Battery 25 75
Rm Meter Infinity
VS resistance
0
10
0
Vs
0µ
Rx = − R1 − Rm Meter
A
I
Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.
Bridge Circuit
DC Bridge AC Bridge
(Resistance)
Inductance Capacitance Frequency
A Balance condition:
No potential difference across the
R1 R2 galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)
I1 I2
Under this condition: VAD = VAB
V D B
I3 I4 I1R1 = I 2 R2
And also VDC = VBC
R3 R4
I3 R3 = I 4 R4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
C
R1 R2 or R2
= Rx = R4 = R3
R3 R4 R1
Example
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
12 V 12 V
1Ω 1Ω 2Ω 2Ω
1Ω 10 Ω 1Ω 10 Ω
12 V 12 V
2Ω 20 Ω 2Ω 10 Ω
Example A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At first balance, R3 is
adjusted to 1000.3 Ω. The value of Rx is then changed by the temperature change, the new
value of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1 Ω. Find the change of Rx due to
the temperature change.
R2 1
SOLUTION At first balance: Rxold = R3 = 1000.3 × = 10.003 Ω
R1 100
R2 1
After the temperature change: Rx new = R3 = 1002.1× = 10.021 Ω
R1 100
Therefore, the change of Rx due to the temperature change is 0.018 Ω
Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity
(currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.
consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer
B
Sensitivity of Galvanometer (continued)
C D
RTH = R1 // R3 + R2 // R4
R3 R4
Completed Circuit
RTH
C
VTH
Ig= VTH
RTH+Rg Ig =
VTH G RTH + Rg
D
where Ig = the galvanometer current
Rg = the galvanometer resistance
Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance negligible. The
galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/µA and an internal resistance of 100 Ω.
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5-Ω unbalance in arm BC
SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005 Ω.
A Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
100 Ω 1000 Ω
100 1000
R1 R2
VTH = VAD − VAC = 5 V × −
5V D G C 100 + 200 1000 + 2005
R3 R4 ≈ 2.77 mV
200 Ω 2005 Ω
B
Thévenin Resistance (RTH)
(a)
100 Ω A 1000 Ω
RTH = 100 // 200 + 1000 // 2005 = 734 Ω
C
200 Ω 2005 Ω
D
The galvanometer current
B
VTH 2.77 mV
(b) Ig = = = 3.32 µ A
RTH= 734 Ω C RTH + Rg 734 Ω + 100 Ω
Ig=3.34 µA
VTH
2.77 mV G Rg= 100 Ω
Galvanometer deflection
D
10 mm
d = 3.32 µ A × = 33.2 mm
(c) µA
Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 Ω and a current sensitivity of 1mm/µA. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable
of detecting the 5-Ω unbalance in arm BC
SOLUTION Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equivalent circuit
is again represented by a Thévenin voltage of 2.77 mV and a Thévenin resistance of
734 Ω. The new galvanometer is now connected to the output terminals, resulting a
galvanometer current.
VTH 2.77 mV
Ig = = = 2.24 µ A
RTH + Rg 734 Ω + 500 Ω
SOLUTION
Application of Wheatstone Bridge
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
•Loop test can be carried out for the location of either a ground or a short
circuit fault. Power or
communication cable
R3 X1
short R1
circuit fault
R2
R4 X2
Short
circuit
fault
ground Murray Loop Test
fault
Let R = R1+R2
R3 R1
At balance condition: =
R4 R2
R3 R4
Assume: earth is a R1 = R R2 = R
good conductor R +
3 4R R +
3 4R
The value of R1 and R2 are used to calculate back into distance.
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
Examples of commonly used cables (Approx. R at 20oC)
Wire dia. In mm Ohms per km. Meter per ohm
0.32 218.0 4.59
0.40 136.0 7.35
0.50 84.0 11.90
0.63 54.5 18.35
0.90 27.2 36.76
Remark The resistance of copper increases 0.4% for 1oC rise in Temp.
Power or
communication cable SOLUTION
R3 X1
R1 R3 1000
R1 = R = 300 × = 200 Ω
R3 + R4 1000 + 500
R2
R4 X2
Short
R4 500
circuit R2 = R = 300 × = 100 Ω
fault R3 + R4 1000 + 500
Murray Loop Test
Therefore, the location from the measurement point is 100 Ω× 36.67 m/Ω = 3667 m
Application of Wheatstone Bridge
Unbalance bridge
Consider a bridge circuit which have identical
A resistors, R in three arms, and the last arm has the
resistance of R +∆R. if ∆R/R << 1
R R
Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
V
C G D
∆R
VTH = VCD ≈ V
R R+∆R 4R
R v (kΩ )
6V
3
2 4.5 kΩ
1
0
Rv Output 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5 kΩ signal
Temp (oC)
(b)
(a)
R3 × R2 5 kΩ× 5 kΩ
SOLUTION (a) at bridge balance, we have Rv = = = 5 kΩ
R1 5 kΩ
The value of Rv = 5 kΩ corresponding to the temperature of 80oC in the given plot.
(b) at temperature of 60oC, Rv is read as 4.5 kΩ, thus ∆R = 5 - 4.5 = 0.5 kΩ. We will
use Thévenin equivalent circuit to solve the above problem.
∆R 0.5 kΩ
VTH = V = 6 V× = 0.15 V
4R 4 × 5 kΩ
It should be noted that ∆R = 0.5 kΩ in the problem does not satisfy the assumption ∆R/R
<< 1, the exact calculation gives VTH = 0.158 V. However, the above calculation still gives
an acceptable solution.
Low resistance Bridge: Rx < 1 Ω
Effect of connecting lead
The effects of the connecting lead and the connecting
terminals are prominent when the value of Rx decreases
R2 R3 to a few Ohms
m
p Ry = the resistance of the connecting lead from R3 to
V G Ry
n Rx
R1 Rx At point m: Ry is added to the unknown Rx, resulting in too
high and indication of Rx
At point n: Ry is added to R3, therefore the measurement of Rx
will be lower than it should be.
R Rb Ry R1 Ra R1
Eq. (1) = (2) and rearrange: Rx = R3 1 + − Rx = R3
R2 Ra + Rb + Ry R2 Rb R2
If we set R1/R2 = Ra/Rb, the second term of the right hand side will be zero, the relation
reduce to the well known relation. In summary, The resistance of the yoke has no effect
on the measurement, if the two sets of ratio arms have equal resistance ratios.
High Resistance Measurement
Guard
ring
µA µA
Is Is
High Iv Iv
High
voltage V voltage V Material
supply supply under test
Is
(a) Circuit that measures insulation volume (b) Use of guard ring to measure only volume
resistance in parallel with surface leakage resistance
resistance
V V
Rmeas = Rs // Rv = Rmeas = Rv =
I s + Iv Iv
High Resistance Measurement
Example The Insulation of a metal-sheath electrical cable is tested using 10,000 V supply
and a microammeter. A current of 5 µA is measured when the components are connected
without guard wire. When the circuit is connect with guard wire, the current is 1.5 µA.
Calculate (a) the volume resistance of the cable insulation and (b) the surface leakage
resistance
SOLUTION
(a ) Volume resistance:
IV =1.5 µA
V 10000 V
RV = = = 6.7 ×109 Ω
IV 1.5 µA
IV+ IS = 5 µA IS = 5 µA – IV = 3.5 µA
V 10000 V
RS = = = 2.9 × 109 Ω
IS 3.5 µA
MegaOhm Bridge
RA RB RA RB
E G E R2
G
R1
RC Rx RC
l µo = 4π×10-7 H/m
L Re
Rp
Rs2 + X s2 Rs2 + X s2 R p X p2 X p R p2
Rp = Xp = Rs = Xs =
Rs Xs R +X
2
p
2
p R p2 + X p2
Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor
Quality factor of a coil: the ratio of reactance to resistance (frequency
dependent and circuit configuration)
X s ω Ls
Inductance series circuit: Q= = Typical Q ~ 5 – 1000
Rs Rs
Rp Rp
Inductance parallel circuit: Q = =
Xp ω Lp
V V/RP
ω LS RP
Q= θ Q=
RS IωLS V/ωLP ω LP
θ
IRS I
I V
1+ ω C R
2 2 2 V
CS = P
⋅ CP
P 1
ω 2CP2 RP2 CP
CP = ⋅ CS
1 + ω 2CS2 RS2
I RS LS
1
RS = ⋅ RP RP 1 + ω 2CS2 RS2
1 + ω CP2 RP2
2 RP = ⋅ RS
IRS I ω 2CS2 RS2
I/ωCS VωCP δ
D = ω CS RS 1
δ D=
ω CP RP
V V/RP
AC Bridge: Balance Condition
B
all four arms are considered as impedance
Z1 Z2 (frequency dependent components)
The detector is an ac responding device:
I1 I2
headphone, ac meter
V A D C Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency
The second condition for bridge balance requires that the sum of the phase angles of
opposite arms be equal, therefore
Z 4 = 1, 000 Ω ∠ − 50o
Indicating that we are dealing with a capacitive element, possibly consisting of a
series combination of at resistor and a capacitor.
Example an ac bridge is in balance with the following constants: arm AB, R = 200 Ω
in series with L = 15.9 mH R; arm BC, R = 300 Ω in series with C = 0.265 µF; arm CD,
unknown; arm DA, = 450 Ω. The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find the constants of
arm CD. B
SOLUTION
Z1 Z2
I1 I2 Z1 = R + jω L = 200 + j100 Ω
V
D C Z 2 = R + 1/ jω C = 300 − j 600 Ω
A
Z3 = R = 450 Ω
Z 4 = unknown
Z3 Z4
D
The general equation for bridge balance states that Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
This result indicates that Z4 is a pure inductance with an inductive reactance of 150 Ω
at at frequency of 1kHz. Since the inductive reactance XL = 2πfL, we solve for L and
obtain L = 23.9 mH
Comparison Bridge: Capacitance
Vs D At balance point: Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z 3
C3 Rx 1
1 =R1 ; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z 3 = R3 +
where Z
R3 jω C3
Cx Unknown
capacitance 1 1
R1 Rx + = R2 R3 +
Diagram of Capacitance jω C x jω C 3
Comparison Bridge
R2 R3 R1
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = and C x = C3
R1 R2
Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
Comparison Bridge: Inductance
Vs D At balance point: Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z 3
L3 Lx where Z1 =R1 ; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z3 = R3 + jω L3
R3 Rx Unknown
inductance
R1 ( Rx + jω Lx ) = R2 ( RS + jω LS )
Diagram of Inductance
Comparison Bridge
R2 R3 R2
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = and Lx = L3
R1 R1
Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
Maxwell Bridge
Lx 1
where Z 2 = R2 ; Z3 = R3 ; and Y1 = + jω C1
R3 Unknown
R1
Rx inductance 1
Z x = Rx + jω Lx = R2 R3 + jω C1
Diagram of Maxwell Bridge R1
R2 R3
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = and Lx = R2 R3C1
R1
Frequency independent
Suitable for Medium Q coil (1-10), impractical for high Q coil: since R1 will be very
large.
Hay Bridge
ω 2C12 R1 R2 R3 R2 R3C1
Rx = and Lx =
1 + ω 2C12 R12 1 + ω 2C12 R12
ωLx Z R1 X L ω Lx
θC tan θ L = = =Q
R Rx
X 1
tan θ C = C =
R ω C1 R1
θL 1 1
Rx Z tan θ L = tan θ C or Q =
ωC1 ω C1 R1
Phasor diagram of arm 4 and 1
R2 R3C1
Lx =
Thus, Lx can be rewritten as 1 + (1/ Q 2 )
For high Q coil (> 10), the term (1/Q)2 can be neglected Lx ≈ R2 R3C1
Schering Bridge
jω C3
2 2 3 1
R1
Cx
C3
Rx Unknown j − j 1
capacitance Rx − = R2 + jω C1
ω Cx ω C R
x 1
Diagram of Schering Bridge
j R2C1 jR2
which expands to Rx − = −
ω Cx C3 ω C3 R1
C1 R1
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = R2 and C x = C3
C3 R2
Schering Bridge: continues
Rx
Dissipation factor of a series RC circuit: D= = ω Rx C x
Xx
Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how close the
phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 90o
For Schering Bridge, R1 is a fixed value, the dial of C1 can be calibrated directly in D
at one particular frequency
Wien Bridge
Cw C3 Rx
Wagner ground connection eliminates some
R3 Cx effects of stray capacitances in a bridge circuit
D Simultaneous balance of both bridge makes the
Wagner ground C4 point 1 and 2 at the ground potential. (short C1
and C2 to ground, C4 and C5 are eliminated from
detector circuit)
Diagram of Wagner ground The capacitance across the bridge arms e.g. C6
cannot be eliminated by Wagner ground.
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