Nutrition 1

Running head: THE EFFECTS OF NUTRITION ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The Effects of Nutrition on Cognitive Development

Liberty University

COUN 502

Patricia Daugherty

October 18, 2009

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Abstract

An increasing body of evidence indicates there is a definite link between malnutrition and

micronutrient deficiencies and cognitive and motor development in children beginning before

birth and continuing through early childhood. The relationship between nutrition and learning is

important for people who care for children. Cognitive development is a term that covers human

perception, thinking, and learning. Nutrition, genes, and environment are three major factors

impacting cognitive development. Many research studies focus on the relationships between

breakfast and learning in school-age children; however there is much research that identifies the

importance of nutrition at earlier ages.

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The Effects of Nutrition on Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering,

problem solving, and decision-making, from infancy to childhood and through adolescence to

adulthood. The study of cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and

psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual

resources, perceptual skill, and other topics in cognitive psychology. Cognitive development is a

term that covers human perception, thinking, and learning. Nutrition, genes, and environment

are three major factors impacting cognitive development. Food and nutrition are at the core of a

child's growth and development. When children go without necessary nutrients, the body lacks

immunity and cannot repair itself. Good nutrition is also essential for a child's cognitive

development. Based on a report from the International Food Policy Research Institute, poorly

nourished children often have a delay in motor and cognitive development and are more

vulnerable to chronic illness (Alaimo, Olson, & Frongillo, Jr., 2001). A child’s ability to think,

establish relationships, and live up to his or her full potential is directly related to the synergistic

effect of good health, good nutrition, and appropriate stimulation and interaction with others. A

large body of research has proven the importance of an early development for the brain and the

need for good health and nutrition.

Many research studies focus on the relationships between breakfast and learning in

school-age children; and other researchers identified the importance of nutrition at earlier ages.

The effects of nutrition on the brain begin before birth with the nutrition of the mother.

Undernutrition and the resulting negative effects on brain development during pregnancy and the

first two years of life may be permanent and irreversible (Lee etal, 2002). The effect of
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undernutrition on young children (ages 0 to 8 years old) can be devastating and long lasting. It

can impede behavioral and cognitive development, educability, and reproductive health, thereby

undermining future work productivity. Since growth failure occurs almost exclusively during

the intrauterine period and in the first two years of life preventing stunting, anemia, or

xerophthalmia, therefore calls for interventions, with focus on the very young. Whether or not

children are well-nourished during their first years of life can have a profound effect on their

health status, as well as their ability to learn, communicate, think analytically, socialize

effectively and adapt to new environments and people. Good nutrition is the first line of defense

against numerous childhood diseases, which can leave their mark on a child for life. “In the area

of cognitive development, ‘when there isn’t enough food, the body has to make a decision about

how to invest the limited foodstuffs available. Survival comes first. Growth comes second. In

this nutritional triage, the body seems obliged to rank learning last. Better to be stupid and alive

than smart and dead’” (Lee, etal, 2002).

Some of the developmental problems experienced by malnourished children are caused

by direct physiological crippling, such as retarded brain growth and low birth weight; where as

other conditions are the result of limited and abnormal interaction and stimulation vital to health

development. Good nutrition and good health are very closely linked throughout the lifespan,

but the connection is even more striking during infancy. Over half of child mortality in low

income countries can be attributed to malnutrition (Black, 2003). There has been many

questions raised concerning nutrition and cognitive development such as what effects does
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undernutrition impair behavioral development. Recent research has shown that poor nutrition

during intrauterine life and the early years can lead to profound and varied effects including:

 Delayed physical growth and motor development;

 General effects on cognitive development resulting in lower IQ scores by an average of

15 points or more in the severely malnourished;

 A greater of behavioral problems and deficient social skills at school age; and

 Decreased attention, deficient learning, and lower educational achievement (Walsh and

Murphy, 2003).

However, the effects of undernutrition on cognition occur as well in children without clinical

signs of undernutrition but who are retarded in growth. Most of the food supplementation

experiments in developing countries, for example, were aimed at the nonseverly malnourished

children (Black, 2003).

There is a direct link between undernutrition and socioeconomic status of the child’s

family. Undernutrition has a greater effect on development in children living in poverty, whether

in industrialized or in developing countries, than on children who are not poor (Lee, and etal,

2002). Some evidence suggests that nutrition interventions benefit cognition and behavior to a

greater extent among the poorer segment of our society. There is considerable evidence that

indicates that substantial improvements can be achieved, even n severely malnourished children,

if appropriate steps are taken at a young age to satisfy nutritional and psychosocial needs. The

longer the developmental delays remain uncorrected, the greater the chance of permanent effects.
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In developing countries, where few children live to see their situation improve, once the effects

of undernutrition are established in early childhood, they typically become permanent. The

intellectual potential of such children at school entry most likely is already damaged irrevocably

(Black, 2003). There has been strong evidence that suggests that the earlier children begin

benefiting from nutrition interventions the greater the improvements on behavioral development.

In the case of physical growth, nutrition interventions may be effective only during pregnancy

and the first 2 to 3 years of life. For behavioral development, nutrition interventions may have a

benefit, although much reduced, at later ages.

The lack of necessary nutrients is responsible for cognitive and behavioral impairments.

Because nutrient deficiencies tend to cluster in individuals, isolating the specific contributions of

single nutrients is difficult from nonintervention studies. Iodine deficiency and iron-deficiency

anemia are easier to study than micronutrient deficiencies, and relevant research has shown that

both of these micronutrients are involved specifically in causing impairments (Benton, 2008).

Iron is a necessary part of brain tissue. Nerve impulses move slower when iron deficiency is

present. Iron deficiency during infancy may cause permanent damage to the child’s brain;

however, too much iron can also cause problems. Iron deficiency during the first two years of a

child’s life is associated with behavior changes and delayed psychomotor development (Benton,

2008). Less severe forms of iron deficiency do not appear to affect behavior. This degree of

certainty is not possible in studies of protein-energy deficiency because the food supplements

provide protein and energy as well as other nutrients. However, no evidence indicated that

deficiencies in protein and energy are unimportant. The safest course for ensuring cognitive and

behavioral development is to meet all nutrient needs with natural or fortified foods prepared
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appropriately for young children. The benefits of breastfeeding also must be considered in

fostering growth and development. Breastfeeding appears to lead to higher IQ and cognitive

development. Breastfeeding leads to fewer cases and less severe cases of diarrhea, ear

infections, skin rashes, and bacterial meningitis (Lee and etal, 2002).

The effects of improved nutrition do have long lasting effects. Long-term studies

indicate that nutrition interventions aimed as preschool children in the first few years of life lead

to measurable improvements in adolescence and adulthood (Rosales, Reznick, and Zeisel, 2009).

Early intervention programs to stimulate cognition have improved cognition and perhaps

physical growth. Similar nutrition interventions, the earlier the program is started, the better the

results tend to be. Although current evidence is not conclusive regarding whether the effects of

stimulation are additive or interactive, children who receive combined nutrition are stimulation

programs perform better than those who receive either type of intervention alone. The

importance of early nutrition interventions and their relationship to cognitive ability in the sort-

and long-term is very clear. It is also clear that both nutrition and early stimulation programs

work better when children benefit from them simultaneously. Early Childhood Development

(ECD) projects can help prevent and address malnutrition by providing supplemental feeding

center-based and home-based settings and by educating parents about their children’s nutritional

needs. ECD’s is a set of systematic and comprehensive education, nutrition, and health

interventions, as well as emotional and social stimulation for children between zero and six years

of age. These approaches must be integrated as each serves an important role in the child’s

future success. The benefits of ECD herby encourage greater social equity, increase the efficacy

of other investments, and address the needs of mothers while helping their children (Lui and etal,
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2003). Integrated programs for young children can modify the effects of socio-economic and

gender-related inequities, some of the most entrenched of poverty. These programs are a great

tool that helps break with intergenerational cycle of poverty and has significant economic

benefits. The following benefits have been related with early childhood integrated interventions:

 Improved health and nutrition;

 Improved cognitive development and school achievement;

 Higher school enrollment;

 Less repetition of grade level and fewer dropouts

 Reduction of social inequality;

 Generation of community benefits by creating new jobs, especially for women, and

enhancing respect for cultural and traditional values; and

 Yields higher returns as a preventive measure compared with remedial (Lui and etal,

2003).

When women are undernourished during pregnancy, or children do not consume

necessary nutrients in their early years, the future consequences for the children’s health can be

severe and long lasting. While nutrition education is important, environmental, cultural,

socioeconomic, and political factors are also critical in influencing how families eat (Bryan and

etal, 2004). For example, , young children who watch television advertising for sugary cereals

ad high fat foods may pressure their parents to buy these foods. Food is closely tied to cultural

and social practices; if families are accustomed to buying and preparing foods high in fat, sugar,
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and salt, they are unlikely to alter these habits simply because they know these foods are

unhealthy. Financial pressures can impact the quantity and variety of foods that families eat, for

those who must choose between food and rent or medicine, food is often the most flexible item

in the family budget. Finally, political issues such as the availability of funding for supplemental

nutrition programs can have a dramatic impact on whether low-income families are able to

ensure that their children have nutritious diets.

Good nutrition begins before conception, and continues when the child is in the womb.

When women do not consume sufficient amounts of the B vitamin folic acid before conception

and in early pregnancy, their babies are more likely to be born with neural tube defects (Black,

2003). In pregnant women, improved diet has been shown to result in higher birth weights,

greater head circumference, and improved cognitive functioning for children after birth.

Conversely, inadequate maternal weight gain and iron deficiency anemia is linked to retarded

fetal growth, fetal and infant mortality, and behavioral and learning problems after birth.

Young children, who grow rapidly between birth and five years of age, require good

nutrition to achieve health development. Children require sufficient calories to meet their daily

energy needs; they also must consume a variety of foods to obtain necessary vitamins and

minerals. A healthy diet helps children achieve proper physical growth and protects them

against illness and infection. Proper nutrition not only contributes to young children’s physical

development, but affects their cognitive development as well. Undernourished children can have

trouble concentrating become easily fatigued, listless, or irritable, and are likely to face

difficulties in learning (Alaimo, Olson, and Frongillo, Jr., 2001). These symptoms can lead

children to develop behavioral and social problems. In addition, malnourished children are more
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likely to miss school due to illness and are more susceptible to lead poisoning, both of which can

negatively impact a child’s learning and development.

Promoting good eating habits in young children can also help prevent chronic diseases

later in life. Good nutrition is associated with lower risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease,

stroke, and diabetes. Between the ages of 12 and 21 months, young children are inclined to put

things in their mouths. Parents can take advantage of this “window of opportunity” by

introducing a variety of foods so that children learn to enjoy a varied, nutritious diet (Rosales,

Reznick, and Zeisel, 2009). Food also plays a central role in social interaction. When young

children’s experiences of mealtimes are pleasant, meals can foster social bonds within the

family. However, when parents react negatively to children’s eating behaviors or use food as a

way to discipline or reward their children, children’s eating habits can become distorted. The

psychological and cultural elements that come into play during meals untimely influence a

child’s attitudes toward certain foods and eating in general.

Dietary intake surveys show that, across all income levels, children from birth to 5 years

of ate tend to consume less fiber and fewer servings of fruits and vegetables, but more fat and

sodium than recommended. A recent study of middle- and upper-income preschool children

found that the most frequently consumed foods were fruit drinks, carbonated beverages, milk,

and French fries. This dietary pattern is consistent with studies that find that young children

generally consume lower than recommended amounts of calcium, iron, zinc, and vitamins A, C,

and E (Hughes and Bryan, 2003). Many cultures and ethnicities have traditions that emphasize

high consumption of fruits, vegetables, and grains. But what families in this country choose to
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eat is influenced by many factors beyond these traditions. There are many forces that shape

dietary habits.

Lack of knowledge, skills, and time

Children are not born with an innate ability to choose healthy diets. Parents and other

caretaker’s nutrition knowledge, food preparation skills, cultural background, socioeconomic

status, and attitudes toward food all influence how they select foods for their children and

ultimately shape their children’s eating habits. It can be difficult for parents to know what to

serve, especially when nutrition information seems contradictory or inconsistent,, When parents

lack knowledge of proper nutrition, or do not have the skills or inclination to cook healthy foods

at home, they can instill poor eating habits in their children.

Long hours and work pressures often make it difficult for parents to shop for and prepare

food. The University of California, San Francisco’s recent Work and Health Study found that

21% of parents with children work between 45 and 54 hours a week, while 17% work more than

55 hours (Walsh and Murphy, 2003). These long hours contribute to American families’

increased consumption of fast foods and preprepared “convenience foods.” In a recent dietary

survey, over 40% of adults reported eating at least one meal from a restaurant of cafeteria on the

previous day; almost half of those meals were purchased from a fast food restaurant. Children

are also eating more meals away from home. Meals that are not prepared at home tend to be

higher in fat, calories, and salt and people who eat at restaurants report consuming fewer fruits

and vegetables than those who eat at home.

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Financial Pressure and Poverty

Inadequate income makes it difficult for many parents to purchase enough nutritious food

for their children. According to the a recent study, 34% of children live below the federal

poverty one, and even families with incomes above the poverty line often struggle to survive

(Lee and etal, 2002). Recent data found that an estimated 11% of households are “food

insecure,” meaning that they do not have sufficient means to purchase food to meet their families

needs reliably (Gorman, 2005). Research has shown that 36% of soup kitchen and food pantry

clients are children. And 27% of households reported running out of money for food an average

of five days a months (Rosales, Reznick, and Zeisel, 2009).

The Influence of Marketing

Food manufacturers spent $7 billion on advertising in 1997 and the greatest expenditures

tended to be for the most highly processed and highly packaged foods (Liu and etal, 2003). Food

advertising influences adult buying patterns, as well as children’s demands for particular foods.

Young children between the ages of 2 and 5 spend approximately 27 hours per week watching

television; on average, 3 of those 27 hours are commercials (liu and etal, 2003). Over half of

advertisements targeting children are for food, especially foods high in fat and sugar and low in

nutrients. Food marketing also goes beyond advertising, Branding of products such as T-shirts,

hats, and school supplies reinforce commercial messages. Some soft drinks companies have

even licensed their logos to baby bottle manufacturers and studies show that parents who buy

these bottles are significantly more likely to give soft drinks to infants.
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Lack of Access to Healthy Choices

Each year, thousands of new food products are introduced into grocery stores; the

majority of them are highly-processed foods containing added fat, oil, sugar, and salt. In the

U.S., fast food chains, convenience stores, and cookie and ice cream shops have proliferated in

recent decades. Many large chain supermarkets have abandoned the inner city, leaving corner

stores that feature snack and processed foods rather than a variety of groceries and fresh produce.

A 1995 analysis of 21 major U.S. metropolitan areas found there were 30% fewer supermarkets

in low-income areas than in higher-income areas (Benton, 2008). Studies have consistently

shown that prices at small grocery and convenience stores can exceed those at chain

supermarkets by as much as 48% (Benton, 2008). Smaller stores are also unlikely to offer the

variety of products or the high product quality offered by most major supermarkets. In a survey

of food stamp recipients, USDA found that they were more likely to make jot one major trip to

the supermarket each month, usually after receiving their food stamps. Thus they are more

reliant on neighborhood stores for perishable items such as fresh fruits and vegetables.

The safety net of federal nutrition programs is the primary resource available to low-

income households to supplement shortfalls in the household food supply. The Food Stamp

Program and the Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)

provide direct assistance to families and have been demonstrated to have a positive impact on the

nutrient intakes of young children. The WIC program serves 68% of all babies born, however,

WIC is not an entitlement program and funding is insufficient to serve all eligible individuals

(Lee and etal, 2002). Prompted by a declining economy and threatened cutbacks at the federal

level, current concerns are that fewer families will receive benefits. Local efforts need to be
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directed to ensuring that the highest risk women, infants, and children are enrolled in WIC and to

advocating for retraining adequate funding at the federal level.

Nutrition is a modifiable factor that can influence cognitive development in children.

There is no aspect of our physical or psychological existence that is not affected in some way by

nutrition. A profound lack of nutrition would obviously have a negative influence on all aspects

of development and such effects of malnutrition are well documented. Research has proven that

promoting early childhood nutrition could enhance long-term cognitive development and school

performance, especially in children with multiple nutritional deficits.

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