Chapter 5: SONET/SDH

Reference textbook:
“Understanding SONET/SDH and ATM:
Communications Networks for The Next
Millennium” By S1. V. Kartalopoulos
 Introduction

• “Humans are social animals!”

• Socializing  exchanging ideas and information  build
networks to facilitate information exchange and
communication
• Different ways of communication technologies
o Telegraph
o Telephony
o Digital electronic technology of various data types
 Telemetry data
 User data
 Video data
 Voice data
Fig. 5.1 Characteristics per service
5.1 Legacy Communications Systems:
Concepts

Basic Technology and Services

 Pulse-Coded Modulation ( PCM )

• Voice : the primary services in the communication industry

o Voice : analog signal.
o Words : acoustic waves generated by vibrating vocal cords and the
mouth cavity modulates them into recognizable and distinguishable
compounded sounds
o Microphone: a transducer converts acoustic waves into (analog)
electrical signals
o Speaker: a transducer converts (analog) electrical signals into
acoustic waves and reproduces voice sounds
• POTS ( Plain Old Telephone Service )
o Ringing
o call initiation
o number dialing
o Transmits analog signals over the telephone network
 Pulse-Coded Modulation ( PCM )

• PCM form a binary (or digital) bit stream at 64000 bits/second

• Also know as Digital Signal level 0 ( DS0 )
• (en)Coder : converts analog signal into digital bit steams
• Decoder : converts digital bit streams into analog signal (voices)
• CODEC ( coder/decoder ) : periodically samples the analog signal, and based
on a conversion scheme, it translates each sampled value into a binary
representation
• Two major schemes for PCM : -law in United States, -low in Europe
• Acoustical signal of speaking voice : usually under 3.4 kilocycles per second,
or kilohertz ( 3.4 kHz )
• A low-pass filter removes all components of frequency higher than 3.4 kHz
• By sampling theorem, to truly represent a signal, we must sample at least
twice as its maximum frequency content
• So PCM CODEC samples at analog voices 8000 times per second, or every
125 ms, and it converts each sample into 8 bits PCM
• The total bit rate is 8000 × 8 = 64000 bits / second, or 64 kilobits per second
( 64 Kbps ), this is the rate termed DS0.
Fig. 5.2 Analog to PCM
Fig. 5.3 DS0 rate
 Pulse-Coded Modulation ( PCM )

• Differential PCM ( DPCM ) , adaptive DPCM ( ADPCM ),

and sigma-delta PCM (ΣΔPCM ) : by more sophisticated
digital signal processing algorithms to compress the 64
Kbps to 32 Kbps, or 16 Kbps, or even lower than that.
• Local loop : a pair of twisted copper wires between user’s
equipment ( a POTS telephone ) and the service
provider’s equipment, where the CODEC is located. The
signal transmitted on a local loop cable is an analog
electrical signal.
 Time-Division Multiplexing ( TDM )

• POTS telephone converts voice signals into an electrical

signal
• The electrical signal is sent over a pair of copper wires to
a communications systems where the CODEC function is
performed
• The backbone network only transmits digital signals and
no analog signals : all-digital communications network
• On an all-digital communications network, in addition to
digitized voice signals, other digital data can also be
transmitted ( raw digital data, encoded video, encoded
sound, etc. )
 Time-Division Multiplexing ( TDM )

• Some digital services on DS0

o Digital Data Service ( DDS )
 56 Kbps for data, 8 Kbps for “in-band” signaling
 Only for the backbone network, not for the end users
o Basic Rate Integrated Services Digital Network ( BRISDN or BRI )
 Uses two 64 Kbps channels ( channels B ) and a 16 Kbps subrate
channel ( channel D )
 Support a combination of voice and/or data services over a single pair
of wire
 Modes available for end users :
 2 B channels for voice and a D channel for data
 1 B channel for voice and a B+D channels for data
 2 B channels for data and a D channel for signaling
 All channels for data
 Can only be used if both end users has ISDN and the network supports
ISDN
Table 5.1 DS0 Rates and Line Codes

Source Format, overhead

line code
Voice : 64 Kbps Frame, bit robbed

DDS 56 Kbps + 8 Kbps signalling 64 CCC

B8ZS
B-ISDN 64 Kbps 64 CCC

B channel ( 2B + D ) B8ZS

Abbreviations :
CCC, clear channel capability;
B = 64 Kbps voice or data channel;
DDS, digital data services;
D = 16 Kbps signaling or data channel
 Time-Division Multiplexing ( TDM )

• User-to-network interface ( UNI ) : the interface where the

user signal, a 64 Kbps data stream ( organized in 8-bit
bytes ), first meets the network
• At UNI, users’ signals are synchronized with a 8 kHz
system clock, or a multiple of it.
• Then based on a round-robin principle, the signals are
sequentially polled one byte at a time and place one after
the other in a fixed order, this is called byte-interleaving.
• Time slot : the location of each byte source in this ordered
digital signal.
• The whole process is called Time-Division Multiplexing
( TDM ).
 DS1 Rate

• Multiplex 24 DS0 users

• Each user contributes one byte in a DS1 frame
• An additional bit, the F-bit, is used as the beginning of a DS1
frame
• Total 24 × 8 + 1 = 193 bits in 125 s.
• The bit rate is 193 bits / 125 ms = 1.544 Mbps, knows as the
digital signal level 1 ( DS1 ) rate.
• M1 multiplexer ( M1 mux ) : function that TDM 24 DS0 into a
DS1.
• The F-bit of each frame forms an F subrate channel in DS1
superframe
o 12 or 24 frames in each super frame
o Provide a data link over which the network data are sent
o Provide error control
Fig. 5.4 DS1 rate – M1 Mux
 DS1 Formats

• DS1 frame = 24 time slots and the F-bit

• For primary rate ISDN ( PRI )
o 23 time slots : 23 B channels ( at 64 Kbps each )
o 1 time slot : for 4 D channels
• DS 1 signal
o Alternate mark inversion ( AMI ), or called bipolar with
8-zero substitution, a.k.a. bits 8-zero suppression
( B8ZS )
o B8ZS or more generally, BnZS is used to prevent
transmit long strings of 0’s by the minimum number of
1’s
 Table 5.2 DS1 Rate and Line Codes

Source Format, Overhead Line Code

Voice : 24 × DS0 SF, ESF, AMI

DDS 23 × DS0 + sync + frame SF, ESF, B8ZS

P-ISDN 23B + D SF, ESF

B channel ( 2B + D ) AMI

Abbreviations : SF, superframe; ESF, extended superframe; AMI, alternate

mark inversion.
 DS1 Over Long Distnace

• DS1 signal is transmitted over a T1 line

o One pair of wires is used for each direction
• Communication systems at the DS1 level are designed
with an error rate of 10-6 or better.
• A regenerator is placed after 3000 ft from user and every
6000 ft between regenerators.
• A regenerator every 6000 ft places a maintenance and
troubleshooting overhead.
Fig. 5.5 T1 characteristics
 xDSL

• Digital Subscriber Line ( DSL ) : the local loop ( i.e. the

copper twister-pair wires between most homes and the
telephone service provider equipment ) in digital form,
such as the BRI.
• DSL provides 1.544 Mbps and in some cases up to 7
Mbps over existing twisted-pair copper cable.
• DSL cannot be used on “loaded” loops, i.e., no inductors
or coils on the loop cable.
• Effective distance of a DSL depends on the data rate
supported
o 1.5 Mbps : several miles
o 25 Mbps : only half a mile
• xDSL : “x” refers to one of many DSL formats and rates.
 xDSL

• VDSL : very high-bit-rate DSL

• HDSL : high-bit-rate DSL
• ADSL : asymmetric DSL
• SDSL : symmetric DSL
• RADSL : rate adaptive DSL
• MSDSL : multi-rate symmetric DSL
o Build on a single pair of DSL technology
o On unloaded copper pair, can provide 64/128 Kbps up
to 8.9 Km, or 2 Mbps up to 4.5 Km
• DSL requires terminating devices at both ends of the
loop, at the user and at the service provider, to terminate
the upstream and downstream digital signals.
 Modulations on DSL

• Two-bits-to-one quaternary ( 2B1Q ) : Digital PAM with -3, -1, +1 and

+3, four possible levels, each represents 2 bits.
o Its transmitted power is superior to that of AMI
o Bit rate is limited to 392 Kbps
o Suitable for upstream transmission on local loos
o This is used for BRI signals.
• Discrete multi-tone ( DMT ) : divides the bandwidth into frequency
channels.
o When a certain channel is detected to have inferior transmission
characteristics, the traffic is assigned another frequency channel,
a.k.a. frequency hopping.
o The official standard of the ANSI T1E1.r working group
o Supports upto to 6 Mbps services
 Up to four MPEG-1 compressed video data
 A single MPEG-2 compressed video data
 Modulations on DSL

• Carrierless amplitude phase ( CAP ): a derivative of the

quadrature amplitude modulation ( QAM )
o Translates a 4-bit code in one of the 16 voltage phase
points
o May be viewed as a 2B1Q 2-dimensional approach.
o Transmitting power is superior to that of AMI and 2B1Q
o Effective bit rate is in the range of 10 – 175 Kbps
o The de facto standard that by 1996 was deployed in
almost 97% of all ADSL applications.
 Table 5.3 Various Modulations on DSLs

Modulations # of wires in Downstream bit Upstream bit Max. length in

pairs rate in Kbps rate in Kbps one loop
( in ft )
ISDN 2 144 144 18000

HDSL 2 2048 2048 13000

Two pairs
HDSL 1 768 768 12000
Single pair
ADSL DMT 1 1500 176 12000

ADSL CAP 1 6000 640 12000

ADSL CAP 1 1500 64 18000

 LVDS

• Low-Voltage Differential Signaling ( LVDS )

• Once defined for high-speed data transmission over
relatively long cables
• Now used as a high speed, 155.5 Mbps, low-power
general purpose data transmission technology at the
board / bus levels
• LVDS differential voltage swing is between the voltage
levels VOH = 1.4 V, and VOL = 1.0 V
• Scalable Coherent Interface LVDS ( SCI-LVDS )
o Specified by the IEEE 1596.3 standard
o For unidirectional point-to-point links, from a transmitter
to a receiver
 1000BaseT

• An evolutionary standard derived from the 100BaseT

used in LANs.
• Working on by the IEEE 802.3ab task force.
• Allows for transmission of a balanced digital signal at 1
Gbps over UTP-5 cable for the distance of 100 m.
• Most of the applications are in the LAN
 Coding Schemes

• Unipolar : a two-voltage-level signal that typically swings

between zero voltage and + V.
• Bipolar : a three-voltage-level signal that typically swings
between a positive and a negative voltage
o May return to zero ( RZ ) or nonreturn to zero ( NRZ )
o In a digital bipolar signal, the 1’s alternate between the
two voltages, “+” and “-” and this will result in a zero
DC component on the transmission line.
• A unipolar and a NRZ bipolar are considered as on-off
signals
o May applied to either electrical or optical signals
• Multi-level signal : several voltage levels are use
Fig. 5.6 Unipolar and bipolar coding
 Coding Schemes

• RN and NRZ
o For both methods, the signal alternates between a
positive ( +V ) and a negative ( -V ) voltage
o Logic “1” : positive voltage
o Logic “0” : negative voltage
o For NRZ, transitions between logic “0” and logic “1”,
and vice versa, are directly crossing the zero voltage
level
o For RZ : transitions between logic “0” and logic “1”, and
vice versa, stay temporarily on the zero voltage level
Fig. 5.7 RZ and NRZ coding
 Coding Schemes

• 4B/5B coding : translates 4 bits into one of the 16 predetermined 5-bit

codes.
o The original 4-bit code 0000 is translated to a 5-bit not-all-zero
code.
• Bipolar Violations ( BV )
o Bipolar signal is a 3-level signal where consecutive 1’s in the bit
stream are alternating polarity
o BV is when two consecutive ‘1s do not change polarity
o Can be used to detect errors in the bit stream
o Or used to mark a specific bit manipulation ( coding ) in the bit
stream
• B8ZS ( bit 8-zero suppression ) : find 8 consecutive 0’s in the bit
stream and substitutes them with a bipolar violation
o At the receiver, BV is detected and the bit stream is restored to its
original form
• HDB3 : substitueds four 0’s by a code that contains a violation.
o At the receiver, BV is detected and the bit stream is restored to its
original form
Fig. 5.8 Bipolar and bipolar violation
5.1 Legacy Communications Systems:
Concepts

Hierarchical Multiplexing
 Multiplexing in North America

• 24 DS0 signals + a framing F-bit  level 1 multiplexer

( M1 )  a DS1 signal
• 4 DS1 signals + a control C-bit ( for every 48 payload
bits )  bit interleaved by a level 1-to-2 multiplexer ( M12 )
 a DS2 signal
• 7 DS2 signals + a control C-bit ( for every 84 payload
bits )  bit interleaved by a level 2-to-3 multiplexer ( M23 )
 a DS3 signal
• Two-stage multiplexing : multiplexing from DS1 to DS3
• DS2, although defined, are seldom used. Instead, an M13
multiplexer is used that multiplexes in one-stage 28 DS1
signals and all the F-bits, C-bits into a DS3 signal with bit
rate of 44.736 Mbps.
Fig. 5.9 T-carrier hierarchy
 Stuffing Bits

• A DS2 signal is formed by bit interleaving 4 DS1 signals

o In a recurrent manner, a bit from each of the 4 DS1’s is
placed ina sequential order
• But the four DS1 signal sources may be a slightly
different bit rage then the expected 1.544 Mbps
• Stuffing additional bits in specfic time slots of slower DS1
signal so that the composite DS2 signal is exactly 6.183
Mbps
• Stuffing bits are also used when 7 DS2 signals are
multiplexing into a DS3 signals
Fig. 5.10 DS2 frame ( 6.312 Mbps ) with
Bit Stuffing
Fig. 5.11 DS3 frame ( 44.736 Mbps ) with
Bit Stuffing
 T1c Rate

• Another legacy system format.

• 2 DS1 signals and a control bit ( C-bit )  a M11c bit-
interleaved multiplexer  a DS1c signal
• DS1c signal uses a duo-binary modulation and in effect
doubles the bandwidth capacity of a T1 line
Fig. 5.12 T-carrier hierarchy
 Multiplexing in Europe

• European systems time-division multiplex 30 user time slots and

one ( framing and signaling ) time slot for every 15 user time
slots to yield an E1 ( or E11 ) frame with 32 time slots.
• The functions of the multiplexer are round-robin polling, byte
interleaving, and time compression.
• In the receiving end, an E1 signal is demultiplexed into 30 user
channels and 2 added channels for framing and signaling and
each channel is decompressed to 64 Kbps.
• Each frame is transmitted within 125 s, so the total bit rate is
2.048 Mbps.
• E1 is different from DS1 in bit rate and also the absence of the F-
bit.
• E1 signal uses an alternate mark inversion ( AMI ) with a high-
density bipolar three-zero ( HDB3 ) techniques.
Fig. 5.13 E1 rate ( 2.048 Mbps )
 Multiplexing in Europe

• 30 DS0 channels + 2 64-Kbps channels ( for framing and

signaling )  time compressed and byte multiplexed by a
level 1 multiplexer  an E1 signal
• 4 E1 signals + 4 64-Kbps channels ( for signaling )  time
compressed and bit interleaved by a level 1-to-2
multiplexer  an E2 signal ( 8.448 Mbps ).
• 4 E2 signals + 9 64-Kbps channels ( for signaling )  time
compressed and bit interleaved by a level 2-to-3
multiplexer  an E3 signal ( 34.368 Mbps ).
Fig. 5.14 European hierarchy
 Table 5.4 Legacy Rates

Facility United States Europe Japan

DS0 64 Kbps 64 Kbps 64 Kbps
DS1 1.544 Mbps - 1.544 Mbps
E1 - 2.048 Mbps
DS1c 3.152 Mbps 3.152 Mbps
DS2 6.312 Mbps 6.312 Mbps
E2 8.448 Mbps 32.064 Mbps
DS3 44.736 Mbps 34.368 Mbps
DS3c 91.053 Mbps
97.728 Mbps
E3 139.264 Mbps
DS4 274.176 Mbps
397.2 Mbps
 PROS and CONS of Legacy Networks

• Legacy networks were initially designed to carry voice

signal from many sources to many destinations.
• Switching functions play very important role in the legacy
networks.
• Due to the circuit-switching nature, time slots are
assigned to a particular user for as long as the connection
is alive, therefore the system is deterministic and its
design simpler.
• Pre-assigned time slots uses bandwidth inefficiently
• So, legacy networks do not cost-effectively accommodate
high-bit-rate services
5.1 Legacy Communications Systems:
Concepts

Legacy Data Networks

 Legacy Data Networks

• Legacy synchronous communications networks do not address the

requirements for voice and data applications in an equitable manner.
• For voice communications, short delays through the network were the
primary concern.
• For data applications, the major concerns are high bit rates and low
cost per unit of time.
o For example, banks, stock-brokerage firms, publishing companies,
image transmission.
o Data will be transferred in chunks, up to about 9000 bytes, known
as packets.
o Such systems are local area network ( LAN ), metropolitan area
network ( MAN ), wide area network ( WAN ), and the switched
multimegabit data services ( SMDS ).
 LAN

• Networks for a limited area ( building, campus ).

• Many terminals were connected on a LAN backbone, and
based on a LAN communications protocol, terminals were
able to communicate among them.
• Two major types : Ethernet and ring.
• Ethernet LANs ( IEEE 802.1 ) : hierarchical and
transmission rates is at 10 or 100 Mbps.
o Ethernet 10BaseT : 10 Mbps over a twisted pair of
wires
• FDDI ( Fiber Distributed Data Interface ) ( IEEE 802.5 ) : a
counter-rotating fiber ring LAN at 100 Mbps effective data
rate.
o FDDI employs 4B/5B coding and thus the actual bit
rate is 125 Mbps.
 MAN

• LANs were expanded to cover a city or a metropolis and

the MAN is evolved
• Traffic from one LAN was brought to another via a
function known as bridge.
• LAN/MAN traffic was routed on the communications
networks so that connectivity between 2 or more remote
LANs/MANs could be established.
• Dedicated links can be deployed if high traffics between
two LANs/MANs is sustained 24 hours a day.
 SMDS

• A public MAN service developed by Bellcore

• Primarily for LAN interconnections.
• Based on the distributed queue dual bus ( DQDB )
transport and multiplexing mechanism and is defined in
IEEE 802.6.
• The use of the DQDB format is based on a 53-byte cell
structure that is similar to the ATM cell.
• SMDS is a connectionless technology specified over
synchronous carriers like DS1, DS3, E1 and E3 lines.
 Frame Relay ( FR )

• FR is a packet service.
• Design philosophy is similar to that of a highway with
ramps on and off.
o At the ramps, any car, small or large, may approach
the highway at a slower speed.
o Once on the highway, one can travel any length of the
highway and as fast as the limit.
o So highway is equally accessible and shareable by all.
• In FR, the ramps are the access points and the number of
lances determines the bandwidth of the FR system.
o FR is a shared-bandwidth solution that takes
advantage of traffic pattern variability and
oversubscription to provide a cost-effective data
service.
 Frame Relay ( FR )

• At the access points, or the user-to-network interface,

circuitry concentrates the packet traffic from a number of
users, typically over leased lines ( T1 / E1 ).
• The concentrated traffic is switched by means of a FR
switch and it is put on a common backbone ( the
highway ).
• A number of FR switches are interconnected to form a FR
network.
5.2 SONET and SDH

Introduction
 Introduction

• The evolution from copper wires to optical fibers led to

o Synchronous Optical Network ( SONET ) in US
o Synchronous Digital Hierarchy ( SDH ) in Europe
o Since first deployment in the 1980s, SONET / SDH
have almost replaced all long-haul copper cables.
o The optical fiber has responded to an unexpected
increase in traffic demand and make “ information
superhighway “ a reality
 SONET / SDH

• SONET is a set of standard interfaces in an optical

synchronous network of elements ( NE ) that conform to
these interfaces.
• SONET interfaces define all layers, from the physical to
the application layer.
• SONET is a synchronous network
• SDH is also a synchronous network with optical
interfaces.
• SDH is a set of standard interfaces in a network of
elements that conform to these interfaces.
• Like SONET, SDH interfaces define all layers, from the
physical to the application layer.
Fig. 5. 15 SONET / SDH services
 SONET versus SDH

• Technical similarities between SONET and SDH

o Bit rates and frame format organization
o Frame synchronization schemes
o Multiplexing and de-multiplexing rules
o Error control
• Major differences :
o The variations about overhead bytes to accommodate differences
between US and European communications nodes and networks
o The SDH photonic interface specifies more parameters than
SONET
o SONET and SDH have enough minor technical and linguistic
differences to add complexity ( and cost ) in their design
 SONET versus SDH

• Some nomenclature examples

o Synchronous transport signal ( STS ) versus
synchronous transport module ( STM ), e.g., STS-1,
STS-3, STS-12, STS-48 versus STM-1, STM-4, STM-
16.
o Synchronous payload envelope ( SPE ) versus virtual
container ( VC )
o Virtual tributary ( VT ) versus tributary unit ( TU )
 SONET / SDH Benefits

• Reduced cost:
o It lowers operations cost
o It has the same interface for all vendors
• Integrated network elements
o It allows for multi-vendor internetworking
o It has enhanced network element management
• Remote operations capabilities : provision, test, inventory,
customize, and reconfigured
• It offers network survivability features.
• It is compatible with legacy and future networks
 SONET and SDH Rates

• SONET and SDH rates are in the range of 51.85 –

9953.28 Mbps
• SONET signal in electrical nature : synchronous transport
signal level N ( STM-N )
• SDH signal in electrical nature : synchronous transport
module level N ( STM-N )
• In optical signal nature : optical carrier level N ( OC-N )
Table 5.5 SONET / SDH Rates
 Why Use SONET / SDH ?

• Why is glass fiber better than copper wire ?

o Higher transmission reliability.
 Glass fiber is not as susceptible to radio frequency or electromagnetic
interference ( RFI, EMI ) as copper wire unless it is shielded and well
grounded
o Lower bit error rate ( BER ) : lower inter-symbol interference among
fibers than copper wires, so lower bit error rate.
o Higher bandwidth per fiber
o Fiber can transmit without repeaters at longer distance compared to
copper wires.
o Fiber yields thinner cable than copper.
o SONET/SDH is based on standards, which enables multivendor
compatibility and interoperability.
5.2 SONET and SDH

SONET/SDH Networks
 SONET / SDH Network

• SONET / SDH network consists of nodes or network

elements ( NEs )
o Are interconnected with fiber cable
o User and network information is transmitted over the
fiber cable
• SONET NEs receive signals from DS1, DS3, ATM,
Internet, LAN/MAN/WAN, networks of different topologies
such as rings, trees. For example, LAN at 10 Mbps, 100
Mbps or higher bit rates.
• SDH signals may also be connected with a SONET and
vice versa, to exchange information between two kinds of
networks.
Fig. 5. 16 SONET network
 Network Topologies

• Three major network topologies : tree, ring, and mesh

• Tree
o A hierarchical distribution of NEs
o Most used in LANs, such as Ethernet
o A source is connected to a distribution function ( known
as hub ) that routes a source packet to its destination
node.
o A connection between source and destination is
established for the duration of the packet through the
hub.
o Very efficient for asynchronous data transmission but
not for real-time data and voice.
o If a hub fails, all connections through it die.
 Network Topologies

• Ring : consists of NEs interconnected with a dual fiber,

the primary and secondary, to form a ring.
o Some of the NEs are also assigned to communication
with other rings or topologies
o When one fiber fails, the other can still keep the
integrity of the ring
o If both fiber breaks, then the network is reconfigured,
forming a ring using both the primary and secondary
and the packets will flow through all fibers but the
broken ones.
o Ring offers fast path protection and is widely used in
LANs or within a relatively limited radius ( campus,
town, high risers).
 Network Topologies

• Mesh : consists of NEs fully interconnected

o When one link breaks, the adjacent NE detects the
breakage and reroutes the traffic to another NE.
o Mesh provides transmission protection and network
restoration capabilities.
o Mesh also provides disaster avoidance capabilities
when a cluster of NEs may fail.
o Better applicable in densely populated areas.
• SONET / SDH networks are based on ring topologies
• Other topologies may be mixed into networks as well.
Fig. 5. 17 Ring, tree and mesh topologies
 A Hierarchical Process

• A hierarchical process can transformed any type of non-

SONET signal into SONET networks.
1. Segmenting the signal and mapping the segments in
small containers known as virtual tributaries ( VTs ).
– Once the VTs have been filled with segmented payload,
they are grouped in larger containers that are know as
groups.
– Groups are then mapped into a SONET frame.
– Many contiguous frames entails the SONET signals to be
transmitted over the OC-N fiber.
• In SDH, VT are called tributary units ( TUs ) and the
groups are called tributary unit groups ( TUGs ).
Fig. 5. 18 SONET hierarchy
 Table 5.6 Broadband Services and Rates
SONET SDH Bit Rate Sample Services
( Mbps )
VT1.5 1.728 Voice / high-speed digital services

VT2 2.304 High-capacity digital services

VT3 3.456

VT6 6.912

STS-1 STM-0 51.840

STS-3 STM-1 155.520 SMDS, broadband-ATM, high-definition TV

( HDTV )
STS-12 STM-4 622.080 Uncompressed Extended Quality TV

STS-48 STM-16 2488.320 Uncompressed HDTV

STS-192 STM-64 9953.280

 Path, Line and Section

• A SONET / SDH frame is transmitted from an end user to

another end user through nodes in the network.
• To ensure the deliverability and the integrity of the signal,
overheads are added to the sending signal to be used for
network administration purposes.
• This overhead information is transparent to end users.
• The overhead has been organized hierarchically in three
types :
o Path
o Line
o Section
 Path, Line and Section

• Path : overhead added at transmitting path-terminating equipment

( PTE ), and it is read by the receiving PTE.
o Path information is not checked or altered by intermediate
equipment
• Line : overhead added by the transmitting line-terminating equipment
( LTE ) to be used by the receiving LTE.
o At the edges of the networks, ( where there are no LTEs, ) PTEs
play the role of LTEs
• Section : overhead added by equipment terminating a physical
segment of the transmission facility.
o A segment between two repeaters
o A segment between an LTE and a repeater
o A segment between an PTE and a repeater
o A segment between two adjacent LTEs where no repeaters
between them.
o All these are sections.
Fig. 5.19 Path/Line/Section definitions
Fig. 5.20 Path/Line/Section definitions
5.2 SONET and SDH

SONET/SDH Frames
 STS-1

• The smallest SONET frame

• Can be visualized as a 2-dimensional matrix of 9 rows by
90 columns, each entry is a byte.
• The whole STS-1 has 9 x 90 = 810 bytes
• The first 3 columns : transport overhead for section and
line.
• Synchronous Payload Envelope ( SPE ) : the byte
capacity contained from the 4th column to the last column,
totally 87 columns or 783 bytes.
• Path overhead : the 4th column.
• Fixed stuff : columns 30 and 59 of the STS-1.
• The actual payload capacity is 84 columns, i.e., 756 bytes
or 48.384 Mbps effective bit rate.
Fig. 5.21 SONET STS-1 frame structure
 SDH AU-3

• SDH does not specify a frame similar to SONET STS-1.

• It has a payload container as small as the SONET SPE,
know as virtual container 3 ( VC-3 ).
• VC-3 has a column for path overhead, called the VC-3
path overhead ( VC-3 POH ), and two fixed stuff columns
( columns 30, 59 of VC-3 ).
• The actual payload capacity in a VC-3 is also 84 columns
or 756 bytes, similar to the SONET case.
• At the VC-3 and in the 4th row, three additional bytes are
added for the VC-3 pointer ( H1, H2, and H3 ).
• Administrative unit level 3 ( AU-3 ) : VC-3 + VC-3 pointer
• AUG ( administrative unit group ) : 3 AU-3s are byte-
multiplexed
Fig. 5.22 SDH AU-3 frame structure
 Transmitting an STS-1

• To transmit an STS-1 over optical fibers, one starts with

the most significant bit ( MSB ) of the byte in column 1,
row 1.
• Then when the byte is serially transmitted, it continues
with the byte in column 2, row 1; and so on.
• After the first row is transmitted, the process will transmit
the 2nd row, and so on.
• In 125 s, all 6480 bits are transmitted, so the bit rate is
51.86 Mbps.
Fig. 5.23 SONET STS-1 frame: unfolded
 Floating Frames

• SPE = user data + path overhead

• STS-1 = SPE + line and section overhead
• When an STS-1 is received, the beginning of the frame is
not necessary synchronous with the beginning of the
frame that the receiving node generates.
• The receiving node may need additional time to process
the overhead information.
• If the SPE waits for receiving node to synchronized, will
suffer added delays, which is bad for a high-speed
transmission network.
• So , the “floating” SPE technique is used to minimized
delays.
Fig. 5.24 STS-1 frame – SPE unfolded
 Floating Frames

• The process of an SPE is separated from the process of

the line and section overhead of an STS-1.
• The received SPE may be out of phase ( in increments of
bytes ) with the beginning of the STS-1 frame, which is in
synchronization with the NE.
• This “out of phase” can be viewed as an offset in the
STS-1 frame, in terms of columns and rows.
• Thus, the first byte of the receiving SPE ( this will be the
first byte of the path overhead ) is mapped in the SPE of
the current STS-1 frame on row N and column K, for
example.
• As more bytes are received, the received SPE is wrapped
around the STS-1 SPE space.
 Floating Frames

• Resulting path overhead will be aligned in the Kth column.

• Due to the offset, not all bytes of the received SPE will be
able to fit in the SPE space of the current STS-1 frame.
• And the rest of the SPE will be mapped to the next STS-1
SPE and each SPE are synchronous with the 125-s
interval.
• The end result will be an SPE mapped over two
consecutive frames.
SONET STS-1 with floating S
Mapping a floating ( partial ) SPE in an
STS-1 frame
Mapping a floating ( complete ) SPE in
STS-1
 Section Overhead : SONET

• The first 3 rows of the overhead space in an STS-1 frame, totally 9

bytes, carry synchronization and section overhead information.
• A1 and A2 are fixed patterns : 0xF628 or in binary 1111 0110 0010
1000. Receiver will use these to detect the beginning of the frame.
o A1, A2 are not scrambled.
• C1 : STS-1 ID, defined for each STS-1.
• B1 : used for error monitoring.
• E1 : a 64-Kbps voice communication channel for craft personnel.
o In an STS-N signal, E1 is defined for the 1st STS-1 only. The other
N-1 E1’s are not used.
• F1 : used by the section.
• D1 to D3 : a 192-Kbps communication channel between STEs.
o Used for alarms, maintenance, control, monitoring, administration,
and other communicaiton needs.
o In an STS-N signal, this channel is defined for the 1st STS-1 only.
The other N-1 E1’s are not used.
STS-1 section overhead
 Line Overhead : SONET

• Located in the row 4-9 of the overhead section, totally 45

bytes.
• H1, H2 :offset between the pointer and the first SPE byte.
• H3 : an action byte for frequency justification.
o It carries valid payload if the justification is negative.
• BIP-8 : Used for locating errors.
o It is calculated using even parity over the STS-1 for the
previous frame after scrambling and placed in B2
before scrambling the current frame.
• K1, K2 : for automatic protection switching.
o In STS-N, this is defined for #1 only.
STS-1 line overhead
 Line Overhead : SONET

• D4 to D12 : a 576-Kbps communication channel between LTE for

o Alarms
o Maintenance
o Control
o Monitoring
o Administration
o Other communication needs
o In STS-N, this is defined for #1 only
• Z1, Z2 : not defined except in STS-N for #3, in which Z2 is only
defined as line far-end block error ( FEBE ).
• E2 : an express 64-Kbps communications channel between LTE
o In STS-N, this is defined for #1 only
 Payload Pointers : H1, H2, H3

• NDF ( New Data Found flag ) : first 4 MSB in the H1 byte

o “ normal = 0110 “ for the following 3 possible situations :
 No frequency justification
 Positive frequency justification has taken place
 Negative frequency justification has taken place
o “ set = 1001 “: an arbitrary ( and significant ) change of the pointer
vaule has occurred due to a change of data position in the SPE
• S-bits : the size of the virtual tributary in the payload
• I-bit / D-bit word : for incrementing / decrementing the offset
o Perform frequency justification in conjunction with the H3 byte
• H3 : a payload byte opportunity buffer when positive or negative
justifications are necessary
Payload pointers : H1 and H2
Pointer H3 – frequency justification
 Functions of H1, H2 and H3

• Identifies that a change has occurred in the pointer value ( NDF

= 1001 ) due to an intermittent synchronization in the node where
the new start is ( I + D bits ).
• Identifies that a change may have occurred in the pointer value
( 0110 ) due to a frequency difference between node and
incoming frequency.
o Received frequency may be slightly higher or lower than the
node frequency.
o Either more or fewer bits are received that what the SPE can
fit.
o If the received frequency is higher ( lower ), then node will
perform a negative ( positive ) frequency justification.
• The I-bit / D-bit words value will indicate whether negative or
positive frequency justification is needed.