Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REVISION GUIDE
EDEXCEL B
Key Terms
Energy Pathways Supply routes between energy producers and consumers e.g. pipelines or shipping
routes
Energy Poverty When a country or region has insufficient access to reliable sources of power
Energy Security This is vital to the functioning of any economy – any country that is self-sufficient in
energy resources will be secure
Energy surplus When a country or region has more than enough sources of power for its needs
and is able to export its surplus power to other countries
Geopolitics Political relations among nations, particularly relating to claims and disputes
regarding boarders and resources
Low-carbon standard Initiative introduced in California in 2007 aimed to reducing the carbon intensity of
transportation fuel by 10% by 2020
OPEC The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries e.g. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait
Peak Oil The year in which the world or an individual oil-producing country reaches its
highest level of production, production declines after
Security Premium The extra cost built into the price of oil to allow for any disruption in supply
Strategic Something that is done as part of a plan that is meant to achieve a particular
purpose or to gain an advantage
Supply shock A significant interruption to supply due to an environmental, economic or political
event
Tar Sands Naturally occurring mixtures of sand or clay, water and dense form of petroleum
called bitumen
Energy crisis A serious shortage of energy which interrupts domestic supplies and impacts on all
sectors of the economy
Environmental impact Details all of the impacts on the environment of an energy type or another project
assessment above a certain size
Fossil fuels Fuels consisting of hydrocarbons (coal, oil and natural gas) formed by the
decomposition of prehistoric organisms
Renewable resources Sources of energy such as solar and wind power that are not depleted as they are
used
Strategic Petroleum The USA’s reserve supply of oil which should last for about 3 months in the event of
Reserve severe interruptions to imported oil
Energy infrastructure The built environment constructed for the exploration, development and production
of energy, and all the networks
Energy TNCs Transnational corporations that specialise in the exploration, development,
production and sale of energy products
Resource When a country decides to place part or all of one or a number of natural resources
nationalisation e.g. oil under state ownership
Carbon credit A permit that allows an organisation to emit a specified amount of greenhouse
gases
Carbon Trading A company that does not use up the level of emissions it is entitled to can sell the
remainder to another company
Coal gasification A process which converts solid coal into a gas that can be used for power
generation
Green taxation Taxes levied to discourage behaviour that will be harmful to the environment
Microgeneration Generators producing electricity with an output of less than 50KW
HEP:
OIL:
COAL:
NATURAL
WIND GAS:
China, Canada,
Germany
In 2007
China
Russia world
produced
and
theUSA
Middle
41.1%
produce
East
of 40%
global
= 30.8%
of
Brazil and
leader atUSA
of oilinproduction
coal
world’s 2007
total
account
23.6% for 46%
N.global
USA America
produces
ofGermany, total
= 16.5%
18.7%
USA
Saudi Arabia dominates
and Spain
production
account for 12.6% of world’s
total
58% globally
Russia accounts for over ½ of
production for Europe and
Eurasia
Reasons for global variations in energy access and
consumption
Distribution of energy reserves:
1) Physical:
Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of places
Solar power needs a large number of days a year with strong sunlight
Large power stations require flat land and stable foundations
1) Economic
Onshore deposits of oil and gas are cheaper to develop then offshore deposits
In poor countries foreign direct investment is essential to develop energy resources
Most accessible and low cost deposits of fossil fuels are developed first
1) Political
Countries wanting to develop nuclear power need to gain permission from the International
Atomic Energy Agency NICs:
International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol can influence energy decisions
➢ China accounts for 1/3rd
HEP schemes on ‘international’ rivers require the agreement of all countries that share the
of the growth in global oil
river
demand since 2000
➢ Demand for oil in China
is expected to rise by 5-
Energy consumption 7% year
Developing Countries:
➢ Most are struggling to pay for their energy
MEDCs: requirements
➢ The USA shows huge demands for ➢ Energy demand is influenced by rate of economic
energy resources development and rate of population growth
➢ Germany and UK have improved their ➢ In the world 2 billion people lack access to household
energy efficiency resulting in a modest electricity
increase in demand compared with ➢ Traditional biomass in these countries accounts for
NICs 90% of total energy consumption
It is important to note that the use of energy in all countries has changed over time due to:
Technological developments nuclear power only been available since 1954
Increasing national wealth incomes increase resulting in increasing use of energy
Changes in demand Britain’s trains were powered by coal
Changes in price Electricity production in UK switched from coal to gas power stations are they
are cheaper to run
Environmental factors/public opinion can influence decisions made by governments
The energy security of a country can be measured using the ‘Energy Security Index’ (ESI). This is
based upon:
- Availability – the amount of a country’s domestic oil and gas supplies and its level of reliance on
imported resources
- Diversity – the range of energy resources used
- Intensity – the degree to which the economy of a country is dependent on oil and gas
The higher the index, the lower the risk and therefore the greater the energy security
Case Study: Energy Security Issues: California Case Study
Facts:
Largest state in the USA
Lowest per capita energy consumption rate in the USA due to mild weather
16% of USA oil reserves, but only 3% of gas reserves
Produces 5% of USA total electricity
More motor vehicles that any other state
Therefore the two major power companies in California were forced to shut off electricity supplies to
conserve limited stocks
Future:
China’s energy security problems matter to the rest of the world due to its size and the impact that an
increase in demand would have on everyone else. However is energy dependency is only 12% compared
with USA of 40% and Japan of 80%.
Potential Exam Question: Discuss how far economic development can be affected by energy
security (15 marks)
Since then in 1977 the USA construction a ‘Strategic Petroleum Reserve’ with the initial aim to store 1
billion barrels of oil which could be used in the event of supply issues.
Patterns:
Oil has a complex global pattern of PATHWAYS and PLAYERS (exporters and importers).
• The Middle East exports around 15 000 barrels per day, mainly to Japan, Europe and CHINA.
• Substantial amounts flow from Africa, Canada and South and Central America TO the USA.
• Russia supplies some oil to CHINA, but the bulk of its exports now head to Europe.
Gas pathways are different in that they tend to be localised and regional rather than global.
Traditionally gas is transported through pipelines, whereas oil has been transported by ship.
A possible future is that as movement through pipeline becomes less dependable (for political reasons);
there will be a switch towards shipping gas in tankers as LNG.
Trans-Siberian Pipeline
The
pipeline
project was proposed in 1978 as an export
pipeline from Russia to Europe. The pipeline
was constructed in 1982-1984. The pipeline runs
from Siberia's gas field to Uzhgorod in Western
Ukraine. From there, the natural gas is
transported to Central and Western European countries. Trans-Alaskan pipeline crosses 3 mountain
ranges and several large rivers. In these areas there are issues of permafrost and to avoid this pipelines
are build above ground
• Ukraine and Russia have faced negotiations over the renewal of gas supply contracts every year, but
by midnight on 31 December 2008 they had failed to agree on the price Kiev should pay in 2009.
• This has happened 3 times before but this year, gas supplies were completely halted from 7 January,
after Russia accused Ukraine of siphoning off gas meant for European customers, leaving more than a
dozen countries without their expected supplies of Russian gas.
• The European Union called the supply cut "completely unacceptable", demanded immediate restoration
and entered into shuttle diplomacy between Kiev and Moscow.
• A deal reached on 12 January, whereby EU and Russian observers would monitor supplies across
Ukraine collapsed within hours. The EU said both sides had failed to meet its terms.
• The two countries also failed to agree on a price Russia would pay Ukraine for gas transit to Europe.
Impacts:
• Some, like Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia, are almost completely dependent on supplies via Ukraine and
so were left with major shortages, during a very cold spell in Europe.
• In the meantime European countries had to shut down industrial plants and domestic heating systems,
find alternative sources of gas or switch energy plants to oil. Schools were shut and people had to
revert to using log fires to heat their homes.
Yes:
The amount of gas Russia supplies to Europe means that any disruptions have large-scale impacts
No:
Even during the Cold war the supply of Russian gas was stable and the Europe is now looking to enhance
its energy security through:
• Reducing its dependence on Russia—building of the South Caucasus pipeline supplying gas from
Azerbaijan via Turkey, bypassing Russian territory altogether
• Press Russia and Ukraine to sign long-term contracts, with accepted pricing formulae, similar to
those that Gazprom already has with most EU countries.
• Diversify its sources of energy, something that it must do anyway if it is to meet its ambitious
climate-change targets.
Potential Exam Question: Russia uses its oil and gas as a political and economic weapon. Discuss
Oil sands are made of sand, water and a hydrocarbon tar called
bitumen. Since the rising oil prices and technological advances they
have now become more feasible to extract.
Alberta’s tar sands produced a million barrels of oil a day in 2003 and
expected to reach 3.5 million a day by 2011. By 2030 they aim to
produce at least 5 million a day and export the surplus.
Problems:
Oil in the shale is not easily separated out so immense amount of heat is needed usually through
burning natural gas
Process uses huge amounts of water e.g. every barrel of oil produced requires 4 barrels of water.
The water then also becomes polluted where is can damage ecosystems
Issue of disposing of the shale once the oil has been removed
Very expensive and only viable when oil costs over $30 a barrel (costs $15 per barrel compared
with $2 for convectional crude oil)
Processes tar sands are a large source of greenhouse gas emissions
470km2 of forest have been removed and lakes of toxic waste cover 130km2
Benefits:
✔ Alternative source of oil during times of political or access issues
✔ By 2030 the tar sands could meet 16% of North America’s demand for oil ENERGY SECURITY
✔ Provide additional source of energy until more renewable sources can be found
✔ Mining companies are required to replant land disturbed by mining
✔ Oil is vital to Canada’s economy (2007= 20% of exports)
Players involved:
1. Canada and Venezuela (countries containing Tar Sands
2. TNCs e.g. Shell and BP
3. Alberta Energy Research Institute
4. Environmental groups e.g. Greenpeace
5. Local people (those employed by the companies or those affected by pollution)
Arctic Oil
This place is estimated to contain up to 25% of the world’s
undiscovered oil and natural gas. Issue regarding who can lay
claim to which parts of the ocean – Russia has claimed nearly
half of the Arctic but other interested parties e.g. USA, Norway
failed to uphold their claim.
Problems:
Oil companies have already destroyed large parts of
Alaska and Siberia so should be kept out of the Arctic
New oil rush in the Arctic is only possible because of the
increased shrinking of the polar ice cap due to global
warming
The Arctic is a pristine environment containing over 45
species of land and marine animals
Issue over who has the right to claim ownership of the natural resources – countries who have been
conflicting over this have now agreed to sign the UN Law of the Sea Convection stating the 8 Arctic
states are allowing to exploit offshore resources within 200 nautical miles of their territory
Benefits:
✔ At around $70 per barrel it makes drilling in the Arctic viable. (2007 prices reached $100).
✔ Contains up to 25% of the world’s undiscovered oil and natural gas
Players involved:
1. Arctic States – USA, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Iceland
2. UN – will decide the control of the Arctic by 2020
3. Local people
4. Environmental Pressure groups
OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a
permanent intergovernmental organization of 12 oil-exporting
developing nations
At the end of 2006, the OPEC members had over 78% of the world’s total oil reserves and they produce
around 45% of the world’s crude oil and 18% of its natural gas.
OPEC is criticised that it controls the price of oil as it is worried that increasing the supply of oil would mean
investors would stop investing causing a collapse in the price.
Nuclear
By 2008, 439 nuclear reactors were supplying 15% of the world’s electricity
Does not produce greenhouse gas emissions
Uranium is relatively cheap to mine and reserves should last around 150 years
Very cost effective to transport as only used in small quantities
Produces 1% of global electricity supply
1986 Chernobyl incident highlights the issues
Very expensive to build – several billion pounds
Nuclear waste disposal is an issue as it remains radioactive for 10,000 years
Energy Conservation
a) Combined Heat and Power (CHP) power stations waste 65% of the heat they generate but CHP
plants can be up to 95% efficient as they can use different fuels in the same boiler including
biomass but also cut emissions and reduce fuel dependency
b) Green Taxation aimed at cutting the use of natural resources and encouraging recycling. E.g.
road tax increase in 2010 will see 9.4 million motorists pay more road tax aimed to punishing
heaviest polluting cars. The government will receive more that £1billion in additional revenue.
The development of alternative energy sources is a possible response to future energy demands. Assess
the possible costs and benefits of this approach. (15)
Explain how the world price of oil has a major impact on oil exploration by TNCs and governments (10)
Assess the potential environmental, economic and political risks in exploiting new energy resources (15)
Suggest how the contrasting distribution/pattern of major oil exporters and importers shown in Figure 1
could affect the energy security of some nations. (10)
Study Figure 1.
Suggest the possible environmental consequences of the changes in electricity consumption shown. (10
marks)
Assess the degree of uncertainty over future global sources of energy supply (15 marks)
Topic 2: Water Conflicts
Threats:
a) Precipitation
Much of California is arid with annual average precipitation of between 200-500mm
65% of precipitation is lost through Evapotranspiration, 13% flows out to sea = only 22% for
human use
50% of the rain falls between November and March = seasonal shortages
a) Population
Has grown from 2 million people in 1900 to 37.7 million in 2007
Spatial imbalance as three quarters of demand for water comes from areas south of the
Sacramento – 75% of the rain falls to the north
Increasing demands for water exceed natural supplies
How water stress can occur – Agriculture, Industry,
Domestic use and supply
Water stress occurs when demand for water exceeds the amount available during a certain period, or
when poor quality restricts its use. Therefore when a country’s water consumption is more than 10% of its
renewable freshwater rate it is said to be water stressed.
During the 20th Century water consumption has increased by 600% due to population growth and economic
development:
• Farming uses 70% of all water and in LEDCs this is up to 90%
• Industrial and domestic use has to compete with farming needs as a country develops
• Daily domestic water use on average is 47 litres per person in Africa, compared with 578 litres in
the USA
This has lead to the development of a world water gap with 1.4 billion lacking clean drinking water and 12%
of the world’s population consuming 85% of the world’s water.
Agriculture some forms of farming are less water efficient than others e.g. a kg of beef is 10x more water
costly to produce then a kg of rice. 17% of the global area used for growing crops is irrigated.
Industry 21% used for industry but rapid growth expected since the development of countries such as
India and China. Industry is generally a more efficient user of water then farming.
Domestic Only 10% of world’s water is used for this purpose but this varies from country to country.
Domestic demand seems to be doubling every 20 years.
China
➢ 8% of the world’s freshwater but 22% of the population
➢ 2/3rds of cities do not have enough water all year round
➢ Stress levels expected to occur by 2030
➢ Annual population growth rate is about 2.5% in Beijing
➢ Water table has been lowered in some areas by 40m
The Water Poverty Index was established in 2002 and uses 5 parameters:
Resources – the quantity of surface and groundwater per person, and its quality
Access – the time and distance involved in obtaining sufficient and safe water
Capacity – how well the community manages its water
Use – how economically water is used in the home and by agriculture and industry
Environment – ecological sustainability (green water –freshwater taken from rainwater stores in the
soil as soil moisture)
Each of these is scored out of 20 to give a maximum of 100
Aral Sea case study – role of different key players here and
impacts
Location: north-western part of Uzbekistan and southern Kazakhstan
Background: Formerly, one of the four largest lakes of the world with an
area of 68,000 square kilometers, the Aral Sea has been steadily
shrinking since the 1960s.
Causes:
In the early 1960's, the Soviet central government decided to make the
Soviet Union self-sufficient in cotton and increase rice production.
Government officials ordered the additional amount of needed water to
be taken from the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea. Large dams were
built across both rivers, and an 850-mile central canal with a far-reaching
system of "feeder" canals was created.
Impacts:
1) Over 30 years, the Aral Sea experienced a severe drop in water level, its shoreline receded, and
its salt content increased. The water level has dropped by 16 metres and the volume has been
reduced by 75%
2) The marine environment became hostile to the sea life in it, killing the plants and animals. As the
marine life died, the fishing industry suffered. All 20 known fish species in the Aral Sea are now
extinct, unable to survive the toxic, salty sludge.
3) The sea has shrunk to two-fifths of its original size and now ranks about 10th in the world.
4) Drinking water supplies have dwindled, and the water is contaminated with pesticides and other
agricultural chemicals as well as bacteria and viruses.
5) Highly toxic pesticides and other harmful chemicals are blown from the dried-up sea creating dust
containing these toxic chemicals.
6) As the Aral Sea has lost water, the climate has become more extreme.
7) Respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis and cancer, digestive disorders and infectious
diseases are common ailments in the region.
8) There is a high child mortality rate of 75 in every 1,000 newborns and maternity death of 12 in
every 1,000 women.
9) The Aral Sea fishing industry, which use to employ 40,000 and reportedly produced one-sixth of
the Soviet Union's entire fish catch, has been ruined
The stakeholders involved:
The former soviet government – began the irrigation scheme designed to develop fruit and cotton
farming
Fishing community – use to be a prosperous industry but now huge unemployment
Local residents – health problems and highest infant mortality rates in the world
Scientists – climate has now changed and extinction of species in the area
International economists – people can no longer feed themselves as the land is infertile, could create 10
million environmental refugees
At the moment the Middle East uses revenue from their oil exports to
pay for expensive desalinisation plants to provide extra water, but also pay for water and food imports. No
single country in the Middle East can resolve its water problems without impacting on another country.
Potential conflicts:
1) The Euphrates and Tigris rivers originate in Turkey but supply Syria and Iraq with water. Turkey wants
to dam these rivers to improve incomes in Anatolia (south-east turkey)
2) In 1967, Syria and other Arab states objected to Israel’s National Water Carrier Project and tried to
destroy it. Israel then bombed their attempts to divert the River Jordan from Israel
3) Droughts across the whole region between 1990-2005 increased fears of conflicts
4) Bombing of Lebanese water pipelines by Israel in 2006
Background – The basin of the Colorado River is the most heavily used source of irrigation water in the
USA. Original water rights were allocated in 1933. Since then a series of treaties between the 7 US states
with water rights and between Mexico have been signed. A series of dams has been built to serve the
water needs to 30 million people.
Agreements:
1920s ‘Law of the River’ = divided the water between upper basin states or Colorado, Wyoming, Utah and
New Mexico and their responsibility to supply the lower basin states. California was given highest
proportion of water due to its large population and political power. (Around this time was a period of higher
rainfall and water surpluses)
Water future s?
The issues of future projections are that climate change is occurring but its exact impact cannot be
predicted. Also continued economic growth may not be inevitable e.g. credit crunch, finally political and
religious conflicts can create further issues.
Alternative scenarios for water by 2025
Scenario Water Changes by 2025 Wider impacts
Busine Water scarcity will reduce food production Developing countries will rely on
ss as Consumption will rise by +50% food imports but increased
usual Household water use rise by +70% hunger
Industrial water demand in developing countries In parts of western USA, China
will increase etc water will be pumped out
faster than can be recharged
Water Global water consumption will increase Food production will decline and
Crisis Demand for domestic water will fall food prices increase
Demand for industrial water will +33% Conflict over water between and
within countries will increase
Sustai Global & industrial water use will have to fall Food production could increase
nable Global rain-fed crop yields increase due to slightly
Water improvements in water harvesting and Investment in crop research and
sustainable farming technology would increase
Agricultural and domestic water prices double Unsustainable pumping of
groundwater would end
Benefits Costs
✔ Transfer 44.8 billion m3 per year Significant ecological and environmental impacts
✔ Central government to pay 60% of the cost along the waterways
✔ Water conservation, improved irrigation, Resettlement of people will be needed
pollution treatment and environmental project Declining water quality
✔ Will supply big cities like Beijing Will cost $62 billion
Will take 50 years to complete
Restoration
At a local scale this can involve restoring meanders, replanting vegetation and using sustainable methods
to manage watercourses for people and the environment.
Referring to examples, assess the potential for water conflict in areas where demand exceed supply (15)
Referring to examples, explain why future water supplies for many regions are increasingly insecure (15)
Referring to examples, assess the validity of the statement that ‘water conflicts are as much to do with
water quality as quantity’ (15)
Suggest how water resources and human wellbeing might be affected by the data in Figure 2 (10)
Explain how physical and human factors have contributed to the variation in water scarcity shown (10) Jan
2010
Using named examples, assess the contribution of large scale water management projects in increasing
water security (15) Jan 2010
Study Figure 2.
Explain how human interference in the water cycle can affect water availability. (10)
Using named examples, assess the potential for water supply to become a source of conflict. (15)
Topic 3: Biodiversity under Threat
Main patterns:
The top 5 countries with the highest diversity index are found around the EQUATOR or the TROPICS.
Countries with the lowest diversity index are found in either cold countries or ones with large areas of
desert. Greatest biodiversity is found in areas of TROPICAL RAINFOREST with +1/2 the world’s species,
although they cover only 7% of the earth’s surface.
Biodiversity Hotpots
This is an area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which are endemic. They
cover less than 2% of the earth’s surface but contain 44% of the world’s planet species and 35% of the
animal species. They are divided into 3 categories:
1) Continental hotspots – richest in terms of biodiversity
2) Large island hotspots – have distinctive species
3) Small island hotspots – low in species number but contain a high proportion of endemics
The majority of areas under threat are located with the tropics and areas of lower biodiversity tend to have
lower threat levels as these regions are not in demand for agriculture due to unsuitable climates.
Local Factors
a) Fire – was used widely in Europe and N. America to clear forests for development. Controlled fire
as a management option is useful but large-scale burning for soya bean production causes loss of
biodiversity
b) Habitat change – developing natural habitats for agriculture, minerals or urban growth e.g.
overfishing in the North Sea
c) Recreational use – plants are vulnerable to trampling and animals to disturbance
The impact of these threats on ecosystem processes
Energy Flow
Primary producers (green plants) convert sunlight into energy through
photosynthesis, as energy is lost through respiration at each stage, the
amount of biomass at each trophic level decreases. Human action on one
level of the chain has an impact on the others that are dependent on it e.g.
the catching of tertiary consumers
Nutrient cycling
This occurs alongside the flow of energy through an ecosystem and
involves the feedback of miners from decomposed organic material back
into the plants so that they can grow and continue the cycle. In hot
climates of the tropics there is faster nutrient cycling then in cold regions.
People can impact upon the cycle by adding nutrients via fertilisers, by
reducing the biomass through overharvesting and deforestation, and by
degrading the soil. Once deprived of nutrients, soils are vulnerable to
erosion.
Precipitatio Biomass
n
Litter
Nutrient Overload
Excess nutrients are washed into the lakes and rivers but this has been increased by the human use of
fertilisers etc. The extra nutrients cause increase growth in plants but also the growth of algal blooms
which block out the light causing plants to die out. This uses up the oxygen in the water leading to further
deaths and the food chain collapses The extra nutrients cause increase growth in plants but also the
growth of algal blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This uses up the oxygen in the
water leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses Eutrophication.
The link between economic development and ecosystem
destruction/ degradation
The shift of countries from economies based on primary industries, to mixed industries including
manufacturing and industry has put huge pressure on their ecosystems as natural resources are extracted
A country with a
stable economy and
education has the
Less development freedom to choose
near pristine to support
environments in which biodiversity without
indigenous people live compromising its
mainly due to lack of people’s ability to be
access and technology fed and housed
Carrying Capacity
Zone of overharvest –
population begins to be
threatened by overharvesting
Total Protection – was the main focus of conservation during the 1960s. Total protection has been
criticised as:
- In developing countries there is a conflict between conservation and cutting people off from
biodiversity
- Totally protected reserves are often narrowly focused for scientific purposes so may fail to take
into account social, economic factors etc
- Many protection schemes are based around political boundaries and not the ecosystem natural
boarders
- These strategies rely on the co-ordination of outside agencies which often forget about the local
people’s needs.
Biosphere Reserves – identifies a core area which is heavily protected with buffer zones around it.
However some countries do not have finances to fully monitor or mange these reserves and the pressure
from development may be difficult to control. These act at a number of different levels; locally they involve
local people and the landscape they know in order to better serve the community and ensuring continued
biodiversity e.g. community conservation schemes. On a national level they aim to inspire further
conservation e.g. National Parks. Globally the biosphere designation of the Galapagos Islands helped
implement a zoning strategy to solve the problems the area faces.
Restoration – this can include recreating wetlands or linking up small fragmented reserves to produce a
large reserve. These can be very expensive and much of the success depends on how readily plants will
reseed and how polluted the land is.
Conservation – this can involve ex-situ conservation where an endangered species establish a captive
population away from its natural habitat. This includes captive breeding with release schemes and
biodiversity banks such as genetic and seed banks in zoos and botanical gardens. For example – giant
panda
Key facts:
Nearly one fourth of the Galapagos marine life is
endemic - found nowhere else on earth
There are 13 large islands and six small, which
were formed by oceanic volcanoes some three to
five million years ago
Conservation
1936: the Galapagos National Park (GNP) established
1968: Boundaries finally established; effective park administration began
1984: Recognized as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program
1986: The Galápagos Biological Marine Resources Reserve (GMRR) established to include all waters
within 15 nautical miles
1992: Zoning plan for Marine Resources reserve – included 4 zones:
General Use Zone for sustainable use of the reserve
Recreational Fishing Zones for the benefit of residents
National Marine Park Zones for human activities where natural resources are neither damaged nor
removed
Strict Nature Reserves where human access is not permitted.
2002: Poza de las Diablas on Isabela I. declared a Ramsar Site of International Importance
WWF’s Living Planet Report – looked to model ways of ending ecology ‘overshoot’ (the amount by which
the ecological footprint exceeds the biological capacity of the space available to that population). They also
showed 4 possible scenarios:
1) Business as usual – increased ecological footprint and no reduction in overshoot
2) Slow shift – gradually reducing the ecological footprint by developing many sustainable policies
so that ecosystems can recover by the year 2100
3) Rapid reduction – radical policies to control ecological footprints lead to elimination of overshoot
by 2040
4) Shrink and share – breaking the world into regions in order to share responsibility for controlling
the overshoot problem
Case Study: Named Global Ecosystem- Daintree Tropical
Rainforest
Location: North east coast of Australia in Queensland
Threats
1) Tourism
- In 1983, 17000 tourists visited Daintree but by 2002 this had grown to
436000 visitors
2) Destruction of ecosystem to cope with demand
- tarmacking of roads has lead to small areas of forest being divided
into plots for sale
- Occupied plots are often bulldozed and turned into cattle ranches
3) Development
- Increased numbers of tourists had lead to the development of Port
Douglas changing the village’s character
4) Climate Change – a global temperature increase could threaten the
distinctive ecosystems environment
5) Logging – the commercial timber industry in began in Daintree in the
1930s. The rainforest acts as a carbon store so the removal of these releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere adding to the greenhouse effect
Impacts
Key players:
a) Wet tropics Management authority = formed in 1990 to research and
monitor the state of the wet tropics. Looks at developing management
agreements with land holders and native tribes.
b) Cairns Regional council- aimed to gradually reduce population in
Daintree. Increased ferry costs to reduce number of visitors and rejected
plans for a bridge across the river as more people would endanger the
rainforest.
c) Australian Rainforest Foundation – operation ‘BIG BIRD’ – the cassowary given a wildlife
corridor to protect it. Money given to buy back land from developers and return it to rainforest
d) Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland – community based looking at a sustainable future
for people and wildlife. They are for a ban on development in the area.
e) Australian Tropical Rainforest Foundation – build visitor centres and education facilities to
highlight the global importance of the tropical rainforest ecosystems.
f) Rainforest co-operation research council – community development allowing up to 1400 people
to live in the area but must conserve the land. Looks to identify hotspots for conservation where
no development is allowed. Aims to recognise the rights of native people to own land and
promote their culture in the forest.
What kinds of questions have been asked?
Explain the distribution of the world’s terrestrial and marine hotspots (10 marks)
Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the ‘hot-spot’ approach to biodiversity management
(compared with other strategies) (15 marks)
Evaluate the relative importance of global and local threats to one named global ecosystem (15 marks)
Assess the role played by different players in managing areas in which biodiversity is under threat (15
marks)
How far is it possible to reconcile the desire for development with the need to manage biodiversity (14
marks)
Referring to examples, discuss the threats to biodiversity hotspots and why these threats could prove
critical (15)
Explain how human activities have contributed to the condition of ecosystem goods and services. (10)
Using named examples, evaluate the success of global actions designed to protect biodiversity. (15)
Explain the pattern of alien species invasions, and suggest the possible impacts of alien species on
ecosystems. (10)
Topic 4: Superpower Geographies
What do I need to know?
How to define the idea of superpower
How patterns of power change over time
Theories for the growth of Superpowers
How power can be maintained
Role of superpowers on international action and decision making
Nature of trade and who controls it. Does this maintain global power?
Superpowers cultural influence
The impacts on Water, energy, environment and land demand of the rising superpowers
The impacts of the rising new superpowers on the old superpowers
Implications for the Majority world (Less developed countries) of the new superpowers –
good or bad?
Shifting power may lead to tensions
Key Terms
Capitalism An economic system in which all or most of the means of production and
distribution are privately owned and operated in a relatively competitive
environment
Cold War A state of political tension and military rivalry between nations that stops short
of full-scale war e.g. US vs. Soviet Union following World War II
Colonialism The system or policy in which a country maintains foreign colonies
Communism A form of political development that aims to create equality and a classless
society.
Cultural Imperialism Promoting the culture of one society into another e.g. Tea to India
Dependency theory Notion that resources flow from a ‘periphery’ of poor and underdeveloped
states into a ‘core’ of wealthy states
Development theory A number of theories outlined how desirable change is best achieved
Direct influence The power of persons or things to affect others by means of power based on
wealth
Disparity The inequality or difference
International Monetary An international organisation established by the UN to promote monetary
Fund cooperation, international trade and stability
Market economy An economy in which prices are determined by buyers and sellers with a
relatively high degree of freedom
Modernisation theory The socio-economic development and process that evolves from a traditional
society to modern economies e.g. USA
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation founded in 1949 for the purposes of
opposing communism during the Cold War.
Neo-colonialism Describes the ways in which rich countries dominate the economy of poorer
countries through economic imperialism rather than political control
Privatisation The process of moving from a government controlled system to a privately
run system
Purchasing Power Parity The value of gross national income related to local prices
Superpower A nation that is able to project its power and influence anywhere in the world
Tariff A government tax on imports or exports
USSR Soviet Union – a former communist country in eastern Europe and Northern
Asia established in 1922. Was dissolved in 1991
World Bank UN agency created to assist developing nations by issuing loans
World Trade Organisation Set up in 1995 to open up and ensure fair play in international trade.
Phase 1: Mercantilist (1600-1850) = small colonies set up on coastal islands e.g. Jamaica with focus on
trade including slaves.
Phase 2: Imperial (1850-1945) = whole conquest of territories, religion and culture spread e.g. cricket.
Governments set up to rule the colonies and complex trade networks.
Phase 3: Decolonisation (1945 - ) = After 2nd World war the UK was bankrupt and could not support the
empire as before. Growth of anti-colonial movements e.g. India – some colonies granted independence.
Britain still maintains a superpower legacy and has control over 14 overseas territories e.g. Falkland
Islands. The Commonwealth contains 53 states (former British colonies) that cooperate in common
interests.
It is expected that the USA will see a decline in its power, especially in relation to China
Path to development:
China – state-led industrialisation and intensification of agriculture but largely cut off from the rest of the
world.
India – Home-grown technology with high import tariffs, still however mainly a rural society.
Neo-colonialism refers to a form of indirect control over developing countries, most of them former
colonies. In this direct political control decreased whilst economic control increased through:
- Economic dependence on primary goods – issues created with trade as these goods have low export
prices compared with high prices the developing world must pay for manufactured goods
- Economic dominance of multinational companies – foreign direct investment e.g. manufacturing located in
developing world allows for big profits for TNCs but low wages and skills for the developing world
- Impact of foreign aid and debt – developing nations pay huge sums in interest which often exceed aid
receipts
- Strategic alliances – USA for example allied with many developing nations to spread their global
influence, often by means of foreign aid
- Aid – often given with ‘strings attached’
External factors:
1) Commodity markets in London and New York
- Cocoa prices depend on global demand which may vary
- Competition with Ivory Coast for cocoa. If prices in Ghana are too high, buyers will purchase for
lower-priced countries
2) Overseas Tariffs
- EU import tariffs are much higher for processed cocoa than for raw beans. This means Ghana is
better off exporting raw cocoa beans as import costs are lower and they would make more money
- Means that Ghana is unable to develop its own processing industries as most of this is done in
Europe = loses out on value added
3) WTO
- Before 1995 Ghanaian government subsidised its farmers to encourage them to stay on the land
and grow food for their growing cities
- Ghana then joined the WTO in an attempt to increase its global trade
- WTO imposed joining condition that the Ghanaian farmers could no longer be subsidised
- Farmers could no longer compete with imports of heavily subsidised foreign food e.g. EU tomatoes
are cheaper to buy then home-grown ones
This has therefore seen the growth of areas such as Asia e.g. China and India but the decline in Africa’s
share of world trade as the international trade is mostly in the hands of TNCs who have decided not to
invest in Africa and in Asia they have developed free trade zones which attract more investment.
However the idea of free trade for some countries is an illusion as trade takes place between trade blocs
e.g. EU and NAFTA. Thos countries not a member of a trade bloc still have to pay tariffs and quotas etc.
Finally developed nations also control innovation and technology which are not shared with developing
nations. 75% of fees/royalties go to three main powers, USA, EU and Japan.
Problems:
1) Encourages developing nations to export their crops when most children are undernourished
2) Use lethal poisons to destroy vast areas of the Central American rainforest to create grazing
pastures for cattle (800 square miles of forest per year needed to keep McDonalds supplied for
paper for 1 year)
3) Workers in catering do not have a specific union so little help with disputes
4) Forcing indigenous tribes from their native lands
However, McDonalds have also donated over $180 million to McDonald’s Children charities and claim to
donate more money than any other commercial enterprise in the USA ($50 million each year)
Although China’s stature and power are growing it needs to look to resolve some of its environmental and
social costs to ensure long-term sustainability. China is however one of the few countries trying to tackle
their issues e.g. rapidly increasing their forest cover, wind turbines and solar panels.
However many believe that China has little interest in developing Africa; they are just wanting its resources.
This is because most investment goes to the governments, TNCs and Chinese companies, and not to the
local people. Much of the infrastructure has also been built by Chinese nationals and not local people.
China now has:
- 45% ownership of oil field in Nigeria
- Minerals investment in Zimbabwe
- $175 million invested in copper mining in Zambia
Terrorism
This is a growing feature of the 21st Century and tends to be located in areas where the involvement of the
USA and other countries are seen as directly opposed to the interests of Islam and Muslims by extreme
Islamic groups. It is mostly directed toward the USA, with the biggest attack being the 9/11. Many people
in the world believed the USA deserved the attack as they ignored international agreements for example
the world criminal court in which they refuse to have its own citizens stand but wanted war criminals
prosecuted. They had reduced its aid to the poorest nations and supported political regimes where it suited
them e.g. Kuwait.
War
In 2002 the invasion of Iraq was thought by many Europeans to be less about removing Saddam Hussein
and this alleged weapons of mass destruction but about ensuring the USA had access to Middle East oil
supplies. The USA drawn-out attempt to restore a form of peaceful, functioning government in Iraq
undermined the USA’s international status.
The Future
There are 4 main cultural world views which are present in the emerging powers; American corporate
capitalism, European liberalism, the Islamic world and Chinese Confucianism. There are various possible
scenarios
1) Multi-polar world – USA remains the most powerful but less dominant superpower but rise of China
and India
2) Arms race – possibly nuclear in the middle east and east Asia if tensions cannot be resolved
3) Resource nationalisation – rising tensions as oil and water run short and there is a dash for new
resources
4) Decline of Europe and Japan – due to rapidly ageing populations
5) Resource –rich powers (Russia, Middle East) will challenge the political and economic order
What questions have been asked?
‘The tensions between today’s superpowers are economic rather than political’ Discuss. (10)
To what extent have the ways of maintaining power changed over time (10)
Suggest and justify a set of criteria for defining what a superpower is? (10)
Using examples, assess the view that the relationship between the developed and the developing world is
a neo-colonial one (15)
Assess the view that economic development in not possible without causing environmental degradation
(15)
Using figure 4 - explain how membership of International Organisations gives some countries political and
economic power (10 marks)
Referring to examples discuss the factors that cause power to shift between superpowers over time (15)
McDonald’s restaurants
around the world
Key Terms:
Aid Refers to gifts or repayable loans made by one country to another
Apartheid Meaning segregation, used to describe a political and legal system used in
South Africa to separate different ethnic groups
Bilateral aid Foreign aid (in the shape of money, expertise, education or technology)
from a single donor to a country
Bottom-up development Occurs at a community level – people’s needs are indentified and local
projects are designed to meet them
Capital-intensive High-cost industries such as mining where machines do most of the work
and few jobs are created
Debt service Payments of interest, plus a proportion of the original loan, which are
required in order to pay back a debt over a given period of time
Development Means ‘change’ and implies change is for the better
Development gap The social and economic disparity between the wealthy and the poor
Formal economy The economy that is regulated by the state so is taxed and monitored by
the government.
Gross Domestic Product The value of goods and services produced in a country over a year.
(GDP)
Gross National Product Like GDP but includes overseas investment such as shares and earnings
(GNP) for overseas companies and branches.
Human Development Index Created by the UN to provide a measure of life expectancy, education and
(HDI) GDP for every country in the world.
Informal economy All economic activities that are neither taxed or monitored by the
government
Investment Refers to repayable loans used to develop a country but with an
expectation of a share of the profits e.g. when TNCs invest in a factory
Millennium Development Agreed at the UN summit in 2000, 8 goals were agreed to provide a set of
Goals (MDGs) development goals for the world to reach by 2015
Multilateral aid Aid given from alliances for several countries or organisations to another
Multiplier Effect An effect in economies in which an increase in spending produces an
increase in the national income and consumption greater than the amount
originally spent
Neo-liberalism Idea that market exchange is capable of acting as a guide for all human
action. State interventions are minimized including the obligations for the
state to provide for the welfare of its citizens
Out-sourcing The employment of people overseas to do jobs previously done by people
in the home country
Per capita Per person
Purchasing Power Parity Shows what per capita income will purchase when the cost of living is taken
(PPP) into consideration
Structural Adjustment Re-scheduling loans to make them more affordable
Programmes (SAP)
Tied Aid Where foreign aid benefits the donor in the shape of interest repayments,
access to new markets or political allegiance.
Top-down development Development projects are made by governments or large organisations
Trade liberalisation Also known as ‘free trade’, removing barriers such as duties or customs
Poverty Cycle
Idea that less developed countries are trapped in a
continually cycle of poverty because of a lack of
money and low incomes. Did not take into account
the rapid economic growth of countries like China,
India and South Korea. Also does not consider the
amount of foreign aid or loans from international
banks.
Globalisation
Countries are becoming increasing connected and interdependent at a global scale. Global flows that
connect places involve the movement of people, capital, technology, ideas and information.
Debt
In the last 50 years, many poor countries accepted loans from rich countries and interest payments on
loans affect development as they put pressure on the financial situation in the country. Debt is also an
issue due to corruption within developing countries’ governments which divert loan money from the
intended target and trade barriers imposed by developing countries which make it hard for poorer countries
to export their goods.
Trade
Africa in 2002 if it increased its share of world trade by just 1% would earn an extra $49billion, 5x the
amount it receives in aid. Traditionally north-south trade flows have focused on developing countries
exporting primary products. In the last 20 years developing countries have moved into manufacturing (80%
of exports now manufactured products). Globalisation has led to large increases in trade in places such as
China, India. Importantly ‘terms of trade’ is the ration between currencies earned from its exports and the
prices of imports. This means that any countries exporting natural resources and importing manufactured
goods will have declining terms of trade.
Women in developing countries are more likely than men to be unpaid family workers or occupy low-status
jobs and have lower earnings. 64% of adults are illiterate women and 57% of children who receive no
primary education are girls.
Housing:
• New migrants don’t have any money so
end up in ‘temporary’ settlements on
unwanted land e.g. marshy, polluted,
along transport routes
Environment: Deprivation:
• Air pollution due to traffic, power • Limited access to employment and
plants that are old and badly income
maintained • Reliance on informal economy
• Water pollution leaking sewers, • Overcrowded housing
landfill sites and lack of sewerage • Limited access to health and education
systems • Unhealthy environments
• Waste disposal contamination and
health hazards due to waterborne
•
diseases
Water supply aquifers become
FACTORS AFFECTING
depleted due to huge population
demands
MEGACITIES
Location of megacities
Named Case Study: Dhaka, Bangladesh: a megacity under
stress
Key facts:
• By 2015 population expected to reach 21 million with one of the
highest population densities in the world
• Caused by high rates of natural increase and large volumes of
rural-urban migration.
Challenges created:
Challenge Solution/recent developments
Employment Unemployment of 23% ✔ 2 export zones created to encourage
33% of city workforce is self-employed export of goods
Child labour high in poorest households ✔ Bashundhara City created with high-
Home to 80% of the 2 million garment tech industries and businesses
industry employees
Urban Poor 28% of population classed as poor, 12% ✔ Improvements in drains and sanitation
extremely poor ✔ Back to home programme encourages
Only 5% live in permanent housing people to return to villages with help
4.2 million live in slums ✔ Local community health volunteers
Environment Only 27% connected to public sewer ✔ Ban on leaded petrol
al quality Poor water management cost $670 ✔ Work in improve water quality, supply
million each year and sanitation cost $100m
Poor air regulation = air pollution above ✔ Public information on causes and
national standard 100 days per year impacts of poor air and water quality
Polluted water sources = disease spreads ✔ Promoted clean gas-powered cooking
quickly stoves
Environment: as a country develops its environmental pollution and ecological footprint becomes larger.
Economic development raises demand for resources and countries tend to exploit them as quickly as
possible without thinking of the environmental costs e.g. SYNOPTIC LINK TO CHINA CASE STUDY
Marxism – idea that capitalism is based on the exploitation of workers by the owners and that history has
mainly been a conflict between these 2 classes. Sought to replace existing class structures with a system
that managed society for the good of all
Populism – idea that supports ‘the people’ in the struggle against society’s ellite. Also known as
‘grassroots action’ it is an important element of ‘bottom-up’ planning e.g. NGOs
Non-development – some people are against the idea of development as it creates and widens
inequalities, undermines local cultures and is environmentally unsustainable.
The advantages and disadvantages of methods of closing the development gap
Solution Definition Benefits Negatives Example
Aid
Multilateral Provided by ✔ Enables overview to see where Fails to reach the poorest people Brandt Report suggested each
many nations the money will be best used Benefits are short-lived country should give 0.7% of its
and organised ✔ Equal share of aid can be given Often a number of disasters occur in a GNP towards. However most
by international to a number of different countries short period so people give less money countries do not get close to
bodies e.g. UN The WB notorious for implementing reaching that target
conditions that consequences for
recipient countries
Bilateral Given directly ✔ Fosters links between countries Often ‘tied’ to the purchase of goods See Pergau Dam example
from one ✔ Often the country receives more and services from the donor country
country to aid in this way Use of aid on large capital intensive
another schemes can worsen the conditions of
the poorest people
Can create a culture of dependency
Interest repayments
Voluntary Run by NGOs or ✔ Work with communities to They rely on the generosity of the public See Barlonyo example
charities such provide for their long-term needs as well as donations from governments
as Oxfam, ✔ Often help during natural for their funds. This means that their
Action Aid disasters cash flow isn’t always guaranteed
Top-down Capital intensive ✔ Major disaster areas benefit from Criticised as inappropriate way of Pergau Dam, Malaysia
and government short-term aid helping poor countries Began in 1991 and set up without
lead. ✔ Areas with historic ties between Aid often fought over by different consulting local people.
the donor and recipient countries interest groups = lack of investment in Malaysia around the same time
receive lots of aid productive business activities bought £1 billion worth of arms
✔ Countries often use the aid to Often money diverted to rich people from the UK
support their existing systems rather than the poor Only £234 million in aid actually
given = ‘tied aid’
Bottom-up ✔ Involve the local people in the They rely on the generosity of the public Barlonyo, Uganda
decision making as well as donations from governments Supported by national and
✔ Analyses the local’s needs and for their funds. This means that their international NGOs local farmers
looks for solutions cash flow isn’t always guaranteed have formed a democratically run
✔ Uses appropriate technology cooperative. Enables all farmers to
share the cost of hiring a truck to
transport their goods to market. In
2008 able to sell their sesame
seed crop for 3 xs than in 2007.
Extra income gone into schooling
and healthcare. NGOS gave ox
ploughs, high-yield seeds to
improve efficiency.
Fair Trade Aimed to ✔ Obtains a fair price for a wide The products sold in the developing Uganda
improve the variety of goods exported from world are more expensive than other Biggest export crop is coffee worth
terms of trade developing countries to the brands e.g. Cadbury’s so there is a $350 million in 2007. Gumutindo
between North developed world reluctance to buy them Coffee cooperative has 3000
and South ✔ Works with small-scale members – 91% depend on coffee
through the Fair producers and makes them more for their main income. Money
Trade economically secure helps pay for school fees and
Foundation ✔ Fair-trade sales valued at $2.3 raise the standard of living
billion worldwide in 2006
Debt Examples ✔ 14 heavily indebted poor Reduces government spending by In December 2000, the UK
cancellation include ‘make countries (HIPCs) have had their cutting social programmes e.g. health government agreed to cancel
poverty history’ debts written off and education debts owed to the UK by 26
in 2005 or ✔ Allows countries loans to be Privatisation of state assets to cut debt countries, but debts owed to other
Structural rescheduled to make them more often sold to TNCs creditors, such as the Inter-
Adjustment manageable Increases pressure on countries to American Development Bank,
Programmes ✔ Improves FDI by removing trade generate exports to pay off debts have not been cancelled
(SAPs), HIPCs or investment restrictions Some developed countries accused to
initiative ✔ Reduces government debts protecting their own interests
through cuts in spending
Tourism Belief that the ✔ FDI and technology brought in by TNCS control tourism so leakage of
biodiversity and TNCs money
scenery in many ✔ Mass tourism from wealthy Can spoil the natural environment
poorer countries nations Local culture can become westernised
can attract long- ✔ Tourism needs the development Too much pressure on local resources
haul tourism of infrastructure e.g. roads which Exploitation of cheap labour
from developed benefit the local people
countries ✔ Generates local employment and
wealth
✔ Multiplier effect – profits from
tourism trickle down to the local
economy
Technology Access to ✔ Does not require the same levels Access to technology is limited in many Mongolia
mobile phones of literacy as a computer areas of the world due to the lack of The Asia-Pacific Development
in the ✔ Cheaper way to access funding Organisation Programme (APDIP)
developing information Should money be spent on phones has developed ‘citizen information
countries could ✔ Africa now the fastest growing when there are larger issues to be centres’ which function as training
help bridge the mobile phone market in the world addressed? centres which visitors can learn
digital divide ✔ Allows leapfrogging of basic computer skills and access
technology the internet. Remote rural areas
can connect to the central
government and apply for grants.
Aims to encourage business and
collages to use IT and counteract
the issue of the periphery
South to South Hope that more ✔ Encourages recipient Economic migration to recipient China in Africa
Links appropriate, low governments to spend aid more countries to earn higher wages China increased its aid to African
cost and effectively Wages often remain low in recipient governments, cancelled $10 billion
sustainable ✔ Workers are learning new skills counties debts. China hopes that by doing
solutions could ✔ Employing local people Large-scale projects can lead to this it will open up new markets
be developed ✔ New trading links developed displacement of people and find new raw materials. Africa
Ignoring health and safety regulations has 50% of the world’s gold and is
also rich in diamonds. China now
buys 1/3rd of its oil from Africa
MDGs Provide a ✔ Success stories e.g. 41 more Over 500,000 women died from treated, Bangladesh Progress
framework for children enrolled in primary preventable conditions of pregnancy 1) Eradicate poverty = poverty
monitoring the education and childbirth reduction rate of 1.2% a year
development ✔ 2 million more receiving aid 980 million still live on less than 1$ per 2) University primary education =
gap and treatment day 3.4% increase
measuring any ✔ 6% economic growth in sub- 3) Gender equality = gap in
progress Saharan countries in 2008 education levels closed
towards 4) Reduce child morality =
reducing it reduced by 2.8%
What questions have been asked?
Study Figure 4.
Using information in Figure 4, and your own knowledge, explain why it is difficult to measure development.
(10)
Evaluate the role of different global organisations in narrowing the development gap. (15)
Using Figure 4 and your own knowledge, explain why some groups of people within a country have a
lower level of development than others. (10)
Using named examples, assess the advantages and disadvantages of top-down and bottom-up
development strategies (15)
Examine the role played by debt in maintaining the global development gap (15)
Examine the barriers that exist against the expansion of trade in some developing countries (15)
How far are patterns of global trade responsible for maintaining the development gap? (15)
Assess the view that economic development is not possible without causing environmental degradation
(15)
Technological fix examples include geo-engineering to reduce incoming solar radiation to reduce global
warming and pharmaceutical research to find a vaccine for HIV/AIDS
Attitudinal fix examples include education and tax incentives to reduce people’s carbon footprints and
public health education to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS
Development of Technology
Over time people have used technology to control nature, so that their lives are less controlled by
environmental factors e.g. an umbrella when it is raining. Generally people will accept new technology if
they think it will improve their quality of life. Techies embrace new developments to the ‘luddites’ who are
opposed to technological change. In the USA Amish Christians reject modern technology for religious
reasons.
Politics
Religion
- 31 countries operated nuclear
- The Catholic Church bans the use
power plants in 2007
of contraception on religious
- Western powers that used military
grounds
force, economic sanctions and tied
- In some developing catholic
aid to prevent countries gaining
countries access to contraception in
access to nuclear technology e.g.
severely limited
Iran
The developed world has also gained an ‘initial advantage’ through continual technological innovation. This
has meant that the use of patents and copyright has enabled the funds from these innovations to be
returned to the developed countries. The USA accounts for nearly 40% of technology patents.
Externalities of technology
For every technology there are unexpected consequences of its use which can be both positive and
negative. There are various different approaches to externalities and their impacts:
Polluter Pays Principle – way of accounting for the pollution which is a negative externality. It quantifies
the cost of pollution and passes it back to the producers, or user of a technology. It can be implemented
through 2 approaches:
1) Command and control – new technologies are introduced to limit pollution. In the USA all cars built
since 2004 must be fitted with a catalytic converter to reduce their emissions
2) Market based – governments introduce pollution controls, carbon trading permits and product
labelling e.g. British government introduced Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) bands based on the amount
of C02 that a vehicle emits. This aims to encourage people to drive cars which produce less carbon
dioxide.
Pollution Sink – the carbon dioxide we produce from burning fossil fuels is released into the atmosphere.
It was assumed that the sink was large enough to cope but the WWF living Planet Index suggested that
using the environment as a sink for pollution has serious consequences that will need to be addressed
Capturing pollutants – for single-point polluters such as power stations the use of carbon capture and
storage (CCS) technology can be used.
Different types of technological solutions
Type Aim Benefits Negatives Example
Appropriate Designed with ✔ It is appropriate to the Takes tremendous study of the Free play wind-up radio
special level of income, skill and region’s climate, resources, Cost around $40 which is human powered
consideration to the needs of the local location, and people to ensure it so no pollution or energy costs. Has an
environmental, population fits in with local cultures etc integrated torch and can be used to hear
ethical, cultural, ✔ Fewer resources are long term effects are unknown news, weather forecasts and hazard
social, political, and needed Pose more problems for large warnings.
economical aspects ✔ Easier to maintain scale applications Increases independence and access of
of the community it ✔ Less impact on the critical information in isolated rural areas
is intended for. environment
Intermediate Refer to relatively See above See above Sri Lankan Pumpkin Storage system
low, usually labour Gutters collect rainwater and it is stored in a
intensive technology tank built from locally available materials
that can be (cost to build £200). Water is then collected
mastered by local from the tap at the bottom of the tank,
people, especially in supply clean fresh and regular water supply
the developing world
Civil Also known as large- ✔ Provides quick path to Very expensive e.g. Three Gorges China
engineering scale megaprojects development e.g. China Dam cost $25 billion to build Have favoured megaprojects as a quick way
which reflect a top- ✔ Can help solve issues Huge environmental impacts e.g. to modernise the Chinese economy and
down approach such as energy pollution and flooding of land most of the leaders are trained engineers.
production and flood Social impacts e.g. displaced Gained a 8% GDP annual growth rate
control people e.g. Three Gorges Dam
Often money comes from tied aid - Increased pollution as the river can no
or loans which have conditions or longer regulate itself
high interest repayments - 4 million people displaced
- Several species threatened with extinction
Alternative Refer to ✔ Control energy costs and Issues over practicality of Landfill gas – South Dakota
technologies that are reduced greenhouse gas widespread use Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty
more emissions Are they cost-effective? percent methane. The gases produced
environmentally ✔ Collect methane gas Will widespread adoption would within the landfill can be collected and flared
friendly than the which if released into the produce negative impacts on the off or used to produce heat or electricity.
functionally atmosphere is 20x more economy, lifestyle or environment The City of Sioux Falls, South Dakota
equivalent global warming potential installed a landfill gas collection system
technologies than carbon dioxide which collects, cools, dries, and
dominant in current compresses the gas into an 11-mile
practice. pipeline. The gas is then used to power an
ethanol plant operated by POET Biorefining.
This energy production offsets almost two
million tons of coal per year.
Micro Includes providing ✔ Enables developing Is this an effective way to spend See India Named example
Technology developing nations countries to become part aid money?
with connections to of the globalised network
ICT and mobile of communications
phones ✔ Leapfrogging of old
technologies enables fast
development in certain
areas
Nano See GM/Green See GM/Green revolution See GM/Green revolution table See GM/Green revolution table
technologies revolution table table
Geoengineering Looks to engineer ✔ Could provide long term, The effectiveness of the schemes Maldives
our own planet than large scale solutions to proposed may fall short of Building of a $32 million artificial island of
rather attempting to some of the world’s most predictions. Hulhumale between 1997-2002. It is built 2
find a new one serious issues e.g. global metres above sea level and it designed to
warming, land Techniques that do not remove reduce overcrowding on existing islands
degradation and energy greenhouse gases from the and also replace them if they are drowned
demand atmosphere may control global by rising sea levels
warming, but do not reduce other
effects from these gases Space mirrors
The full effects of various Attempt by Russia in 1999 to launch giant
geoengineering schemes are not mirrors into orbit to reflect solar radiation
well understood. away from Earth to create a cooling effect.
Costs expected $1 trillion
Performance of the systems may
become ineffective, unpredictable
or unstable as a result of external
events, such as volcanic
eruptions, El Niño, solar flares
The techniques themselves may
cause significant foreseen or
unforeseen harm
Solving global issues with technology
Technological Convergence – the spread of the motor vehicle is an example of this and they allow
individual mobility, road transport which is key in development as it allows markets and networks to operate
and transport in an industry accounts for up to 10% of the GNP providing jobs and income growth. The
launch of the Tata Nano in India priced at $2500 will allow the poorer people to access transport. Also
leads to other problems such as increases in Co2 emissions.
Energy efficiency – The Automotive X Prize is a global competition to find a 100mpg four-passenger car.
The winner will receive $7.5 million and aims to encourage technological breakthroughs. Other examples
include; electric cars, hydrogen cars and bio fuel cars.
Technology transfer – IMF report concluded that education was the key to ensuring people in less
developed parts of the world could benefit from new technologies. The commitment to development
technology index shows the developed world’s willingness to allow this technology transfer. Technology
transfers do occur but often rely on NGOs to provide the funding required to purchase and install the
technology e.g. Practical Action
What Questions have been asked?
Using information in Figure 5, and your own knowledge, explains how farming technologies might have
different consequences for human and ecosystem wellbeing. (10)
Evaluate the contribution technology might make to tackling global environmental problems such as land
degradation and global warming. (15)
Using named examples, discuss the extent to which there is a widening technology gap between the
developed and developing world. (15)
Technology can be seen to have unforeseen consequences. Discuss this with reference to examples (15)
Some are able to access new technology to solve environmental problems while others are left to suffer
from environmental determinism. Referring to examples, assess the validity of this viewpoint (15)
The development of technology is a possible response to future resource shortages. Assess the possible
costs and benefits to this approach (15)
Assess the view that economic development is not possible without appropriate technologies (15)
Explain how both taxing and subsidising petrol can have impacts on human and ecosystem wellbeing. (10)