Arrival of European traders

Indian trade links with Europe started in through sea route only after the arrival of Vasco da Gama

in Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. The Portuguese had traded in Goa as early as 1510, and later

founded three other colonies on the west coast in Diu, Bassein, and Mangalore. In 1601 the East

India Company was chartered, and the English began their first inroads into the Indian Ocean. At first

they were little interested in India, but rather, like the Portuguese and Dutch before them, with the

Spice Islands. But the English were unable to dislodge the Dutch from Spice Islands. In 1610, the

British chased away a Portuguese naval squadron, and the East India Company created its own

outpost at Surat. This small outpost marked the beginning of a remarkable presence that would last

over 300 years and eventually dominate the entire subcontinent. In 1612 British established a trading

post in Gujarat. As a result of English disappointments with dislodging the Dutch from the Spice

Islands, they turned instead to India. In 1614 Sir Thomas Roe was instructed by James I to visit the

court of Jahangir, the Mughal emperor of Hindustan. Sir Thomas was to arrange a commercial treaty

and to secure for the East India Company sites for commercial agencies, -"factories" as they were

called. Sir Thomas was successful in getting permission from Jahangir for setting up factories. East

India Company set up factories at Ahmedabad, Broach and Agra. In 1640 East India Company

established an outpost at Madras. In 1661 the company obtained Bombay from Charles II and

converted it to a flourishing center of trade by 1668. English settlements rose in Orissa and Bengal. In

1633, in the Mahanadi delta of Hariharpur at Balasore in Orissa, factories were set up. In 1650 Gabriel

Boughton an employee of the Company obtained a license for trade in Bengal. An English factory was

set up in 1651 at Hugli.  In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory. In 1698 the factory was fortified

and called Fort William. The villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and Gobindpore were developed into a

single area called Calcutta. Calcutta became a trading center for East India Company. Once in India,

the British began to compete with the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. Through a combination

of outright combat and deft alliances with local princes, the East India Company gained control of all

European trade in India by 1769. In 1672 the French established themselves at Pondicherry and stage

was set for a rivalry between the British and French for control of Indian trade.
Battle of Plassey - On June 23rd, 1757 at Plassey, between Calcutta and Murshidabad, the forces of

the East India Company under Robert Clive met the army of Siraj-ud-Doula, the Nawab of Bengal.

Clive had 800 Europeans and 2200 Indians whereas Siraj-ud-doula in his entrenched camp at Plassey

was said to have about 50,000 men with a train of heavy artillery. The aspirant to the Nawab's

throne, Mir Jafar, was induced to throw in his lot with Clive, and by far the greater number of the

Nawab's soldiers were bribed to throw away their weapons, surrender prematurely, and even turn

their arms against their own army. Siraj-ud-Doula was defeated. Battle of Plassey marked the first

major military success for British East India Company.

Battle of Wandiwash 1760:  From 1744, the French and English fought a series of battles for

supremacy in the Carnatic region. In the third Carnatic war, the British East India Company defeated

the French forces at the battle of Wandiwash ending almost a century of conflict over supremacy in

India. This battle gave the British trading company a far superior position in India compared to the

other Europeans.

Battle of Buxar:  In June 1763 under Major Adams British army defeated Mir Kasim the Nawab of

Bengal. Though they with a smaller army against Mir Kasim, the English had victories at Katwah,

Giria, Sooty, Udaynala and Monghyr. Mir Kasim fled to Patna and took help from Nawab

Shujauddaulah and the Emperor Shah Alam II.  But the English under the General Major Hector

Munro at Buxar defeated the confederate army on 22 October, 1764. Mir Kasim fled again fled and

died in 1777.  After winning the Battle of Buxar, the British had earned the right to collect land

revenue in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. This development set the foundations of British political rule in

India. After the victory of the English in Buxar Robert Clive was appointed the governor and

commander in chief of the English army in Bengal in 1765. He is claimed as the founder of the British

political dominion in India. Robert Clive also brought reforms in the administration of the company

and the organization of the army.

Warren Hastings was appointed the Governor of Bengal in 1772. Under the Regulating Act of 1773

passed by British parliament, a Council of four members was appointed, and Warren Hastings
 (Governor-General 1774-85) was empowered to conduct the Company's affairs with the Council's

advice. His task was to consolidate the Company's rule in Bengal. He brought about several

administrative and judicial changes. Warren Hasting faced an uphill task in dealing with the Indian

rulers. He faced stiff resistance from the Marathas in the north and Hyder Ali in the south. In 1773 he

concluded the treaty of Banaras with the Nawab of Avadh appeasing the emperor and getting

financial gains thus blocking alliances between the Marathas and the Nawab of Avadh. Under Warren

Hastings English army took part in the Rohilla War in 1774 that brought Rohilkhand in the company's

jurisdiction.

The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

After the death of the Raja of Mysore in 1760, Hyder Ali, became the ruler of Mysore. He extended his

territories by conquering Bednore, Sundra, Sera, Canara and Guti and subjugated the poligars of south

India. With easy success in Bengal, the English concluded a treaty with Nizam Ali of Hyderabad and

committed the Company to help the Nizam with the troops in his war against Hyder Ali. In 1767, - the

Nizam, the Marathas and the English made an alliance against Hyder. But Hyder was brave and

diplomatic. He beat the English at their own game by making peace with the Marathas and alluring the

Nizam with territorial gains and together with the latter launched an attack on Arcot. The fight continued

for a year and half and the British suffered heavy losses. The panic-stricken British had to sue for peace.

A treaty was signed on April 4, 1769, on the basis of restitution of each other's territories. 

1769–70 there was ‘Great famine in Bengal’ in which nearly 10 million people perished. Later several

other famines hit different parts of Indian killing millions of people during East India companies

rule. During the period 1772-1785 the territory of the East India Company included Bengal. Bihar, Orissa,

Banaras and Ghazipur. It also included the Northern Sarkars, port of Salsette and the harbours of

Madras, Bombay and other minor ports. The Mughal territory included Delhi and other surrounding areas.

The territory of Avadh, which was autonomous, was bound in an offensive-defensive alliance with the

East India Company since 1765. The North Western part of India was under the Sikh clans, who
controlled region around the Sultej. The Muslim chiefs ruled in North western Punjab, Multan, Sindh and

Kashmir. The Marathas dominated over western India, parts of Central India from Delhi to Hyderabad

and Gujarat to Cuttak. The Deccan was ruled by Nizam of  Hyderabad. Hyder Ali ruled over Mysore.

Tanjore and Travancore were under the Hindu rulers.

British and Marathas  

First Anglo Maratha war (1775 –1782): Narayan Rao became the fifth Peshwa of the Marathas.

Narayan Rao killed by his uncle Raghunath Rao, who declared himself as the Peshwa. The Maratha

chieftains under the leadership of Nana Phadnis opposed him. Raghunath Rao sought help from the

English. The English agreed to help him and concluded with him the Treaty of Surat on March 7,

1775. According to the treaty the English were to provide 2,500 men and Raghunath was to cede

Salsette and Bassein to the English with part of the revenues from Broach and Surat districts.

Maratha army and chiefs proclaimed Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa and on January 9 1779, the

British troops met a large Maratha army at Talegon and were defeated. This shattered the prestige of

the British so low that they had to enter into a humiliating Treaty of Wadgaon. British had to

surrender all the territories acquired by the Company since 1773.

Warren Hastings, the Governor-General, sent a strong force under Colonel Goddard who took

possession of Ahmedabad on February 15 and captured Bassein on December 11, 1780. Warren

Hastings sent another force against Mahadaji Sindhia. Captain Popham captured Gwalior on August 3

1780 and on February 16, 1781, General Camac defeated Sindhia at Sipri. These victories increased

the prestige of the English, who gained Sindhia as an ally to conclude the the Treaty of Salbai on 17

May 1782. As per this treaty Company recognised Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa and returned

to the Sindhia all his territories west of Yamuna. The treaty of Salbai assured mutual restitution of

each other's territories and guaranteed peace for twenty years.

Second Mysore war

In 1780 when the English wanted to attack the French at Mahe, situated on the west coast of Mysore,

Hyder Ali did not permit it. Therefore the English declared war against Hyder Ali. Hyder Ali arranged a

joint front with the Nizam and the Marathas. In July 1780, Hyder Ali with 80,000 men and 100 guns

attacked Carnatic. In October 1780 he captured Arcot, defeating an English army under Colonel

Braille. Meanwhile British managed to break the alliance between the Raja of Berar, Mahadji Sindhia, 

Nizam and Hyder Ali.

Hyder Ali continued the war with the British. But in November 1781, Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali

at Porto Nova. In January 1782, English captured Trincomali. In 1782, Hyder Ali inflicted a humiliating

defeat on the British troops under Colonel Braithwaite. On December 7, 1782, Hyder Ali died. His son

Tipu Sultan bravely fought against Britishers. Tipu captured brigadier Mathews, in 1783. Then in

November 1783, Colonel Fullarton captured Coimbatore. Tired of the war, the two sides concluded the

Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. According to the treaty, both the parties decided to restore each

other's conquered territories and free all the prisoners.

Pitt's India Act - 1784 - British Parliament under Pitt’s India Bill of 1784 appointed a Board of

Control. It provided for a joint government of the Company (represented by the Directors), and the

Crown (represented by the Board of Control). In 1786, trough a supplementary bill, Lord Cornwallis

was appointed as the first Governor-General, and he became the effective ruler of British India under

the authority of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors.

Third Mysore War - The immediate cause of the war was Tipu's attack on Travancore on December

29, 1789 over aq dispute over Cochin. The Raja of Travancore was entitled to the protection of the

English. Thus taking advantage of the situation, the English, making a triple alliance with the Nizams

and the Marathas, attacked Tipu Sultan.

The war between Tipu and the alliance lasted for nearly two years. British under Major-General

Medows, could not win against Tipu. On January 29, 1791, Cornwallis himself took over the command

of the British troops. He captured Bangalore in 1791 and approached Seringapatnam, Tipu's capital.

Tipu displayed great skill in defending and his tactics forced Cornwallis to retreat.  Tipu captured
Coimbatore on November 3. Lord Cornwallis soon returned and occupied all the forts in his path to

Seringapatnam. On February 5, 1792 Cornwallis arrived at Serinapatnam. Tipu had to sue for peace

and the Treaty of Seringapatnam concluded in March 1792. The treaty resulted in the surrender of

nearly half of the Mysorean territory to the victorious allies. Tipu also had to pay a huge war

indemnity of and his two sons were taken as hostages.

Fourth Mysore war - Lord Wellesley became the governor general of India in 1798.  Tipu Sultan

tried to secure an alliance with the French against the English in India. Wellesley questioned Tipu’s

relationship with the French and attacked Mysore in 1799. The fourth Anglo-Mysore War was of short

duration and decisive and ended with Tipu’s death on May 4, 1799  who was killed fighting to save his

capital.

Second Anglo-Maratha war, 1803:  

After death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800, there was infighting between Holkar and Sindhia chiefs. The

new Peshwa Baji Rao murdered Vithuji Holkar, brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar in April 1801. Holkar

defeated the combined armies of Sindhias and the Peshwas at Poona and captured the city. The new

Peshwa Baji Rao II,  was weak and sought the protection of British through treaty of Bassein in 1802.

Baji Rao II was restored to Peshwarship under the protection of the East India Company. However,

the treaty was not acceptable to both the Marathas chieftains - the Shindia and Bhosales. This directly

resulted in the Second Anglo-Maratha war in 1803.

Sindhia and Bhosale tried to win over Holkar but he did not join them and retired to Malwa and

Gaekwad chose to remain neutral. Even at this point of time, the Marathas chiefs were not able to

unify themselves and thus the challenge to the authority of the Company brought disasters for both

the Sindhias and Bhosales. The war began in August 1803. British under General Wellesley  (brother

of Lord Wellesley) defeated Bhosales at Argain on November 29 and the British captured the strong

fortress of Gawilgrah on December 15, 1803. In the north, General Lake captured Delhi and Agra. The

army of Sindhia was completely destroyed at the battle of Delhi in September and at Laswari in Alwar

State in November. The British further won in Gujarat, Budelkhand and Orissa.
By the Treaty of Deogaon signed on December 17, 1803, the Bhosale surrendered to the Company

the province of Cuttack and the entire region in the west of the rivers Wards.

Similarly, the Sindhia signed the Treaty of Surji-Arjanaon on December 30, 1803 and ceded to the

Company all their territories between the Ganga and the Yamuna. British forces were stationed in the

territories of the Sindhia and Bhosale. With these victories Britishers became the dominant power in

India.

In 1804 Holkar army successfully defeated British army in Kota and forced them out from Agra. British

somehow managed to defend Delhi. However in November 1804 British army managed to defeat a

contingent of Holkar army but Holkar again defeated British in Bharatpur in 1805. Ultimately Treaty of

Rajpurghat" was signed on December 25, 1805 between Holkar and British.

Third Marataha War (1817-1818):  Marathas were ultimately defeated and Maratha power

destroyed by British in several wars during 1817- 1818. Holkar's forces were routed at Mahidpur

December 21, 1817 and Baji Rao II, who was trying to consolidate Marathas, finally surrendered in

June 1818. British abolished the position of Peshwa and Marathas were limited to the small kingdom

of Satara. Thus ended the mighty Maratha power.

Between 1814 to 1826 British had to fight many wars against Gurkhas in the North and Burmese in

the North East. After several losses and some gains British signed peace treaties with Gurkhas of

Nepal and Burmese. During the period of 1817-1818 British had to fight against non-traditional armies

of Pindaris, who used to plunder British territory. British finally managed to crush Pindaris.

During this period in the North West region of Punjab the Sikh power was growing and Maharaja

Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) of Punjab became very powerful. British already had their hands full with

problems in different part of India. They were afraid of Ranjit Singh’s power. So in 1838 they made a

peace treaty with Ranjit Singh. During the same year there was a big famine in north-west India that

killed nearly a million people. But after Ranjit Singh’s death there was infighting amongst Sikhs. British

tried to take advantage of this and First Anglo - Sikh war started in 1845. Battle of Mudki and

Ferozshah (1845) saw heavy fighting between British and Sikhs. Sikhs were defeated due to the
treachery of their generals. The final battle of Sobraon on February 10, 1846 proved decisive where

Sikhs again lost due to the betrayal of their generals. The British were able to capture most of India

after defeating Sikhs in 1849 in Second Anglo - Sikh War.

The year 1853 stands out to be a landmark year in modern Indian history as the first Railway

opened from Bombay to Thane and first Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra was started. This was

one of the first major positive contributions that British made in India. Although the initial purpose of

these was to improve the mobility and communication of the British troops but much later they

became very useful for common people. 

India’s First War of Independence 1857

Many historians called this First War of Independence as a ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ of 1857. For them it was

just a bunch of Indian sepoys (soldiers) who had mutinied. They largely failed to recognize the

involvement of a vast section of Indian society that took part in this struggle. Peasants and nobles all

were involved. Lack of planning and co-ordination amongst people who took part in this struggle

resulted in defeat of Indians. Many innocent people were killed on both sides. Karl Marx wrote about

the attitude of British media in 1857 - ‘ And then it should not be forgotten that while the cruelties of

the English are related as acts of martial vigor, told simply, rapidly, without dwelling on disgusting

details, the outrages of the natives, shocking as they are, are still deliberately exaggerated. ’

Period just before the beginning of India’s First War of Independence

British had little respite from fighting against Indians as they tried to strengthen their grip on India.

Sometimes by design, sometimes almost by accident the area controlled by the British increased, until

by 1857 everything from the borders of Afghanistan in the west to the jungles of Burma in the east,

from the Himalayas in north, to the beaches of Sri Lanka in south were under British East India

companies control. In 1857 the total number of soldiers in India was 260,000 amongst them there

were just around fourteen percent (34,000) European soldiers.

Less then ten years after the last Anglo-Sikh war there was great unrest in India, specially the

northern part. Somewhere along the way the British seemed to lose touch with their Indian subject.

By 1857 there was a big gulf between Indians and British.

Factors responsible for unrest amongst Indian masses

 The arrival of missionaries had also caused great unease among the Indians. Evangelical

Christians had little understanding of, or respect for, India's ancient faiths.The attitude of

scrupulous non-interference in religious affairs that had characterized British rule in the 18th

century was forgotten. Native populace started to believe that the British wished to convert

them. The passing of Act XXI of 1850, which enabled converts to inherit ancestral property,

confirmed this belief; the new law was naturally interpreted as a concession to Christian

converts. Hindus and Muslims were forced into Christianity. The British were rude and

arrogant towards the Indians who they described as barbarians without any culture. The

European judges hardly ever convicted British for their crimes.

  Thousands of soldiers and nobles got unemployed when Lord Dalhousie annexed Avadh. Under

his 'Doctrine of Lapse' the princes were denied the long-cherished right of adoption; in this

way Dalhousie annexed the Maratha States of Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi and several minor

principalities. On the death of the ex-Peshwa, Baji Rao II, the pension granted to him was

abolished and the claims of his adopted son, Nana Sahib, were disregarded.

 British administrative laws ruined both the peasants and landlords. Indian handicrafts

completely collapsed and the craftsmen were impoverished. India became a market place for

finished goods from England. Poverty increased and the discontent among the masses

motivated the Indians to join the revolt in large numbers. Thus, the British drained India of

her wealth and all her natural resources.

Beginning of First War of Independence (1857)

 People whispered of the old prophecy, which stated that 100 years after the battle of Plassey, the

rule of 'John Company' would end. Plassey had been in 1757 and in the hundredth year after the
battle it seemed everyone was awaiting a spark. The cartridge of Enfield rifle used by British-Indian

Army was heavily greased with animal fat. Indian soldiers heard and quickly passed on the news that

the grease was a mixture of cow (sacred to Hindus) and pig (abhorrent to Muslims) fat.

It began at Barrackpore on 29th March 1857. Mangel Pande, a young soldier of the 34th Native

Infantry, shot at his sergeant major on the parade ground. When the British adjutant rode over,

Pande shot the horse and severely wounded the officer with a sword. He was later arrested and

hanged. As a collective punishment the 34th Native Infantry was disbanded. Mangal Pande became a

martyr and an icon representing the beginning of Indian War of Independence.

A few weeks later on 24th of April 1857, eighty-five soldiers of the 3rd Light Cavalry in Meerut

refused orders to handle the new cartridges. They were arrested, court-martialled and sentenced to

ten years hard labor each. On 9th May 1857, at an appalling ceremony in the parade ground of

Meerut, they were publicly humiliated: stripped of their uniform, shackled and sent to prison. The

following day (10th May 1857) was a Sunday and as Britons prepared for church, Meerut exploded.

Enraged soldiers broke open the town jail and released their comrades. A mob from the bazaar and

Indian soldiers poured into the cantonment where the Britishers lived and killed many of them. Then

these soldiers marched towards Delhi. There were three regiments of native infantry in Delhi.

On the morning of 11th May the soldiers from Meerut reached Delhi. Gathering below the walls of

the Red Fort, the mutineers called for last Mughal King Bahadur Shah. A British officer, Captain

Douglas, commanded Bahadur Shah’s personal guard. From the walls high above Captain Douglas

ordered them to disperse. Soldiers accompanied by a mob burst into the palace, killed Douglas and

asked Bahadur Shah to reclaim his throne. The 38th, 54th, and 74th regiments of infantry and native

artillery under Bahkt Khan (1797- 1859) joined the rebel army at Delhi in May. The loss of Delhi was

a crushing blow to British prestige and the symbolic associations of the capital of the Moghuls

becomming the center of the mutiny was something the British could not ignore. It took British nearly

two months to regroup and then they set out to reclaim Delhi. From Meerut and Simla two British

columns set out for the capital. Hampered by lack of transport, it was weeks before they joined forces
at Ambala. Punishing disloyal villages as they advanced, one could have charted their course by the

scores of corpses they left hanging from trees as the British army moved towards Delhi. At Badli-ke-

Serai, five miles from Delhi, they met the main army of the Indian soldiers. British won there but most

of the Indian soldiers fled back to the protection of the walls of Delhi. The British established

themselves on Delhi ridge, a thin spur of high ground to the north of the city. In September 1857,

under the command of Major Nicholson and with support of Sikh and Gurkha army were able to

reclaim Delhi, breaching the walls with heavy guns and after a bitter street-to-street fight. In the

attack on the Kashmiri gate Nicholson had been hit by a bullet and died soon after. One last atrocity

was yet to happen. British officer Hodson arrested the old King Bahadur Shah and killed his three sons

in cold blood. Bahadur Shah was tried for complicity to murder and other offences, found guilty and

sent into exile in Rangoon. The last of the Moghuls, Bahadur Shah died there in 1862. Hodson was

never punished for his summary executions of the princes. He died in the retaking of Lucknow in

1858.

Battle of Kanpur

Kanpur was an important junction where the Grand Trunk Road and the road from Jhansi to Lucknow

crossed. One of the leaders of the First War of Independence, Nana Saheb of Bithur was born in

1824. Nana Saheb was well educated. He studied Sanskrit and was known for his deep religious

nature. On the death of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao-II, in 1851 the Company's Government stopped the

annual pension and the title. Nana Saheb's appeal to the Court of Directors was not accepted. This

made him hostile towards the British rulers. In 1857 Kanpur was garrisoned by four regiments of

native infantry and a European battery of artillery and was commanded by General Sir Hugh Wheeler.

After a fierce battle at Kanpur, General Sir Hugh Wheeler surrendered on June 27, 1857.

The English men, women and children who fell into the hands of Nana Sahib were assured of safe

conduct to Allahabad. However the inhuman treatment meted out to the Indians by General James

O'Neil at Allahabad and Banaras made the crowd angry who retaliated by murdering British men,
women and children. Many innocent lives were lost at ‘Massacre Ghat’ and ‘Bibi ka Ghar’ in

Kanpur.

After seizing Kanpur, Nana Saheb proclaimed himself the Peshwa. Tantia Tope, Jwala Prasad and

Azimullah Khan were the loyal followers of Nana Sahib, and are remembered for their valiant fight

against the British. In June 1857 the British defeated Nana Sahib. Though Nana Sahib and Tantia

Tope recaptured Kanpur in November 1857, they could not hold it for long as General Campbell

reoccupied it on 6th December 1857. Nana Sahib escaped to Nepal and his whereabouts afterwards

were unknown. Tantia Tope escaped and joined the Rani of Jhansi.

Jhansi and Gwalior

Rani Laxmibai was born in 1830 at Banaras in a wealthy family and was named Manukarnika at

birth. She got married to King Gangadhar Rao of Jhansi. Gangadhar Rao did not have any children

and he adopted one of his relatives Damodar Rao as his heir. After Gangadhar Rao's death in 1853

the British refused to accept Damodar Rao as the legal heir of Jhansi and wanted to annex the

kingdom into their rule. In 1857 at Jhansi, the army rebelled and killed the British Army officers. Rani

Laxmibai, the widow of the late Raja Gangadhar Rao, was proclaimed the ruler of the state. In 1858

the British army once again marched towards Jhansi. Not willing to let the British takeover her

kingdom the Rani built an army of 14,000 volunteers to fight the British. The soldiers of Jhansi fought

very bravely for 2 weeks and the Rani led the forces in this battle. Sir Hugh Rose recaptured Jhansi on

3rd April 1858. The English could not capture Rani of Jhansi as she escaped to Kalpi (near Gwalior)

where Tantia Tope joined her. Both marched to Gwalior. Sir Hugh Rose also advanced towards

Gwalior and captured it in June 1858. Rani Laxmi Bai died fighting bravely. Rani Laxmibai (Rani

Jhansi) became immortal in Indian history for her bravery and struggle against British rule. Tantia

Tope escaped southward, but was betrayed by one of his friends Man Singh and was finally hanged

in 1859.

Arrah Bihar
Kunwar Singh, zamindar of Jagdishpur near Arrah in the state of Bihar, was the chief organizer of

the fight against British. He assumed command of the soldiers who had revolted at Danapur on 5th

July. Two days later he occupied Arrah, the district headquarter. Major Vincent Eyre relieved the town

on 3rd August, defeated Kunwar Singh's force and destroyed Jagdishpur. Kunwar Singh left his

ancestral village and reached Lucknow in December 1857. In March 1858 he occupied Azamgarh.

However, he had to leave the place soon. Pursued by Brigadier Douglas, he retreated towards his

home in Bihar. On 23 April, Kunwar Singh had a victory near Jagdishpur over the force led by Captain

Le Grand, but the following day he died in his village. The mantle of the old chief now fell on his

brother Amar Singh who, despite heavy odds, continued the struggle and for a considerable time ran

a parallel government in the district of Shahabad. In October 1859 Amar Singh joined the rebel

leaders in the Nepal Terai.

Lucknow

At Lucknow War against British was led by the Begum of Awadh Hazrat Mehal who proclaimed

her young son Nawab. Hazrat Begum felicitated her troops in person in Alambagh and when Dilkusha

was taken and the soldiers of freedom fought with desperate courage for the defense of Luknow.

Musabagh, which was defended, by a valiant band of revolutionaries under the leadership of the

heroic Begum herself till March 1858, when she left Lucknow for the north with her troops followed by

Ahmad Shah. Both of them fell upon Shahjehanpur and tried to drive out the British from Rohilkhand.

She failed to capture Rohilkhand and she marched on along with other revolutionary leaders towards

Nepal where she found asylum till her death.

India’s First War of Independence carried on as late as 1859 in some instances before it was

finally over. A number of heroes and heroines of the India’s First war of Independence have been

immortalized for their fight in against British rule.

Aftermath of First war of Independence

In the early months of the British recovery, few Indian soldiers were left alive after their positions

were overrun. The British soldiers seemed to have made a collective decision not to take prisoners
 and most actions ended with a frenzied use of the bayonet. Whole villages were sometimes hanged

for some real or imagined sympathy for the mutineers. Looting was endemic and neither the sanctity

of holy places nor the rank of Indian aristocrats could prevent the wholesale theft of their

possessions. Many a British family saw its fortune made during the pacification of northern India.

Later, when prisoners started to be taken and trials held, those convicted of mutiny were lashed to

the muzzles of cannon and fired through their body. For more than a year the people of northern

India trembled with fear as the British sated their thirst for revenge. The Indians called it 'the Devil's

Wind'.

A hundred years after battle of Plassey the rule of the East India Company finally did come to an end.

In 1858, British parliament passed a law through which the power for governance of India was

transferred from the East India Company to the British crown. In 1858, the Queen issued a

proclamation saying that all were her subjects and that there would be no discrimination,

appointments would be made on the basis of merit, and that there would be no interference in

religious matters. It became evident in the succeeding years that the British government did not

honor the Queen's promises. After 1857, the nationalist movement started to expand in the hearts of

more and more Indians. 

British colonial period - Colonial Rule (1858 – August 1918) 

After 1858, India became officially a British colony as British crown took control of India from East India

Company. The British crown put a Secretary of State for India in change of India. Indian Council who had

only advisory powers aided him. India was divided into three administrative zones (Bengal, Madras and

Bombay). A number of administrative and legal changes were introduced. In1861 Indian Councils Act,

High Courts Act and Penal code were passed. British continued to expand the railways and telegraphic

network and in 1868 new Ambala – Delhi railway line was started.

A combination of administrative failures and natural factors resulted in large number of famines in India

that killed millions of people -

1861 Famine in North West

1866 Famine in Bengal and Orissa – 1 million perished

1869 Intense famine in Rajasthan – 1.5 million perished

1874 Famine in Bihar

1876–78 Famine in Bombay, Madras and Mysore – 5 million perished.

During this time, India was forced to produce cash crop, which were to be sold by the British. India was

also forced to accept British goods that destroyed cottage industries. Many peasants had to borrow

money to pay the extremely high taxes imposed on them. 

1st January 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India at a Durbar (assembly of

notables and princes), in Delhi. The Viceroy Lord Lytton represented the Sovereign, who incidentally

never visited her Indian Empire. In1878 Vernacular Press act was introduced in India that imposed severe

limitations on the rights of the press. In the same year there was ‘Rendition of Mysore’ and Mysore was

returned to its original Wodeyar rulers. In 1883 the Ilbert Bill Act was passed which allowed Indian

magistrates to try Europeans. This angered the Europeans and the bill was withdrawn. Indians suffered

from growing unemployment while most well paying jobs were reserved for the British.  Racial

discrimination against Indian’s forced the Indian nationalists into organizing themselves for getting their

demands accepted.

Hindu renaissance movement – During this period several great saints and religious leaders were

responsible for revival of Hinduism in different parts of India. Ramkrishna Paramhansa (1836-1886),

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891) led the Hinduism

renaissance in Bengal that later spread to other parts of India. Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1824-

1883) formed Arya Samaj, which became a major religious movement in north India. 
Formation of Indian National Congress

Allen Octavian Hume finally formed the Indian National Congress. The First meeting was in December

1885 in Bombay. Womesh Chandra Banerjee became the first president of Indian National Congress.

It met every year in December in different parts of the country. In the early years, the congress used

only Petition, Prayer and Protest to try to get their needs met. In 1891 Indian factory Act was passed and

in 1892 Indian Councils Act was changed to include new provisions for administrating India. 

Bubonic Plague in Bombay, 1896 -1914 and Indian Famine 1897 -1901:

The epidemic spread from Bombay City, western and northern India, was hardest hit. Around 200,000

people died of plague in Bombay alone. Between October 1896 and February 1897, nearly half of

Bombay's estimated 850,000 populations left the city resulting in great loss to commerce and industrial

life and helped the disease to spread in countryside and other parts of India. Along with plague many

parts of India were devastated by famine during 1897-1901 that killed around 2 million people. 

First partition of Bengal  

Following the ‘divide and rule’ policy Bengal was divided by the British, on October 16, 1905, into

Hindu and Muslim areas. By doing this British had hoped to increase tensions between the Hindus and

the Muslims. Lord Curzon was the British governor general at this time. The following excerpts from

Curzon’s letter of 2nd February 1905 to St. John Brodrick, Secretary of State for India, give an idea of

his aims in partitioning Bengal.

“ CALCUTTA is the center from which the Congress Party is manipulated throughout the whole of

Bengal, and indeed the whole of India. Its best wire pullers and its most frothy orators all reside here.

The perfection of their machinery, and the tyranny which it enables them to exercise are truly

remarkable. They dominate public opinion in Calcutta; they affect the High Court; they frighten the

local Government, and they are sometimes not without serious influence on the Government of India.

The whole of their activity is directed to creating an agency so powerful that they may one day be
 able to force a weak government to give them what they desire. Any measure in consequence that

would divide the Bengali-speaking population; that would permit independent centres of activity and

influence to grow up; that would dethrone Calcutta from its place as the center of successful intrigue,

or that would weaken the influence of the lawyer class, who have the entire organization in their

hands, is intensely and hotly resented by them. The outcry will be loud and very fierce, but as a

native gentleman said to me – ‘my countrymen always howl until a thing is settled; then they accept

it’.” 

Protest meetings against the partition were organized in all parts of the country on and after 16 October

1905. Partition of Bengal also saw a strong polarization in Indian National Congress between ‘moderates’

and ‘hardliners’. Moderates such as Gopal Krishan Gokhale believed in making "loyal" representations

to the government for small reforms, while hardliners like Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak complete

freedom or ‘purna swarajya’. Tilak announced his slogan "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have

it" in his newspaper and became the speaker for the new group of nationalists.  The primary leaders of

the nationalist movement were Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928) from Punjab, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar

Tilak (1856-1920) from Maharashtra and Bipin Chandra Pal from Bengal. Together, they were called

Lal-Bal-Pal. Ajit Singh in Punjab and Chidambaram Pillay in Tamil Nadu were other important

leaders of the Nationalistic Movement. In 1906, Tilak set forth a program of passive resistance,

known as the Tenets of the New Party, that he hoped would destroy the hypnotic influence of British rule

and prepare the people for sacrifice in order to gain independence. Mahatma Gandhi later adopted these

forms of political action initiated by Tilak - the boycotting of goods and passive resistance - in his

program of non-cooperation with the British. The Nationalistic movement adopted the slogan of

"Swadeshi and Swaraj". Swadeshi means our country and promoted the use of Indian products and the

boycott of foreign goods. Swaraj means self-government. Tilak aimed at Swarajya (Independence), not

piecemeal reforms, and attempted to persuade the Congress to adopt his purna swarajya program. On

this issue, he clashed with the moderates at the Surat session of the Congress in 1907. Taking advantage

of the split in the nationalist forces, the government again prosecuted Tilak on a charge of sedition and
inciting terrorism and deported him to Mandalay, Burma (Myanmar), to serve a sentence of six years'

imprisonment.  

Formation of Muslim League (1906) 

Many of the Indian Muslims were taken in by British divisive policy of ‘divide and rule’. Although

Muslims had a fair representation in Congress some of them wanted a separate platform for Indian

Muslims. In 1906 Muslim League was formed to represent Indian Muslims. 

By the partition of Bengal in 1905 British successfully sowed the seeds of division between Hindus and

Muslims that lead ultimately to the partition of India in 1947. Ghosts of the British ‘divide and rule’

policy, continue to haunt independent India and Pakistan in present times with continuing tensions

and border disputes.

 Early revolutionary movement  

Partition of Bengal created a massive outburst of public anger against British rule. Intellectual people

as well as common man took part in mass agitation. Poet Rabindranath Tagore actively supported

the movement. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s ‘Bande Matram’ was taken up as the soul-stirring

slogan. Several groups of revolutionaries started operating in Bengal. Aurobindo Ghosh (later

known as Sri Aurobindo), Rasbihari Bose and Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin) were some

of the important leaders of these revolutionary groups.

Alipore Bomb case

On 30th April, 1908 in Muzzafarpur Bihar, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki tried to kill the Chief

Presidency Magistrate Kingsford who was notorious for passing out stiff sentences against the

nationalist activists Kingsford escaped the bomb attack which unfortunately killed two innocent British

ladies died in the bomb attack. Following a massive manhunt, Khudiram was arrested on 1st May

1908; Prafulla evaded arrest by shooting himself. On 11th August 1908, eighteen-year-old

Khudiram Bose was hanged and became a martyr. Aurobindo Ghosh was arrested on charges of

masterminding the attacks on Kingsford but a young lawyer Chittaranjan Das ably defended him.
Aurobindo later left politics and became a Yogi and philosopher and became famous as Maharishi

Aurobindo or Sri Aurobindo.

A Durbar was held in Delhi on December 12, 1911, to celebrate the visit of King George V. King was

welcomed with great pomp and show and given numerous priceless gifts. In 1911 British government

under pressure from increasing agitations in Bengal and other parts of India modified the ‘partition of

Bengal’ to make again a united Presidency of Bengal.

Hardinge Bomb case

British shifted the imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1912. On December 23, 1912 to mark the

entry of the Governor-general of India into the new Capital, an imperial procession was taken out in

Delhi, with Lord Hardinge seated on a caparisoned elephant. As the procession was passed through

Chandni Chowk, a bomb was thrown on the elephant, killing the mahawat. Lord Hardinge escaped

with injuries. Many persons including Master Amir Chand, a school teacher of Delhi, Bhai

Balmukand, Master Awadh Behari, Basant Kumar Biswas, Ganeshilal Khasta,Vishnu

Ganesh Pingley, Charan Das, Balraj, Lachhmi Narain Sharma and Lala Hanwant Sahey, and

many others were arrested. L.N Sharma and G. Khasta were taken to Varanasi and sentenced to life

imprisonment. V.G Pingley was taken to Lahore and was hanged. Master Amir Chand, Bhai Balmukand

and Master Awadh Behari were executed on May 8, 1915 in Delhi Jail and Basant Kumar Biswas was

executed the next day on May 9, 1915 in Ambala Central Jail.

Ras Bihari Bose, who masterminded the Chandni Chowk incident, escaped to Japan and continued

the struggle against British rule from abroad. He was the President of Indian Independence League

and head of the first Indian National Army (INA) founded by General Mohan Singh.

In 1914 Britain became engaged in World War I. Shortly after declaration of war, two infantry

divisions and a cavalry brigade of the Indian Army were sent to Europe. In all 140,000 men served on

the Western Front, 90,000 in the Indian Corps and 50,000 in the Labor Companies. Indian troops also

played important role in operations in Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Gallipoli. They also served in the

West and East African campaigns and in China.

On 16th June 1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released after serving a prison sentence of 6 years, most

of which he had spent in Mandalay in Burma. In 1915-1916, under the leadership of Tilak, Annie

Besant and Subramaniya Iyer, the Home Rule League was started. January 9, 1915, saw the

beginning of a new phase in India’s struggle for independence with arrival of Mohandas

Karamchand Gandhi to Bombay from South Africa. Two major events took place at the Lucknow

session of the Indian Nation Congress in 1916. First, the moderate and hardliner groups were united.

Second, the Muslim League put aside old differences and joined hands with the Indian National

Congress. 

 Responding to Gandhi’s call for helping British in World War I, a large number of Indians joined

British Indian Army during 1916-1917. By the end of the World War I in 1918, the numerical strength

of Indians in British Indian Army had increased to nearly 600,000.

Jalianwala Bagh Massacre 1919

British responded to the Indian help in World War I by enacting in 1919, The Rowlatt Act. This

allowed the government to imprison anyone without a trial or a conviction. There were widespread

protests to this law. On April 13, 1919, thousands of people gathered peacefully in protest against this

law in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar Punjab. British troops marched to the park accompanied by an

armored vehicle on which machine guns were mounted. The vehicle was unable to enter the park

compound due to the narrow entrance. The troops were under the command of General Reginald

Edward Harry Dyer. He ordered his men to open fire on the peaceful gathering. Since there was no

other exit but the one already manned by the troops, people desperately tried to exit the park by

trying to climb the walls of the park. Some people also jumped into a well to escape the bullets. More

than a thousands people including women and children were massacred. Sir Michael O’Dwyer, who

was The Governor of the Punjab region, supported the massacre. The event was condemned

worldwide and General Dyer was summoned to London the Hunter Commission in 1920, found him

guilty. However, the British Parliament cleared his name and even praised his ruthlessness. Many

Britons raised a fund in his honor.

‘Jalianwala Bagh Massacre’ catalyzed the militant movement against British rule and paved the

way for Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement against the British in 1920. After the end of World

War I Turkish Khalifa was removed, which led to a worldwide protest by Muslims. Under the

leadership of the Ali Brothers, Maulana Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali, the Muslims of South

Asia launched the historic Khilafat Movement. Gandhi linked the issue of Swaraj with the Khilafat

issue to bring Hindus and Muslim together in one movement. The Civil Disobedience or Non-

cooperation movement was started. The ensuing movement was the first countrywide popular

movement. It began with returning of honorary titles given by the British and then continued to a

boycott of the legislatures, elections and government works. Foreign clothes were burned and Khadi

(home woven cloth) became a symbol of freedom. By the end of 1921, all of the important leaders,

except Gandhi were in jail. In February 1922, at Chaurichaura, Uttar Pradesh, violence erupted and

Gandhi called off the movement. He was then arrested and the movement ended.

Deshbandhu Chitt Ranjan Das, along with Motilal Nehru, founded the Swaraj Party in 1923 for

maintaining of continued participation in legislative councils. The party was soon recognized as the

parliamentary wing of the Congress. In Bengal many of the candidates fielded by the Swaraj Party

were elected to office. The Governor invited C.R. Das to form a government but he declined. The

party came to be a powerful opposition in the Bengal Legislative Council and inflicted defeats on three

ministries. The Calcutta Municipal Act of 1923 was a major landmark in the history of local self-

government in India. The Swarajists were elected to the Calcutta Corporation in a majority in 1924.

Deshbandhu was elected mayor and Subash Chandra Bose was appointed Chief Executive Officer.

The leaders of Swaraj Party began to advocate for dominion status to India. Many of the elected

deputies soon forgot about obstruction and began cooperating with the government (tariff autonomy

bill passed, 1923). In 1924 Gandhi was released from prison due to poor health and was elected

President of the Indian National Congress. 1925 saw the first woman becoming the president of

Indian National Congress when Sarojini Naidu was elected President for the Kanpur session.

Revolutionary Movement in India during 1920s and 1930s

The revolutionaries in northern India organized under the leadership of the old veterans, Ramprasad

Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad and Sachindranath Sanyal whose ‘Bandi

Jiwani’ served as a textbook to the revolutionary movement. They met in Kanpur in October 1924 and

founded the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) to organize armed revolution to overthrow

colonial rule and establish in its place a Federal Republic of the United States of India.

Gopinath Saha in January 1924 tried to assassinate Charles Tegart, the hated Police Commissioner

of Calcutta. By an error, another Englishman named Day was killed. Gopinath Saha was arrested and

executed despite large-scale protests. The most important action of the HRA was the Kakori train

episode. On 9 August. 1925, ten men up the 8-Down train at Kakori, an obscure village near Lucknow,

looted its official railway treasury. The Government reaction was quick and hard. It arrested a large

number of young men and tried them in the Kakori case, Ashfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil,

Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri were hanged, four others were sent to the Andaman for life and

seventeen others were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Chandrashekhar Azad remained

at large. In 1927, the Simon Commission was appointed by the British Government to suggest

political reforms in India. Sir John Simon and six other members of the commission were British. At

the Congress meeting in Madras in 1927, it was decided to boycott the commission. Formation of

Simon Commission led to large-scale protests all over India.

The Kakori case was a major setback to the revolutionaries of northern India. But soon young men

such as Bejoy Kumar Sinha, Shiv Varma and Jaidev Kapur in U.P., Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati

Charan Vohra and Sukhdev in Punjab set out to reorganize the HRA under the overall leadership of

Chandrashekhar Azad. Finally nearly all the major young revolutionaries of northern India met a

Ferozeshah Kotla Ground at Delhi on 9 and 10 September 1928, created a new collective leadership

adopted socialism as their official goal and changed the name of the party to the Hindustan Socialist

Republican Association (HRSA).

Lala Lajpat Rai's died, as the result of a brutal lathi-charge when he was leading an anti-Simon

Commission demonstration at Lahore on 30 October 1928. The romantic youthful leadership of the
HSRA saw the death of this great Punjabi leader, popularly known as Sher-e-Punjab, as a direct

challenge. And so, on 17 December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru assassinated, at

Lahore, Saunders, a police official involved in deadly lathi-charge on Lala Lajpat Rai.

Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April

1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill that would

reduce the civil liberties of citizens. The aim was not to kill, for the bombs were relatively

harmless.The leaflet they threw into the Assembly hall said “If the deaf are to hear, the sound has to

be very loud’. The objective was to get arrested and to use trial court as a forum for propaganda so

that people would become familiar with their movement and ideology. Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt

were tried in the Assembly Bomb Case.

Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru and many other revolutionaries were tried in a series of conspiracy

cases. During the trial they said - “When we dropped the bomb, it was not our intention to kill

anybody. We have bombed the British Government. The British must quit India and make

her free." Their fearless and defiant attitude in the courts and their slogans ' Inquilab Zindabad,'

songs such as 'Sarfaroshi ki tamanna ab hamare dil mein hain' and 'Mera rang de basanti chola'

became very popular all over India.

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru & Sukhdev became symbols for Indian struggle against British rule. They

became an inspiration for many youths who wanted to see India independent. Sukhdev and

Rajguru were executed on 23rd March 1931 and Bhagat Singh on 24th March 1931. Millions of

people in India wept and refused to eat food, attend schools, or carry on their daily work, when they

heard of their hanging.

Chandrashekhar Azad had escaped from getting arrested and he continued to organize the

revolutionary youths. But on 27th February 1931 Azad was betrayed by an informer and was encircled

by a huge posse of British troops in the Alfred Park, Allahabad. He was asked to surrender but Azad

refused. For several hours he alone fought against hundreds of policemen. He kept on fighting till the

last bullet. Finding no other alternative, except surrender, Azad shot himself.
A large number of revolutionaries were convicted in the Lahore conspiracy Case and other similar

cases and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment many of them were sent to the Andamans. The

revolutionary under-trials went on hunger strike protesting against the horrible conditions in jails.

They demanded that they be treated as political prisoners and not as criminals. On 13th September,

after 64 days of an epic hunger strike Jatin Das, the iron willed young man from Bengal died. The

entire nation rallied behind the hunger strikers. Thousands came to pay homage at every station

passed by the train carrying his body from Lahore to Calcutta. At Calcutta, a two-mile-long procession

of more than half a million people carried his coffin to the cremation ground.

Satyagraha Movement of Gandhi and rise of Sardar Patel and Jawaharlal Nehru

 Vallabhbhai Patel, qualified as a barrister in 1913 and returned to India to a lucrative practice in

Ahmedabad. But soon following Gandhi’s footsteps, Vallabhbhai took to spinning the charkha,

boycotted foreign goods and clothes and burned his foreign possessions on public bonfires. He even

discarded the western dresses he once so coveted. The relationship between Gandhiji and Vallabhbhai

was concretely defined when Gandhiji was elected the President of the Gujarat Sabha and Vallabhbhai

the Secretary, in 1917. He participated in the Nagpur flag satyagraha from May to August in 1923 in

protest against the stopping of a procession which carried the national flag. In 1928, Vallabhbhai once

again came to the rescue of the farmers, this time it was in Bardoli, which was then a part of Surat

district. The Government increased the tax on the land. Those who were not able to pay the high

taxes, their lands were confiscated. Vallabhbhai urged the farmers not to pay, declaring the hike

unjust. He prepared the farmers for satyagraha. The Satyagraha continued for six months. Finally the

government agreed to hold an inquiry into the justification of the tax hike, released the satyagrahis

and returned all confiscated items back to the farmers. So pleased was Gandhiji with Vallabhbhai's

effort that he gave him the title of "Sardar" or leader.

In 1929 Lord Irwin promises Dominion Status for India. This year also saw the rise of Jawaharlal

Nehru, who was destined to become the first prime minister of free India. Jawaharlal Nehru was son

of congress leader Motilal Nehru. Jawaharlal was educated in Britain from where he graduated as a
barrister. After the Jalianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, he joined the freedom struggle. In the Lahore

session of Congress in 1929, under President Jawaharlal Nehru, the resolution of "Poorna Swaraj",

Complete Independence, was adopted. On December 21, 1929, the Trianga (tricolor) flag was

unfurled. On January 26, 1930, the first Independence Day was celebrated. The Civil disobedience

movement was started as well as the movement to no longer submit to British Rule. Nehru spent

most of the period from 1930 to 1936 in jail for conducting civil disobedience campaigns.

On March 12, 1930, Gandhi marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, to protest against ‘state

monopoly on salt’ often called the Dandi march. The march was 375 km and took 26 days. As a

result of this march, all of India joined the campaign to boycott foreign goods and refused to pay

taxes. Sardar Patel left for Dandi to prepare for Gandhiji's Salt satyagraha. He went to villages to

organize for the food and lodging of the marchers. In every village he went, he made stirring

speeches, rousing the people to join the march to Dandi. The Government swooped down and

arrested him while he was in the village of Ras. This was Sardar Patel's first prison sentence.

Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan started the Khudai Kidmatgar movement in the NorthWest of India. The

government imprisoned 90,000 people that were participating in the movement in the first year.

Round Table Conferences and Gandhi Irwin Pact

First Round Table Conferences was held in November 1930 was attended by eighty-nine

delegates from different religious, political groups and princely states. The Indian National Congress,

then engaged in civil disobedience, was not represented. Lacking representation from the Congress

and preoccupied with problems of federation, the first conference adjourned in January 1931, without

having made appreciable progress on the issue of communal representation. Sardar Patel, was

released after the Gandhi-Irwin pact of March 1931. Gandhi signed the Pact on behalf of the

Congress and by Lord Irwin on behalf of the Government. The terms of the agreement included the

immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted for violence, the remission of all fines not yet

collected, the return of confiscated lands not yet sold to third parties, and lenient treatment for those

government employees who had resigned. British Government also conceded the right to make salt
for consumption to villages long the coast, as also the right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing.

That year Sardar Patel presided over the Congress session in Karachi.

The second round table conference opened in London on September 7, 1931. Two committees

were formed during the conference - committees on federal structure and minorities. Gandhi was a

member of both and he claimed that he represented all India and dismissed other Indian delegates as

non-representative because they did not belong to the Congress. There was serious disagreement on

communal representation issue between Congress and other minority groups. Gandhi returned from

the conference and continued the civil disobedience movement and was arrested again. The third

round table conference began on November 17, 1932. It was short and unimportant. The

Congress, and the Labor opposition in the British Parliament were both absent. Reports of the various

committees were scrutinized. The conference ended on December 25, 1932.

Continuing revolutionary struggle and role of women revolutionaries Most historians write

about the dominant role of Gandhi and Congress during the Indian freedom movement of 1930s but

only a few mention the revolutionary movement that continued in different parts of India. Some of

these revolutionary leaders worked in congress but later got disillusioned by Gandhi’s non-violent

satyagraha. Among the new 'Revolutionary Groups', the most active and famous was the Chittagong

group led by Surya Sen. He actively participated in the non-cooperation movement and was

popularly known as ‘Masterda’. Arrested and imprisoned for two years, from 1926 to 1928, for

revolutionary activities, he continued to work in the Congress. On 18th April 1930, a group of fivety-

six revolutionaries under the leader ship of Surya Sen, Ganesh Ghosh and Loknath Baul captured

two police armories in Chittagong. They hoisted the National Flag among shouts of Bande Mataram

and Inquilab Zindabad and proclaimed Provisional Revolutionary Government. It was on the

Jalalabad Hill that over a thousand British government troops surrounded them on the afternoon of 22

April. After a fierce fight, in which over eighty British troops and twelve revolutionaries died, Surya

Sen decided to disperse to the neighbouring village there they formed into small groups and

conducted raids on Government personnel and property. They continued their fight against British
army for over 3 years. Surya Sen was finally arrested on 16 February 1933, tried and hanged on

12th January 1934.

Large-scale participation of young women in freedom struggle under Surya Sen's leadership

characterized this phase of revolutionary movement. These women provided shelters, acted as

messengers and fought guns in hand. Preetilata Waddekar died while conducting a raid, while

Kalpana Dutt was arrested and tried along with Surya Sen and given a life sentence. In December

1931, two schoolgirls of Kummilla in Bengal, Shanti Ghosh and Suneeti Chaudhary, shot dead the

district magistrates. In December 1932, Beena Das fired point blank at the Governor while receiving

her degree at the convocation. In Nagaland, Rani Gaidilita, a 13-year girl raised a flag against the

British and was put into prison for life in 1932.

Government of India Act 1935 and formation of Provincial Legislative Government

In 1935, the Government of India Act was passed in the British Parliament. This created an All-Indian

Federation based on provincial autonomy. The Congress swept 7 out of 11 of the provinces in July

1937. The Muslim League which claimed to represent Indian Muslims, secured less then a quarter of

the seats reserved for Muslims. While, political prisoners were released and civil liberties promoted,

the limitations on the Act of 1935 few real achievements were made. The Muslim League fared poorly

in the elections. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the permanent president of the Muslim League, began

rumors that the Muslim minority was in danger under the Hindu majority and promoted a two

separate nation plan. In 1940, the Muslim League passed a resolution demanding Pakistan after as a

separate country after Independence.

Rise of Subhash Chandra Bose in Indian freedom movement

Subhash Chandra Bose was born in 1897. He was selected for Indian civil services but resigned

from it and returned to India in 1921. He joined Swarjya Party of C.R. Das in Gaya Congress in 1922.

In 1930 he was elected Mayor of Calcutta and became a prominent leader of Indian freedom

movement. During 1933-36 Subhash Bose met several prominent European leaders and tried to

persuade them to help India in its freedom struggle against British colonialism. Many people
questioned Gandhi’s leadership. Subhash Chandra Bose and Vithalbhai Patel (brother of Sardar

Patel) in a strong statement had said in 1933 that 'Mr. Gandhi as a political leader has failed' and

called for 'a radical reorganization of the Congress on a new principle with a new method, for which a

new leader is essential.' Subhash returned to India in 1936 and was arrested. In 1938 he was elected

as the President of Indian Congress and made the historic speech in Haripura convention. Subhash

brought new ideas to the Congress and wanted a quick move towards launching a freedom struggle.

Gandhi and Nehru were in favor of helping British during World War II and against any serious

movement that could harm British War efforts. Subhash Bose strongly opposed this idea. Sardar Patel,

Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani, Jawaharlal Nehru and Gandhi supported Pattabhi Sitaramayya as a

candidate for the post of Congress president against Subhash in 1939. Subhas Bose was elected on

29th January by 1580 votes against 1377. Gandhi declared that 'Pattabhi's defeat is my defeat'.

Not wanting to embarrass these leaders and due to strong policy differences with Gandhi and Nehru,

Subhash resigned and formed the new organization Forward Block. Subhash later became President

of Indian National Army, which played a crucial role during last part of Indian freedom movement.

British Involvement in World War II and Quit India Movement

On September 1st., 1939, German troops invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war against

Germany on September 3rd 1939. Beginning of World War II hastened the end of British rule in India.

During World War II, Congress stated that if it wanted India's cooperation, it must give India the right

of self-determination. The British refused and in 1939 Congress led provincial ministries resigned. Role

of Gandhi during this period was again controversial. In October 1940, Gandhi called for limited

Satyagraha so the movement did not seriously harm the British war effort. Many of his closest

colleagues and the rank and file in the Indian National Congress could not bring themselves to accept

the feasibility of defending the country against aggression without resort to arms. During the war

whenever there was a possibility of a rapprochement between the Congress and the Government for

a united war effort, Gandhi stepped aside.

Udham Singh had witnessed his brother being killed in the Jalianwala massacre as a child. Twenty-

one years later he took the revenge for that massacre by killing Sir Michael O'Dwyer on 13th March

1940. Sir Michael O'Dwyer was the governor of Punjab at the time of Jalianwala Bagh massacre and

had strongly supported the massacre. Udham Singh was captured and executed On July 31, 1940.

In 1942, Stafford Cripps lead the Cripps Mission, promised Dominion Status with the right of

secession but refused to allow immediate transfer of power. The Indian leaders refused to accept

promises. Under tremendous pressure from his colleagues in Congress Gandhi agreed for a mass

independent movement. The Quit India resolution was passed in 1942, Bombay session of

Congress. Gandhi stressed, "We shall either free India or die in the attempt. We shall not live to see

the perpetuation of our slavery". This is famously known as "Do or Die". This was declared illegal by

British government and all of the prominent leaders were arrested. There were revolts all around

India with the slogan of "British Quit India".

Role of Indian National Army (INA)

Mohan Singh, an Indian officer of the British Indian Army who did not join the retreating British army

in Malaya first conceived the idea of the Indian National Army and asked for Japanese help. Indian

prisoners of war were handed over by the Japanese to Mohan Singh who then tried to recruit them

into an Indian National Army. On 1 September 1942, the first division of the INA was formed with

16,300 men. But later due to differences with Japanese Mohan Singh was arrested. Accompanied by

Rashbehari Bose, Netaji arrived at Singapore from Tokyo on 27 June. He was given a tumultuous

welcome by the resident Indians and was profusely 'garlanded' wherever he went. His speeches kept

the listeners spellbound. By now, a legend had grown around him, and its magic infected his

audiences. He went to Tokyo and Prime Minister Tojo declared that Japan had no territorial designs

on India. The Provisional Government of Free India was formed on 21 October 1943. INA was now

known as Azad Hind Fauz (Free India Army) It was reorganized with the creation of a second INA

division and even a women’s regiment known as Rani Jhansi regiment was created. Subhash Chandra

Bose was popularly called ‘Netaji’ by his followers. His call of ‘ Tum mujhe Khun dou mai tumhe Azadi
dunga’(I promise you freedom, if you are ready to spill your blood) encouraged thousands youths to

join the freedom movement.

The Provisional Government of free India formed under ‘Netaji’ declared war on Britain. In March -

April 1944 INA set its foot inside India and captured large parts of Manipur. On April 6th 1944

Kohima, a major city was captured. Indian tricolor (flag) was raised inside free India. But soon the

balance of power in World War II shifted in favor of British and allied forces. With defeat of Japan and

German forces the INA was forced to retreat from Kohima. Thousands of INA soldiers died fighting

British and many were captured. Despite the defeat Subhas Chandra Bose and his INA became

household names throughout the country as the British prosecuted the returning soldiers. Subhash

Chandra Bose escaped to Japan and some reports say he died in an air-crash while others say he

survived the air-crash. His ultimate fate remains unknown till date.

Events leading to partition and independence of India

Gandhi- Jinnah talks

First partition of Bengal in 1905 had sowed the seeds of division of India. Many Muslim leaders had

started entertaining the idea of a separate Muslim dominated country. Gandhi’s initial stand was that

India should not be partitioned into two nations after Independence. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was the

leader of Muslim League, a self-proclaimed champion of Muslim cause. Although Muslim League never

had popular support amongst Indian Muslims, British always supported Muslim League. The Muslim

League adopted the Pakistan demand in its Lahore resolution in 1940. The demand stated that the

geographically contiguous regions of India where the Muslims are a majority like the North West and

the Eastern side of India should be constituted as independent states.

On September 19, 1944, Gandhi-Jinnah talks began in Bombay over partition of India and creation of

Pakistan. Gandhi insisted that he came in his personal capacity and was not representing Hindus or

Congress. During the talks Jinaah insisted on the need for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) while

Gandhi tried to impress that India needs to remain a united one country. Talks ended on September

24, 1944 without any conclusion.

On the 21st of February 1946, mutiny broke out on board the Royal Indian Navy. Mutiny in Royal

Indian Navy was quickly controlled. Mutiny in Royal Indian Navy only highlighted the amount of

discontent amongst the Indian troops who were serving British Raj. As a result of the Indian National

Army’s exploits in World War II, British had already started doubting the loyalty of the British Indian

soldiers who formed the bulk of troops in India. Afraid of further revolts in armed forces British

planned to quickly hand over power to Indian political establishment. Events like INA’s capture of

Kohima in World War II and Indian Navy mutiny were probably not significant militarily but were a

psychological blow to the confidence of British government, which hastened Indian Independence.

Cabinet Mission plan (1946) - To end the dead lock between Congress and Muslim League on the

issue of creation of Pakistan, British Government sent a group of ministers. The mission consisted of

Lord Pethic Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of

Trade, and A. V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty.

The main points of the plan were:

1. There would be a union of India comprising both British India and the Indian States that would

deal with foreign affairs, defense and communications. The union would have an Executive and a

Legislature.

2. All residuary powers would belong to the provinces.

3. All provinces would be divided into three sections. Provinces could opt out of any group after the

first general elections.

4. There would also be an interim government having the support of the major political parties.

Both Congress and Muslim League agreed to the Cabinet mission plan. But Jawaharlal Nehru made an

astonishing statement while addressing a press conference on July 10. He said that the Congress had

agreed to join the constituent assembly, but it would be free to make changes in the Cabinet Mission

Plan.
Jinnah and Muslim League who were forced to accept the Cabinet Mission Plan earlier now pounced

on the blunder made by Jawaharlal Nehru. Muslim League disassociated itself from the Cabinet Plan

and resorted to "Direct Action" to achieve Pakistan.

Viceroy Wavell invited the Congress to join the interim government.

On 16th August 1946, mob violence and rioting erupted in Calcutta and many people died. On

October 14, 1946, to reduce the increasing communal tension Lord Wavell, invited Muslim League

participate in the interim Government led by Congress.

Second blunder made by Nehru was to give the post of Finance Minister to Muslim League nominee

Liaquat Ali Khan who tried to win the favor of Indian Muslims by presenting a budget that favored

Muslims.

On December 9, 1946 the Congress started framing the Indian Constitution. On March 22, 1947,

Lord Mountbatten arrived as the last Viceroy. It was announced that power would be transferred from

British to Indian hands by June 1948. Lord Mountbatten entered into a series of talks with the

Congress and the Muslim League leaders. Jinnah insisted on creation of Pakistan as a separate

country for Indian Muslims. Congress also agreed to the partition of India. Gandhi who had previously

said that India would be partitioned over my ‘dead body’ now agreed to the partition plan.

Mountbatten now prepared for the partition of the Sub-continent and announced it on June 3, 1947.

The Congress and the Muslem League agreed that India would become free on August 15, 1947. The

country would be partitioned under the guidance of the Red Cliff Mission.

Independent India

On 15th August 1947 India became an independent country and Pakistan was also formed.

Jawaharlal Nehru took oath as the first Prime Minister of Independent India. Massive exodus of

population from Islamic Pakistan to India took place. Nearly the whole Hindu population living in

Pakistan’s Punjab and Sindh and East Bengal migrated to India. Large numbers of Hindus were killed

in the riots in Pakistan and many others were forcibly converted to Islam. Only a few Hindus survived

in Islamic republic of Pakistan. Muslims from Independent India also migrated to Pakistan and many
 Muslims were killed in riots that took place in India. But majority of Muslims preferred to stay in India

and were given equal rights in secular India. The Muslim population of Independent India was much

bigger than that of Independent Pakistan. Indian independence was scarred by the trauma and

bloodshed of partition.

The Partition of India

Sentiments of Indian nationalism were expressed as early as 1885 at the Indian National
Congress, which was predominantly Hindu. In 1906 the All-India Muslim League formed
with favorable relations towards British rule, but by 1913 that changed when the League
shifted its focus and began to view Indian self-government as its goal. It continued to favor
Hindu-Muslim unity towards that end for several decades but in 1940 the League began to
call for a separate Muslim state from the projected independent India. The league was
concerned that a united independent India would be dominated by Hindus. In the winter of
1945-46 Mohammed Ali Jinnah's Muslim League members won all thirty seats reserved for
Muslims in the Central Legislative Assembly and most of the reserved provincial seats as
well.
In an effort to resolve deadlock between Congress and the Muslim League in order to
transfer British power "to a single Indian administration", a three-man Cabinet Mission
formed in 1946 which drafted plans for a "three-tier federation for India." According to
those plans, the region would be divided into three groups of provinces, with Group A
including the Hindu-populated provinces that would eventually comprise the majority of the
independent India. Groups B and C were comprised of largely Muslim-populated provinces.
Each group would be governed separately with a great degree of autonomy except for the
handling of "foreign affairs, communications, defense, and only those finances required for
such nationwide matters." These issues would be addressed by a minimal central
government located in Dehli.

The plan, however, did not take into account the fate of a large Sikh population living in
Punjab, part of the B-group of provinces. Mughal emperors' persecution of Sikh gurus in the
17th century had infused the Sikh culture with a lasting anti-Muslim element that promised
to erupt if the Punjab Sikhs were to be partitioned off as part of a Muslim-dominated
province group. Although they did not make up more than two per cent of the Indian
population, the Sikhs had since 1942 been moving for a separate Azad Punjab of their own,
and by 1946 they were demanding a free Sikh nation-state.
As leader of the Muslim League, Jinnah accepted the Cabinet Mission's proposal. However,
when Nehru announced at his first press conference as the reelected president of Congress
that "no constituent assembly could be bound by any prearranged constitutional formula,"
Jinnah took this to be a repudiation of the plan, which was necessarily a case of all or
nothing. The Muslim League�s Working Committee withdrew its consent and called upon
the Muslim nation to launch direct action in mid-August 1946. A frenzy of rioting between
Hindus and Muslims ensued.

In March of 1947 Lord Mountbatten was sent to take over the viceroy, and encountered a
situation in which he feared a forced evacuation of British troops. He recommended a
partition of Punjab and Bengal in the face of raging civil war. Gandhi was very opposed to
the idea of partition, and urged Mountbatten to offer Jinnah leadership of a united India
instead of the creation of a separate Muslim state. However, Nehru would not agree to that
suggestion. In July Britain's Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, which set a
deadline of midnight on August 14-15, 1947 for "demarcation of the dominions of India." As
a result, at least 10 million Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs fled their homes to seek sanctuary on
whichever side of the line was favorable to them. The ensuing communal massacres left at
least one million dead, with the brunt of the suffering borne by the Sikhs who had been
caught in the middle. Most of them eventually settled in Punjab.
Jinnah presided as the governor-general of Pakistan, which was geographically divided into
East Pakistan and West Pakistan and separated by Indian territory (including half of Punjab
and half of Bengal). However, ownership of Kashmir remained in dispute until it came to a
head and war broke out once again in 1965. The unrest did not end there; in 1971 tensions
between East and West Pakistan over Bengali autonomy developed into another civil war,
with the result that Bangladesh became an independent country in 1972 and West Pakistan
remained Pakistan.

Indian Independence
Between 1940 and 1942, the Congress launched two abortive agitations against the British,
and 60,000 Congress members were arrested, including Gandhi and Nehru. Unlike the
uncooperative and belligerent Congress, the Muslim League supported the British during
World War II. Belated but perhaps sincere British attempts to accommodate the demands of
the two rival parties, while preserving the unitary state in India, seemed unacceptable to
both as they alternately rejected whatever proposal was put forward during the war years.
As a result, a three-way impasse settled in: the Congress and the Muslim League doubted
British motives in handing over power to Indians, while the British struggled to retain some
hold on India while offering to give greater autonomy.
The Congress wasted precious time denouncing the British rather than allaying Muslim fears
during the highly charged election campaign of 1946. Even the more mature Congress
leaders, especially Gandhi and Nehru, failed to see how genuinely afraid the Muslims were
and how exhausted and weak the British had become in the aftermath of the war. When it
appeared that the Congress had no desire to share power with the Muslim League at the
center, Jinnah declared August 16, 1946, Direct Action Day, which brought communal
rioting and massacre in many places in the north. Partition seemed preferable to civil war.
On June 3, 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the viceroy (1947) and governor-general
(1947-48), announced plans for partition of the British Indian Empire into the nations of
India and Pakistan, which itself was divided into east and west wings on either side of India.
At midnight, on August 15, 1947, India strode to freedom amidst ecstatic shouting of "Jai
Hind" , when Nehru delivered a memorable and moving speech on India's "tryst with
destiny."

Jawaharlal Nehru : Speech On the Granting of Indian Independence, August 14, 1947

Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall
redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of
the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment
comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when
an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long supressed, finds utterance. It is fitting
that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of Inida and her
people and to the still larger cause of humanity.

At the dawn of history India started on her unending quest, and trackless centuries are
filled with her striving and the grandeur of her success and her failures. Through good and
ill fortune alike she has never lost sight of that quest or forgotten the ideals, which gave her
strength. We end today a period of ill fortune and India discovers herself again. The
achievement we celebrate today is but a step, an opening of opportunity, to the greater
triumphs and achievements that await us. Are we brave enough and wise enough to grasp
this opportunity and accept the challenge of the future?

Freedom and power bring responsibility. The responsibility rests upon this Assembly, a
sovereign body representing the sovereign people of India. Before the birth of freedom we
have endured all the pains of labour and our hearts are heavy with the memory of this
sorrow. Some of those pains continue even now. Nevertheless, the past is over and it is the
future that beckons to us now.

That future is not one of ease or resting but of incessant striving so that we may fulfil the
pledges we have so often taken and the one we shall take today. The service of India
means the service of the millions who suffer. It means the ending of poverty and ignorance
and disease and inequality of opportunity. The ambition of the greatest man of our
generation has been to wipe every tear from every eye. That may be beyond us, but as
long as there are tears and suffering, so long our work will not be over.

And so we have to labour and to work, and work hard, to give reality to our dreams. Those
dreams are for India, but they are also for the world, for all the nations and peoples are too
closely knit together today for any one of them to imagine that it can live apart Peace has
been said to be indivisible; so is freedom, so is prosperity now, and so also is disaster in
this One World that can no longer be split into isolated fragments.

To the people of India, whose representatives we are, we make an appeal to join us with
faith and confidence in this great adventure. This is no time for petty and destructive
criticism, no time for ill-will or blaming others. We have to build the noble mansion of free
India where all her children may dwell.

II

The appointed day has come-the day appointed by destiny-and India stands forth again,
after long slumber and struggle, awake, vital, free and independent. The past clings on to
us still in some measure and we have to do much before we redeem the pledges we have
so often taken. Yet the turning-point is past, and history begins anew for us, the history
which we shall live and act and others will write about.

It is a fateful moment for us in India, for all Asia and for the world. A new star rises, the
star of freedom in the East, a new hope comes into being, a vision long cherished
materializes. May the star never set and that hope never be betrayed!

We rejoice in that freedom, even though clouds surround us, and many of our people are
sorrowstricken and difficult problems encompass us. But freedom brings responsibilities and
burdens and we have to face them in the spirit of a free and disciplined people.

On this day our first thoughts go to the architect of this freedom, the Father of our Nation
[Gandhi], who, embodying the old spirit of India, held aloft the torch of freedom and lighted
up the darkness that surrounded us. We have often been unworthy followers of his and
have strayed from his message, but not only we but also succeeding generations will
remember this message and bear the imprint in their hearts of this great son of India,
magnificent in his faith and strength and courage and humility. We shall never allow that
torch of freedom to be blown out, however high the wind or stormy the tempest.

Our next thoughts must be of the unknown volunteers and soldiers of freedom who, without
praise or reward, have served India even unto death.

We think also of our brothers and sisters who have been cut off from us by political
boundaries and who unhappily cannot share at present in the freedom that has come. They
are of us and will remain of us whatever may happen, and we shall be sharers in their good
[or] ill fortune alike.

The future beckons to us. Whither do we go and what shall be our endeavour? To bring
freedom and opportunity to the common man, to the peasants and workers of India; to
fight and end poverty and ignorance and disease; to build up a prosperous, democratic and
progressive nation, and to create social, economic and political institutions which will ensure
justice and fullness of life to every man and woman.

We have hard work ahead. There is no resting for any one of us till we redeem our pledge in
full, till we make all the people of India what destiny intended them to be. We are citizens
of a great country on the verge of bold advance, and we have to live up to that high
standard. All of us, to whatever religion we may belong, are equally the children of India
with equal rights, privileges and obligations. We cannot encourage communalism or narrow-
mindedness, for no nation can be great whose people are narrow in thought or in action.

To the nations and peoples of the world we send greetings and pledge ourselves to
cooperate with them in furthering peace, freedom and democracy.

And to India, our much-loved motherland, the ancient, the eternal and the ever-new, we
pay our reverent homage and we bind ourselves afresh to her service.

JAI HIND.

Indian History
History of India and its civilization dates back to at least 6500 BC which perhaps makes the oldest

surviving civilization in the world. India has been a meeting ground between the East and the West.

Through out its history many invaders have come to India but Indian religions allowed it to adapt to

and absorb all of them. All the while, these local dynasties built upon the roots of a culture well

established. India has always been simply too big, too complicated, and too culturally subtle to let any

one empire dominate it for long. Based on archeological findings, Indian history can be broadly

divided into five phases:

1.Saraswati (Harappan) civilization: 6500 BC - 1000 BC or also called 'Vedic period' in history

of India.

2. Golden period of Indian History:  500 BC - 800 AD

3. Muslim influence in India:  1000 AD- 1700 AD

4. British period in India:  1700 AD - 1947 AD

5. Modern India: 1947 - till date

Vedic period and Golden Period of Indian History

  Ancient Indian History  Pala and Sena
 Buddha and Mahavira  Pratiharas
 Mauryan Empire  Rashtrakutas
 Kushan Dynasty South Indian dynasties
 Gupta Empire  Satvahana Dynasty
 Harsha Vardhana  Pandya
 Chalukya
 Yadava
 Kakatiyas
 Hoysalas

Ancient Indian History (Vedic Period)

Earliest historical evidence from Mehargarh  (north-west Indian sub-continent) shows beginning of

civilization in India at around 6500 B.C. It is the earliest and largest urban site of the period in the

world. This site has yielded evidence for the earliest domestication of animals, evolution of

agriculture, as well as arts and crafts. The horse was first domesticated here in 6500 B.C. There is a

progressive process of the domestication of animals, particularly cattle, the development of

agriculture, beginning with barley and then later wheat and rice, and the use of metal, beginning with

copper and culminating in iron, along with the development villages and towns. It has been 

suggested by some historians that an 'Aryan Invasion' of Indian subcontinent took place around 1500-

1000 B.C. However, current archeological data do not support the existence of an Indo Aryan or

European invasion into South Asia at any time in the pre or proto-historic periods (David Frawley).

The people in this tradition were the same basic ethnic groups as in India today, with their same basic

types of languages.

Two important cities were discovered: Harappa on the Ravi river, and Mohenjodaro on the Indus

during excavations in 1920. The remains of these two cities were part of a large civilization and well

developed ancient civilization, which is now called by historians as 'Indus Valley Civilization', or

'Saraswati Civilization'. Later Harappan (Sarasvati) civilization 3100-1900 BC shows massive cities,

complex agriculture and metallurgy, sophistication of arts and crafts, and precision in weights and

measures. They built large buildings, which were mathematically-planned. The city planning in those
ancient cities is comparable to the best of our modern cities. This civilization had a written language

and was highly sophisticated.  Some of these towns were almost three miles in diameter with

thousands of residents. These ancient municipalities had granaries, citadels, and even household

toilets. In Mohenjodaro, a mile-long canal connected the city to the sea, and trading ships sailed as

far as Mesopotamia. At its height, the Indus civilization extended over half a million square miles

across the Indus river valley, and though it existed at the same time as the ancient civilizations of

Egypt and Sumer, it far outlasted them. This Sarasvati civilization was a center of trading and for the

diffusion of civilization throughout south and west Asia, which often dominated the Mesopotamian

region. 

Mehrgarh, Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Lothal are peripheral cities of the great

Sarasvati civilization with more than 500 sites along its banks awaiting excavation.

The year 4500 B.C. marks Mandhatr's defeat of Druhyus, driving them to the west into Iran. 4000-

3700 B.C. was the Rig Veda period. In 3730 B.C. the 'Battle of Ten' Kings - occurred. That was the

age of Sudas and his sage advisors, Vasistha and Visvamitra. From 3600 to 3100 B.C. was the late

Vedic age during which Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas were composed. 3100 B.C. is the probable

date of the Mahabharata, composed by Vyasa. At this time, a tectonic plate shift resulted in river

Yamuna which was a tributary of river Saraswati shifted its course and Saraswati became smaller. It

was the beginning of 'Kali Yuga'. In 1900 B.C., another tectonic plate shift made Saraswati lose

Sutlej. This dried up Sarasvati, causing massive exodus of people towards the Ganga valley in east,

whence arose the classical civilization of India. Post-Harappan civilization 1900-1000 BC shows the

abandonment of the Harappan towns owing to ecological and river changes but without a real break

in the continuity of the culture. There is a decentralization and relocation in which the same basic

agricultural and artistic traditions continue, along with a few significant urban sites like Dwaraka.

This gradually develops into the Gangetic civilization of the first millennium BC, which is the classical

civilization of ancient India, which retains its memory of its origin in the Saraswati region through the

Vedas.
David Frawley and other modern scholars propose:

1. 6500-3100 BC, Pre-Harappan, early Rig Vedic 

2. 3100-1900 BC, Mature Harappan 3100-1900, period of the Four Vedas.

3. 1900-1000 BC, Late Harappan, late Vedic and Brahmana period 

Buddha and Mahavira : 

The sequence of development in the literature does not parallel a migration into India but the

historical development of civilization in India from the Sarasvati to the Ganges'. In the 5th century BC,

Siddhartha Gautama founded the religion of Buddhism, a profoundly influential work of human

thought still espoused by much of the world. In the same another religion called Jainism was

founded by Mahavira.

Around 500 BC, when the Persian kings Cyrus and Darius, pushing their empire eastward, conquered

the ever-prized Indus Valley. The Persians were in turn conquered by the Greeks under Alexander the

Great, who came as far as the Beas River, where he defeated king Porus and an army of 200

elephants in 326 BC. The tireless, charismatic conqueror wanted to extend his empire even further

eastward, but his own troops (undoubtedly exhausted) refused to continue. Alexander returned home,

leaving behind garrisons to keep the trade routes open.

Golden period of Indian History

The Mauryan Empire :

Although Indian accounts to a large extent ignored Alexander the Great's Indus campaign in 326 B.C.,

Greek writers recorded their impressions of the general conditions prevailing in South Asia during this

period. A two-way cultural fusion between several Indo-Greek elements-especially in art, architecture,

and coinage--occurred in the next several hundred years. North India's political landscape was

transformed by the emergence of Magadha in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain.

As the overextended Hellenistic sphere declined, a king known as Chandragupta swept back through

the country from Magadha (Bihar) and conquered his way well into Afghanistan. This was the

beginning of one India's greatest dynasties, the Maurya. In 322 B.C., Magadha, under the rule of
Chandragupta Maurya, began to assert its hegemony over neighboring areas. Chandragupta, who

ruled from 324 to 301 B.C., was the architect of the first Indian imperial power-the Mauryan Empire

(326-184 B.C.)--whose capital was Pataliputra, near modern-day Patna, in Bihar.

Situated on rich alluvial soil and near mineral deposits, especially iron, Magadha was at the center of

bustling commerce and trade. The capital was a city of magnificent palaces, temples, a university, a

library, gardens, and parks, as reported by Megasthenes, the third-century B.C. Greek historian and

ambassador to the Mauryan court. Legend states that Chandragupta's success was due in large

measure to his adviser Kautilya, the Brahman author of the Arthashastra (Science of Material Gain),

a textbook that outlined governmental administration and political strategy. There was a highly

centralized and hierarchical government with a large staff, which regulated tax collection, trade and

commerce, industrial arts, mining, vital statistics, welfare of foreigners, maintenance of public places

including markets and temples, and prostitutes. A large standing army and a well-developed

espionage system were maintained. The empire was divided into provinces, districts, and villages

governed by a host of centrally appointed local officials, who replicated the functions of the central

administration.

Ashoka, was the most trusted son of Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta . During his father's

reign, he was the governor of Ujjain and Taxila. Having sidelined all claims to the throne from his

brothers, Ashoka was coroneted as an emperor. He ruled from 269 to 232 B.C. and was one of India's

most illustrious rulers. Under the great king Ashoka the Mauryan empire conquered nearly the entire

subcontinent, Ashoka extended the Maurya Empire to the whole of India except the deep south and

the south-east, reaching out even into Central Asia.

 Ashoka's inscriptions chiseled on rocks and stone pillars located at strategic locations throughout his

empire--such as Lampaka (Laghman in modern Afghanistan), Mahastan (in modern Bangladesh), and

Brahmagiri (in Karnataka)--constitute the second set of datable historical records. According to some

of the inscriptions, in the aftermath of the carnage resulting from his campaign against the powerful

kingdom of Kalinga (modern Orissa), Ashoka renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of
nonviolence or ahimsa, espousing a theory of rule by righteousness. His toleration for different

religious beliefs and languages reflected the realities of India's regional pluralism although he

personally seems to have followed Buddhism. Early Buddhist stories assert that he convened a

Buddhist council at his capital, regularly undertook tours within his realm, and sent Buddhist

missionary ambassadors to Sri Lanka. His rule marked the height of the Maurya empire, and it

collapsed only 100 years after his death.

Under his reign Buddhism spread to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Central Asia, Burma. For propagation of

Buddhism, he started inscribing edicts on rocks and pillars at places where people could easily read

them. These pillars and rocks are still found in India, spreading their message of love and peace for

the last two thousand years. To his ideas he gave the name Dharma. Ashoka died in 232 BC. The

capital of Ashoka pillar at Sarnath is adopted by India as its national emblem. The "Dharma Chakra"

on the Ashoka Pillar adorns our National Flag. 

Kushan Dynasty :

After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire in the second century B.C., South Asia became a

collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. India's unguarded northwestern border again

attracted a series of invaders between 200 B.C. and A.D. 300. The invaders became "Indianized" in

the process of their conquest and settlement. Also, this period witnessed remarkable intellectual and

artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism. The Indo-Greeks, or the Bactrians,

of the northwest contributed to the development of numismatics; they were followed by another

group, the Shakas (or Scythians), from the steppes of Central Asia, who settled in western India. Still

other nomadic people, the Yuezhi, who were forced out of the Inner Asian steppes of Mongolia, drove

the Shakas out of northwestern India and established the Kushana Kingdom (first century B.C.-third

century A.D.). The Kushana Kingdom controlled parts of Afghanistan and Iran, and in India the realm

stretched from Purushapura (modern Peshawar, Pakistan) in the northwest, to Varanasi (Uttar

Pradesh) in the east, and to Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) in the south. For a short period, the kingdom

reached still farther east, to Pataliputra. The Kushana Kingdom was the crucible of trade among the
Indian, Persian, Chinese, and Roman empires and controlled a critical part of the legendary Silk Road.

Kanishka, who reigned for two decades starting around A.D. 78, was the most noteworthy Kushana

ruler. He converted to Buddhism and convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. The Kushanas

were patrons of Gandharan art, a synthesis between Greek and Indian styles, and Sanskrit literature.

They initiated a new era called Shaka in A.D. 78, and their calendar, which was formally recognized

by India for civil purposes starting on March 22, 1957, is still in use.

The Classical Age - Gupta Empire and Harsha :

Gupta age - Under Chandragupta I (320-335), empire was revived in the north. Like Chandragupta

Maurya, he first conquered Magadha, set up his capital where the Mauryan capital had stood (Patna),

and from this base consolidated a kingdom over the eastern portion of northern India. In addition,

Chandragupta revived many of Asoka's principles of government. It was his son, however,

Samudragupta (335-376), and later his grandson, Chandragupta II (376-415), who extended the

kingdom into an empire over the whole of the north and the western Deccan. Chandragupta II was

the greatest of the Gupta kings and called Vikramaditya. He presided over the greatest cultural age in

India. From Pataliputra, their capital, he sought to retain political preeminence as much by

pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. The greatest writer of the time

was Kalidasa. Poetry in the Gupta age tended towards a few genres: religious and meditative poetry,

lyric poetry, narrative histories (the most popular of the secular literatures), and drama. Kalidasa

excelled at lyric poetry, but he is best known for his dramas. The Indian numeral system--sometimes

erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman

system--and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on

astronomy in 499 A.D. gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral

bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved

medical system. Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and

plastic surgery including skin grafting.

The Guptas fell prey, however, to a wave of migrations by the Huns, a people who originally lived

north of China. Beginning in the 400's, the Huns began to put pressure on the Guptas. In 480 AD they

conquered the Guptas and took over northern India. Western India was overrun by 500 A.D., and the

last of the Gupta kings, presiding over a vastly diminished kingdom, perished in 550 A.D. Over the

decades Huns gradually assimilated into the indigenous population and their state weakened.

Harsha Vardhana :

The northern and western regions of India passed into the hands of a dozen or more feudatories.

Gradually, one of them, Prabhakar Vardhana, the ruler of Thanesar, who belonged to the Pushabhukti

family, extended his control over all other feudatories. Prabhakar Vardhan was the first king of the

Vardhan dynasty with his capital at Thanesar now a small town in the vicinity of Kurukshetra in the

state of Haryana. After the death of Prabahakar Vardhan in 606 A.D., his eldest son, RajyaVardhan,

became king of Kananuj. Harsha ascended the throne at the age of 16 after his brother Rajya

Vardhana was killed in a battle against Malwa King Devigupta and Gauda King Sasanka..

 Harsha, quickly re-established an Indian empire. From 606-647 AD, he ruled over an empire in

northern India. Harsha was perhaps one of the greatest conquerors of Indian history, and unlike all of

his conquering predecessors, he was a brilliant administrator. He was also a great patron of culture.

His capital city, Kanauj, extended for four or five miles along the Ganges River and was filled with

magnificent buildings. Only one fourth of the taxes he collected went to administration of the

government. The remainder went to charity, rewards, and especially to culture: art, literature, music,

and religion.

The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics,

art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism

witnessed a crystallization of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, bhakti

(devotion), and the importance of the temple. Education included grammar, composition, logic,

metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and

reached an advanced level.

 Because of extensive trade, the culture of India became the dominant culture around the Bay of

Bengal, profoundly and deeply influencing the cultures of Burma, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. In many

ways, the period during and following the Gupta dynasty was the period of "Greater India," a period

of cultural activity in India and surrounding countries building off of the base of Indian culture.

The history of the Kingdom of Kanauj after the death of Harshavardhana can be said to have been

uncertain till the year 730 AD, when Yashovarman is said to have ruled till 752 AD. This was followed by

the Ayudha dynasty which comprised three kings. The first was Yajrayudha who is said to have ruled in

about 770 AD. After Ayudhs, Prathihara King Nagabhatta II annexed Kannauj. North and north west part

of India after Harsha Vardhana was mostly controlled by Pratihara Kings while Central India and part of

South was mostly under Rashtrakutas dynasty (753-973 AD ). Pala Kings (750-1161 AD) ruled the

Eastern part of India (present Bengal and Bihar).

Pala and Sena: 730-1197 A.D.

The Pala empire was founded in 730 AD. They ruled over parts of Bengal and Bihar. Dharmapala

(780-812 AD) was one of the greatest kings of the Pala dynasty. He did much to restore the greatness

of Pataliputra. The Nalanda university was revived under their rule. The Palas had close trade contacts

and cultural links with South-East Asia.

In the early twelfth century, they were replaced by the Sena dynasty. In early 13th century, Tughan

Khan defeated the Sena king, Laxman. After this defeat the Nalanda University was destroyed.

Pratiharas 750-920 AD

The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by

836, and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city Bhojpal

(Bhopal). Raja Bhoja and other valiant Gujara kings, faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs

from west. Between 915-918AD, attack by a Rashtrakuta king, to the weakening of the Pratihara

Empire and also who devastated the city of Kannauj. In 1018 AD, Mahmud of Gazni sacked Kannauj

then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara. The empire broke into independent Rajput states.
Rashtrakutas 753-973 A.D.

Dantidurga laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta empire. The Rashtrakuta's empire was the most

powerful of the time. They ruled from Lattaluru (Latur), and later shifted the capital to Manyaketa

(Malkhed).

Amoghavarsha (814-880 A.D) is the most famous Rashtrakuta kings. His long reign was distinguished

for its royal patronage of Jainism and the flourishing of regional literature. Indra III, great-grandson

of Amoghvarsha defeated the Pratihar king Mahipala. Krishana III was the last great king of

Rashtrakuta dynasty. Rashtrakutas were great patrons of art and architecture. Krishana I, built the

Kailasa Temple at Ellora. The caves at Gharapuri (Elephanta near Mumbai) were also built by this

dynasty.

 The South Indian Rulers

During the Kushana Dynasty, an indigenous power, the Satavahana Kingdom (first century B.C.-third

century A.D), rose in the Deccan in southern India. The Satavahana, or Andhra, Kingdom was

considerably influenced by the Mauryan political model, although power was decentralized in the

hands of local chieftains, who used the symbols of Vedic religion and upheld the varnashramadharma.

The rulers, however, were eclectic and patronized Buddhist monuments, such as those in Ellora

(Maharashtra) and Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh). Thus, the Deccan served as a bridge through which

politics, trade, and religious ideas could spread from the north to the south. Further south were three

ancient Tamil kingdoms- Chera (on the west), Chola (on the east), and Pandya (in the south)--

frequently involved in internecine warfare to gain regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek

and Ashokan sources as lying at the fringes of the Mauryan Empire.

Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas

(556-757) of Vatapi, the Pallavas (300-888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas (seventh through the

tenth centuries) of Madurai. Their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from 753 - 973 AD,

overthrew the Chalukya rulers. Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the

real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms.
The Satvahana Dynasty :

The Satvahanas (also known as Andhras) established their kingdom in the Deccan after the decline of

Maurya Empire. The kingdom was in the present Maharashtra state. The founder of the Satvahana

dynasty was Simuka in 40 B.C. Satakarni I was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty. Satakarni

I allied with powerful Marathi chieftain and signaled his accession to power by performing

ashvamedhas (horse-sacrifice). After his death, the Satvahana power slowly disintegrated under a

wave of Scythian invasion. The Satvahana dynasty lasted until the 3rd century AD.

Pallava dynasty:

They established a capital at Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu state) and came to hold sway in the south.

They were defeated by the Guptas in about 360 AD but continued to rule until the Cholas finally

conquered their lands. They ruled from the 4th century to the 9th century although some remnants

survived till 13th century. The dynasty was at its peak under Mahendra-Varman I (600-630 AD), when

architecture flourished, notably in temples such as Mahabalipuram. During the 7th and the 8th

centuries, this dynasty ruled over a region extending from center of Andhra Pradesh far to the Kaveri

River; Later, in the 9th century, the Pallava themselves were definitely conquered by the Chola from

Tanjore and became their vassals.

Pandya (around 200s B.C to 1378 AD):

 They were the longest ruling dynasty of Indian history. They ruled the southern most part of India

and the capital of the Pandya kings was Madurai (Tamil Nadu). First Indian Ambassador from Pandya

Dynasty is sent to Rome. (26 BC). The dynasty extended its power into Kerala (southwestern India)

and Sri Lanka during the reigns of kings Kadungon (ruled 590- 620 A.D), Arikesar Maravarman (670-

700 A.D), Varagunamaharaja I (765-815A.D), and Srimara Srivallabha (815-862 A.D). Pandya

influence peaked in Jatavarman Sundara's reign 1251-1268 A.D. After forces from the Delhi sultanate

invaded Madurai in 1311, the Pandyas declined into merely local rulers.

Chalukya Dynasty 425 - 753 AD and 973 - 1190 AD:

  After Satvahan, the next great empire in the Deccan was the Chalukya empire. Pulakesin I, first ruler

of the Chalukya dynasty. Pulakesin II was the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. He

consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan. His greatest

achievement was his victory against Harshvardhan in 620. However, Pulakesin II was defeated and

killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in 642. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed. His

son Vikramaditya was also as great a ruler. He renewed the struggle against Pallavas and recovered

the former glory of the Chalukyas. In 753A.D, his great grandson Vikramaditya II was overthrown by

a chief named Dantidurga. Chalukyas constructed many temples at Aihole. Some Ajantha caves were

also built during this period.

During Rashtrakutas rule, the Chalukyas were a minor power. For 200 years, they survived the

Rashtrakutas. In 973 AD Tailap Chalukya of the Kalyani branch gained power and restored the

Chalukyan rule. They gained supremacy for about 200 years to be partitioned into: Yadavs of Deogiri,

Kaktiyas of Warangal and Hoysalas of Belur.

Yadavas of Devagiri :

Yadavas extended their authority over a large territory. Their capital was situated at Chandor (Nasik

district). They built the Deogiri fort in 11th century. Marathi language received the status of a court

language in Yadava rule. The Yadava king Singhana was great patron of learning Sant Dnyaneshwar

belonged to this age. In 1294, Alla-ud-din Khilji laid four sieges to Deogiri. Finally, the Yadavas

were defeated and the strong fort of Deogiri fell into the hands of Muslim rulers. The riches of Deogiri

were looted. By 1310 the Yadav rule came to an end.

Kakatiyas of Warangal :

Telgu language and literature flourished under Kakatiyas. They also built many forts . The last king

Prataprudra defeated Allaudin Khilji when he was first attacked in 1303. In 1310, after another war,

he agreed to pay heavy tributes to Malik Kafur (Alladin's general.) In 1321 Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq

marched with a large army, and took Prataprudra as a prisoner to Delhi. Prataprudra died on the way

to Delhi. Thus ended the glorious rule of Kaktiyas.

Hoysalas of Belur-Halebid :

King Sala was the founder of Hoysala dynasty. Hoysalas built as many as 1500 temples. The style of

their architecture became famous as the Hoysala style. Most famous are the temples of Belur and

Halebid with intricate carvings. Allaudin Khilji, defeated this kingdom between 1308-1312.

The Muslim Period in Indian History

Early Muslim Invasions Medieval History in South of India

The Slave Dynasty
The Khilji Dynasty Vijaynagar Kingdom
The Tughlaq Dynasty
The Saiyyid
The Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmadnagar
The Lodhi dynasty
Mughal dynasty
 Babur The Adil Shahi Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur
 Sher Shah and the Sur Dynasty 
 Return of Humayun
The Qutab Shahi Shahi Dynasty of Golkanda
 Akbar
 Jahangir
 Shah Jahan Bahamani Kingdom of Deccan
 Aurangzeb

The Imad Shahi Dynasty of Berar

The Barid Shahi Dynasty of Bidar

Policy of Muslim rulers in India

There were many causes for Muslim conquest but the major reason was the spread of Islam.   The

Muslim dominated Kabul, the Punjab, and Sind, before intruding in to India. The wealth in India lured

the Muslim rulers. Further the inter-rivalry between the kingdoms in India paved the way for their

entry in to India.

Early Muslim Invasions

The very first Muslim attack on India in Sindh in the year 715 A.D was by Arabs led by Mohammad

Bin Qasim. They displaced Raja Dahir who ruled Sindh from his capital Deval (near modern

Karachi). Arabs even unsuccessfully tried to attack Malwa. After this invasion, which was limited to
Sindh, for a period of 300 years, kings like Raja Bhoja and other Gurjara Kings thwarted further

Muslim attacks. The next invasion was by Turk Sabuktagin. He had established himself in Khorasan

and extended his kingdom to Kabul and Ghazni. In 986 AD he came into conflict with Raja Jaipal of

Bathinda. In 991 A.D. Raja Jaipal allied with other Hindu king including Rajyapala the Prathira king of

Kannauj and Dhanga the ruler of the distant Chandela kingdom but they too were defeated.

Mahmud of Ghazni : The elder son of Sabuktagin, Mahmud of Ghazni assumed the throne in 997

AD. He was very conscious of the wealth he could achieve from further conquests into India. He was

also a religious fanatic who aimed to spread Islam. Mahmud is said to have invaded India seventeen

times between 1001 -1027 AD. King Jaipal and later his son Anandpal resisted Mahmud but were

defeated. Between 1009 A.D and 1026 A.D he invaded Kangra, Thaneshwar, Kanauj, Mathura,

Gwalior, Kashmir and Punjab. In 1025 A.D Mahmud invaded Somnath and looted its temple on the

coast of Saurashtra or Kathiwar. Enormous treasure of the fortified temple was looted. His last

invasion was in about 1027 AD. He died in 1030 AD.

Mohammad Ghori : The next important Muslim ruler who had made his influence in Indian history

known was Muhammad Ghori. Muhammad Ghori is said to have invaded India seven times.

Mohammad Ghori invaded Multan in about 1175-76AD.  In 1178 A.D he attempted the conquest of

Gujarat. He was strongly resisted by Bhimdev II who inflicted a crushing defeat on him. In 1191 AD

Mohammad Ghori met Prithvi Raj Chauhan in the first battle of Tarain. Mohammad Ghori was

severely wounded and outnumbered. He was defeated and left the battlefield. In the very next year in

1192 AD both the armies met again at Tarain. This time Mohammad defeated Prithvi Raj Chauhan. In

1194 AD Mohammad Ghori invaded defeated and killed the ruler of Kannauj Jaichand and also

captured Benares. Gwallior, Gujarat and Ajmer were also occupied by 1197 AD. Mohammad Ghori

died in 1206AD.

The Slave Dynasty

Mohammad Ghori had left Qutab-ud-din Aibek who was a slave from Turkistan in charge of the

Indian affairs. Qutab-ud-din's general Muhammad Khilji successfully plundered and conquered the fort
of Bihar in 1193 AD. In about 1199-1202AD Muhammad Khilji brought Bengal under his authority.

Qutab-ud-din died in 1210AD. He had laid the foundation of a new dynasty called the Slave dynasty in

1206AD. In 1211 A.D. Iltumish (son in law of Qutub-ud-din) ascended the throne. He spent his days

in retrieving the lost territories of Qutab-ud-din, and also added Malwa and Sind. He defeated Rajput

rulers of Ranthambor, Ajmer, Jalor, Nagor, Gwalior. Kannauj, Banaras and Badaun were under his

dominion. During his period Qutab Minar in Delhi was completed.

 Iltutmish's daughter Razia Begum came to power 1236 AD after a brief power struggle and ruled till

1240 AD when she was killed. Nasir-uddin Mahmud the youngest son of Iltumish came into power

after another power struggle. He ruled for twenty-five years. The affairs of the state were left to his

father-in-law and minister Ulugh Khan Balban. After the death of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1226 AD

the power was taken over by Balban who was an able administrator. He maintained a strict attitude

towards the Hindus and kept them under strong suppression with the help of his military power. He

was one of the greatest military rulers of the Slave dynasty. Balban died in 1287 AD.

The Khilji Dynasty

Following the death of Balban the Sultanate became weak and there were number of revolts. This

was the period when the nobles placed Jalaluddin Khilji on the throne. This marked the beginning

of Khilji dynasty. The rule of this dynasty started in 1290 AD. Alauddin Khilji a nephew of Jalaluddin

Khilji hatched a conspiracy and got Sultan Jala-lud din killed and proclaimed himself as the Sultan in

1296. In 1297 AD Alauddin Khilji set off for conquering Gujarat. In 1301 A.D. Ramthambhor was

captured and the Rajput Hamir Deva was murdered. In 1303 A.D. he conquered Chittor killing Rana

Rattan Singh. His queen Rani Padmini with the other women committed Jauhar. In 1305 A.D.

Alauddin Khilji captured Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi but failed to capture Bengal.   By

1311 A.D. he captured nearly the whole of North India. His General Malik Kafur captured a large

part of south India.  During his reign Mongols invaded the country several times but were successfully

repulsed. From these invasion Allauddin Khilji learnt the lessons of keeping himself prepared, by

fortifying and organizing his armed forces.  Allaudin Khilji died in 1316 A.D.
 There was lot of infighting after Alauddin Khiljis death and Mubarak Khan the third son of Alauddin

Khilji ascended the throne as Qutb-ud-din Mubarak in the year 1316 AD. The rule of Qutb-ud-din

Mubarak was an utter failure. Ultimately Qutb-ud-din Mubarak was murdered by Khusru Khan and

Khilji dynasty ended.

The Tughlaq Dynasty

In 1320, Ghazi Tughlaq, the governor of the northwestern provinces took the throne under the title

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq after killing Khusru Khan. In 1325 the Sultan met an accidental death and was

succeeded by his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq. During his reign, the territorial expansion of Delhi

Sultanate reached its farthest limits. His empire covered the regions from Peshawar in the north and

Madurai in the South, and from Sindh in the west to Assam in the east. The capital was transferred

from Delhi to Devagiri. However, it had to be shifted back within two years, as there were no

adequate arrangements in the new capital. Muhammad also introduced copper and brass coins as

"token coins" and ordered that these coins should be considered at par with the silver and gold coins

in value. This resulted in forged coins and as a result token currency was withdrawn. The Sultan's

ambitions plan of invading Himachal and the devastation of his army owing to inhospitable climate

was another blunder by Mohammed-bin -Tughlaq.   Administrative blunders, military failures and

revolts weakened Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He died in 1351 of illness while trying to suppress

revolt in Gujrat.

His cousin Feroz Tughlug who became Sultan in the year 1351 AD succeeded Muhammed-bin-

Tughlaq. Feroz Tughlak did not contribute much to expand the territories of the empire, which he

inherited. In 1360 he invaded Jajnagar to destroy the Jagan nath Puri temple. In 1326 AD he met

with success in his expedition to Sindh, before this he had led an invasion Nagarkot with an idea to

destroy the Jwalamukhi temples. The Sultan was not tolerant towards people with different religion.

Feroz Tughluq also introduced reforms in the field of irrigation and also constructed buildings with

architectural skill. He reformed the currency system. After him the dynasty began to disintegrate. The

last Tughluq ruler Mahmud Nasir-uddin ruled from 1395-1413 AD. The invasion of Mongol ruler
 Timur in1398 A.D. sealed the fate of the Tughluq dynasty. Muhammad fled and Timur captured the

city and destroyed many temples in north India. Thousands of people were killed and Delhi was

plundered for fifteen days, Timur returned to Samarkhand carrying away a large amount of wealth

with him. Muhammad Tughlaq re-occupied Delhi and ruled till 1413 A.D.

 The Saiyyid

 Then came the Saiyyid dynasty founded by Khizr Khan. The Sayyids ruled from about 1414 AD to 1450

AD. At a time when the provinces were declaring themselves independent the first task of Khizr Khan was

the suppression of the revolts. Last in Saiyyid dynasty was Muhammad-bin-Farid. During his reign there

was confusion and revolts. The empire came to an end in 1451 AD with his death.

 The Lodhi dynasty

Behlol Lodhi who was in service during Khizr Khan rule founded the Lodhi dynasty. Behlol Lodhi an

Afghan was proclaimed the Sultan in 1451AD. After his death his son Sikandar Lodi proved to be a

capable ruler who brought back the lost prestige of the Sultan. He maintained friendly relations with the

neighboring states. He brought Gwalior and Bihar under his rule. He was a religious fanatic but

encouraged education and trade. His military skill helped him in bringing the Afghan nobles under his

control.

Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by Ibrahim Lodi who is said to have been the last great ruler of the Lodi

dynasty. Ibrahim Lodi came to the throne in 1517 AD. He conquered Gwalior, and came into conflict

with Rana Sanga the ruler of Mewar who defeated him twice. His relations with the Afghan nobles

became worse and this led to several conflicts with him. The discontented Afghan chiefs invited Babur the

ruler of Kabul to India. Babur with an army of 10,000 defeated Ibrahim Lodi who had an army of 100,000

in the first battle of Panipat in 1526. Ibrahim Lodhi was killed in a fierce fight. With this defeat the

Delhi Sultanate was laid to rest. The History of India added a new outlook with the coming of Babur. This

was the beginning of the Mughal dynasty in Indian History

Mughal dynasty (1526 - 1707 A.D):

Mughal dynasty started with Babur ascending the throne of Agra in 1526 A.D. In the beginning his rule

in India Babur had to face the problems of the Rajputs and the Afghan chiefs. He battled Rana Sanga of

Mewar in 1527 A.D. in the battle of Kanwah. Rana lost the battle. The defeat of Rana Sanga shook the

power of the Rajputs. Babur's Empire extended from Bhera and Lahore to Bahraich and Bihar and from

Sialkot to Ranthambhor. Like his predecessor Muslim Sultans Babur continued with policy of plundering

and destroying Hindu temples and killing people.  Babur died in 1530 AD. Humayun the eldest of his

four sons succeeded him and ascended the throne of Agra in 1530. Humayun was faced with numerous

difficulties. He had to reorganize his army that comprised of mixed races. He faced problems from his

brothers, and nobles.

 The Afghans though defeated by Babur were not vanquished. Sher Khan the King of Bengal defeated

Humayun in the battle of Chausa in 1539 A.D. In 1540 A.D., he again defeated Humayun at Kanauj, and

went on to capture Delhi and Agra. Thus Sher Khan re-established the Afghans rule in Delhi. Humayun

was compelled to flee from India.

Sher Shah and the Sur Dynasty 

Sher Shah’s reign barely spanned five years (1540 - 1545), but is a landmark in the history of the Sub-

continent. Sher Shah was a capable military and civilian administrator. He set up reforms in various areas

including those of army and revenue administration. Numerous civil works were carried out during his

short reign. After the death of Sher Shah in 1545 his son Islam Shah ruled up to 1553 A.D. Then

Muhammad Adil Shah came to power. Muhammad Adil was not a capable ruler. His minister Hemu

became important and virtually controlled the kingdom. As a result of the onslaught by Ibrahim Shah and

Sikander Shah the Sur Empire was broken up.

Return of Humayun (1555 A.D.)

In the mean time Humayun took support of Persian Shah. He managed to win over Kabul and Kandhar

after a power struggle with his brother Kamran in 1949. He occupied Lahore and Dipalpur in 1555.A.D.

By July 1555 Humayun reached Delhi where he spend his time in administration of his kingdom. In 1556

Humayun died in an accidental fall.

After the death of Humayun the history of India saw the rule of greatest of the Mughal rulers - Akbar

the great (1556-1605). Akbar inherited the throne of the Mughal Empire at the age of 14 years after the

death of Humayun. His uncle Bairam Khan advised him. In 1556 Akbar met Hemu on the battlefield of

Panipat (second battle of Panipat) and defeated his large army. With the defeat of Hemu, the Mughals

had established their sway over Delhi and Agra.

Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs and won their support by establishing

matrimonial alliances. In 1562 he married the eldest daughter of Raja Bihal mal of Jaipur. In 1584 his son

Salim was married to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das. In 1567 he marched against Chittor. In 1568

the Mughals captured Chittor. By 1569 Ranthambhor and Kalinjar was also captured.

He met the Rajput ruler Maharana Pratap in the battle of Haldighati in 1576. After a fierce battle

Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap. Akbar conquered Bengal, Gujrat, Kashmir, Kabul by 1589 A.D. and Sind

and Kandhar  by 1595 A.D. Moving towards the Deccan Akbar attacked Ahmednagar. Chand Bibi

bravely defended this but she could not hold on longer and Ahmednagar fell in 1596.

It is said that Akbar followed generally a tolerant policy towards Hindus. But Encyclopaedia

Britannica mentions that Mughal emperor Akbar 'ordered the massacre of about 30,000 captured

Rajput Hindus on February  24, 1568 AD, after the battle for Chittod, a number confirmed by Abul

Fazl,  Akbar's court historian. 

He tried to establish a national religion called Din-i-illahi that was to be pleasing both the Hindus and

Muslims. This was politically motivated and Din-i-illahi failed miserably. Akbar introduced the Mansabdari

system that systematized the civil and military administration. He was also a patron of art and literature
and Nav Ratans (Nine Gems) in his court are famous. They included great singer Tansen, poet Mulla-

do- pyaja, and Ministers like Birbal and Todarmal. Akbar was not only a conqueror by an able

administrator and was the greatest of the Mughal emperors.

 His son Muhammad Salim also called Jahangir succeeded Akbar. In 1605 Akbar proclaimed him as the

ruler. Salim was deeply influenced by the charms of his queen Nur Jahan whom he married 1611 and

left the task of administration entirely on her at times. Jahangir won several wars but could not reach the

glory of his father Akbar.

Jahangir died in 1627 A.D and was succeed by Shah Jahan was ruled from 1627 to 1658 A.D.

Shahjhan's period is best known for construction of Taj Mahal and other great monuments. His love for

his queen Mumtaz Mahal was immense. After her death in 1631, he built the Taj Mahal in memory of

her. In the years 1631-32 he was involved in wars with the Portuguese. He shared the Kingdom of

Ahmednagar with the Sultan of Bijapur in 1636. After settling the problems he faced in the Deccan he

retired to Agra in 1636 where he was later imprisoned by his son and successor Aurangzeb. In 1657 a

war of succession started owing to the illness of Shah Jahan between Dara, Shah Suja, Aurangzeb, and

Murad. Aurangzeb being the ablest of the three sons succeeded Shah Jahan. He ruled from 1658-1707.

Aurangzeb was the last great Mughal ruler who took the Mughal Empire to its greatest glory. Aurangzeb

possessed an empire that extended from Ghazni to Bengal and from Kashmir to the Deccan. But he was

a religious fanatic and destroyed large number of temples and forcefully converted thousands of Hindus

to Islam giving them a choice between Islam and death.

The imposition of Jizya on the Hindus in 1679, which was an anti Hindu policy, resulted in the rise of the

Rajput in a revolt in 1769. This struggle continued till 1681 when Aurangzeb made peace with the

Rajputs. The other sect affected by the Anti-Hindu policy of Aurangzeb was the Satnamis. Aurangzeb

crushed their revolt. Next was the revolt of the Jats of Mathura, which was an opposition to the policy

and oppression under Aurangzeb. Though they were suppressed in the early period they carried on the

struggle till the death of Aurangzeb. The revolt of the Bundela Rajputs and the Sikhs were other
significant effects of Aurangzeb's anti Hindu policy. The Sikhs whose temples were destroyed were hurt.

The killing of Guru Teg Bahadur their 9th guru was more hurting. They swore the destruction of the

Mughals. Under the 10th Guru Govind Singh, and after his death in 1708 A.D the struggle was carried

on.

Aurangzeb faced stiff resistance from the Marathas under Shivaji and remained unsuccessful in subduing

the Marathas. It was in about 1600 that the Mughals established contacts witht the English ever since the

visit of Sir Thomas Roe. In 1616 the English were permitted to build a factory at Masulipattam. 

Aurangzeb died in 1707. Bahadur Shah I who was the eldest of the three surviving sons of Aurangzeb

succeeded him. The vast Mughal Empire, which the biggest of all the empires existing then, was divided

among the three sons. Bahadurr Shah I who was known, as Prince Muazzam had to face the problems

from the Marathas, Rajputs and the Sikhs.  Mughal rule in Delhi continued under a number of weak

rulers after death of Bahadur Shah I in 1712 A.D. and the great Mughal Empire disintegrated. The

Mughal rule in Delhi while under Muhammad Shah witnessed the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739. This

invasion sealed the fate of Muhammad Shah. This was followed by the invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali,

the general of Nadir Shah.

As the Mughal Emipre broke down there was rise of great Maratha power, Sikhs and arrival of British East

India Company.  Last of the titular Mughal King Bahadur Shah II took part in the revolt of 1857 against

the English. After the failure of this revolt he was imprisoned and deported to Rangoon where he died in

1862. This marked the end of the Mughal dynasty.

Medieval History in South of India

Vijaynagar Kingdom

 In order to check the progress of Islam in the south Harihar and Bukka founded an independent

kingdom in the region between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra in 1336. The capital of this kingdom

was at Vijayanagar on the banks of the river Tungabhadra. The kingdom was known as the Kingdom of
Vijayanagar. Harihar was the first ruler of the kingdom. After his death, his brother Bukka succeeded. He

died in 1379 and was succeeded by his son Harihar II.

Harihar II was given the title of Maharajadhiraja. During his reign, the whole of Southern Deccan came

under the authority of Vijayanagar. This also included present Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala states.

Harihar II died in 1404 A.D. This dynasty was known as Sangama dynasty. The dynasty ruled for about

150 years till 1486, when one of their chiefs Narasimha Saluva deposed the last ruler of Sangama

dynasty and seized the throne.

The ruler of Saluva dynasty did not last long. His two sons succeeded Narasimha Saluva. During the reign

of the second son Immadi Narasimha in 1505 A.D, the Taluva chief Vira Narasimha usurped the throne

and thus laid the foundation of the Taluva dynasty.

Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529): Vira Narasimha ruled for four years and in 1509 A.D. was succeeded

by his younger brother Krishnadeva Raya. The Vijayanagar kingdom reached the pinnacle of its glory

during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya. He was successful in all the wars he waged. He defeated the king

of Orissa and annexed Vijaywada and Rajmahendri. He defeated the Sultan of Bijapur in 1512 and took

the possession of the Raichur Doab. The Vijayanagar kingdom extended from Cuttak in east to Goa in the

west and from the Raichur Doab in the north to the Indian Ocean in the south.

Krishnadeva Raya encouraged trade with the western countries. He was not only a great warrior, but was

also a playwright and a great patron of learning. Telugu literature flourished under him. Painting,

sculpture, dance and music were greatly encouraged by him and his successors. He endeared himself to

the people by his personal charm, kindness, and an ideal administration.

The decline of the Vijayanagar kingdom began with the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529. The kingdom

came to an end in 1565, when Ramrai was defeated at Talikota by the joint efforts of Adilshahi,

Nizamshahi, Qutubshahi and Baridshahi. After this, the kingdom broke into small states.
 Muslim rulers in Deccan - South India

The Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmadnagar

Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty. In 1490 AD his son Malik Ahmad defeated the

army of Mahmud Bahmani and established himself independent. He assumed the title of Ahmad Nizam

Shah and after him the dynasty was named Nizam Shahi dynasty. The next ruler was Burhan Nizam Shah

was the next ruler who ruled for forty-five years. The state was later annexed in Mughal Empire in 1637

during the reign of Shah Jahan.

The Adil Shahi Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur

Yusuf Adil Khan, the governor of Bijapur who declared his independence in 1489, founded the Adil Shahi

dynasty. Ismail Shah succeeded Adil shah but being a minor he was helped by Kamal Khan. He lost his

life in a conspiracy and was succeeded by Ibrahim Adil Shah and ruled till 1557 AD. Ali Adil Shah

succeeded Ibrahim Adil Shah. Following a policy of alliance he married Chand Bibi the daughter of

Hussain NIzam Shah of Ahamadnagar. In the year 1564 - 1565 AD the four sultans allied at Talikota

against the Vijayanagar Empire and defeated and annexed it. Adil shah was killed in 1579 AD. The throne

was passed on to Ibrahim Adil Shah II who was a minor. His mother Chand Bibi looked after him while

ministers ruled the kingdom. In 1595 AD the Ahmadnagar monarch was killed in a fight between Bijapur

and Ahmednagar. In 1680 AD Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur. 

The Qutab Shahi Shahi Dynasty of Golkanda

The Qutab Shahi dynasty was a part of the Bahmani Empire that was called Golkonda. Sultan Quli Qutab

Shah who was formerly the governor of the eastern province declared his independence in 1518 AD. And

started the The Qutab Shahi dynasty. Qutab Shah met with his death in 1543 AD and his son Jamshed

ruled till 1550 AD. The throne was held by Ibrahim till 1580 AD and later his son Muhammad Quli ruled

till 1611 AD. Aurangzeb finally annexed the state in 1687 AD.
 Bahamani Kingdom of Deccan

During the region of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq a series of revolts between the periods 1343 - 1351 AD

helped in formation of numerous independent provinces. An officer of the Delhi Sultan named Hassan

assumed the title of Bahman Shah and after occupation of Daulatbad in the Deccan proclaimed

independence. He was also known as Alauddin I, the founder of the Bahmani dynasty.  Alauddin I was

succeeded by Muhammad Shah I. He waged wars against the Hindu rulers of Vijayanagar and

Warangal. With his policy of subjugation he subdued countless number of rival Hindu rulers, and

accumulated vast treasures. A number of successful Sultans followed him till 1482 A.D. Shihab-ud-din

Mahmud succeeded to the throne in 1482 AD and ruled till 1518 AD. During his reign the provincial

governors declared their independence and Bahmani Kingdom started to break up. Kalim-ullah Shah  

(1526 - 1538 AD) was the last ruler of Bahamani Kingdom.  

List of Bahmani Kingdom Rulers  

 Gulbarga as capital -75 years Bidar as capital -116 years

1. Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah 1347 - 1358 AD
1. Shihab-ud-din Ahmad Shah I 1422 - 1436 AD
2. Muhammad I 1358 - 1375 AD
2. Ala-ud-din Ahmad Shah II 1436 - 1458 AD
3. Ala-ud-din Mujahid Shah 1375 - 1378 AD
3. Ala-ud-din Humayun Shah 1458 - 1461 AD
4. Daud Shah I 1378 - 1378 AD
4. Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Shah III 1461 - 1463 AD
5. Muhammad II 1378 - 1397 AD
5. Shams-ud-din Muhammad Shah III 1463 - 1482 AD
6. Ghiyas-ud-din Tahmatan Shah 1397 - 1397 AD
6. Shihab-ud-din Mahmud 1482 - 1518 AD
7. Shams-ud-din Daud Shah II 1397 - 1397 AD
7. Ahmad Shah IV 1518 - 1520 AD
8. Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah 1397 - 1422 AD
8. Ala-ud-din Shah 1520 - 1523 AD
 
9. Wai-ullah Shah 1523 - 1526 AD

10. Kalim-ullah Shah 1526 - 1538 AD

 

The Imad Shahi Dynasty of Berar

This consisted of the northern part of the Bahamani Kingdom. The Imad Shahi Dynasty of Berar

lasted for four generations till 1574 AD.

The Barid Shahi Dynasty of Bidar

 The Barid Shahi Sultans governed the Barid Shahi dynasty. Qasim Barid the minister of Mahmud Shah

Bahamani established it in 1492 AD. This dynasty lasted till 1619 AD when Bijapur annexed it.

Policy of Muslim rulers in India - The general policy of most of the rulers during the 700 years of

Muslim occupation of India was to systematically replace the fabric of Hindu society and culture with a

Muslim culture. They tried to destroy Indian religions language, places of knowledge (universities e.g

Nalanda were totally destroyed by Muslims). They destroyed and desecrated places of thousands of

temples including Somnath, Mathura, Benaras, Ayodhaya, Kannauj, Thaneswar and in other places.

There was wholesale slaughter of the monks and priests and innocent Hindus with the aim to wipe

out the intellectual bedrock of the people they overran.

The Muslims could not subjugate India with ease and were never able to rule it entirely. There was a

valiant and ceaseless struggle for independence by Hindus to deliver India from Muslim tyranny. The

Rajputs, Jats, Marathas and Sikhs led this struggle in North India. In the South this struggle was

embodied in the Vijayanagar Empire. This struggle culminated when the Marathas ended the Muslim

domination of India.

MARATHAS AND SIKHS

  The Marathas

 Shivaji Bhonsle
 Peshwa dynasty 1712 to 1818

The Sikhs
 The Marathas
The Marathas' rise to power was a dramatic turning point that accelerated the demise of Muslim

dominance in India. Maratha chieftains were originally in the service of Bijapur sultans in the western

Deccan, which was under siege by the Mughals. Shivaji Bhonsle (1630-80 A.D) is recognized as

the "father of the Maratha nation." Shivaji Bhosle, founder of the Maratha Empire, was born in 1630

AD, in the fort of Shivneri, 40 miles north of Pune. By 1647, Shivaji had captured two forts and had

the complete charge of Pune. He slowly started capturing forts in the region, Purandar, Rajgad,

Torna. In 1659 Shivaji succeeded in killing of famous Adilshahi general Afzal Khan and demoralizing

his army. He took advantage of this conflict and laid the foundation of Maratha Kingdom near Pune,
which later became the Maratha capital. Shivaji used guerilla tactics and brilliant military strategies to

lead a series of successful assaults in the 1660s against Mughal strongholds, including the major port

of Surat. He lost to Aurangzeb's General Jai Singh and was arrested in 1666. He made a daring

escape and regained his lost territory and glory. By 1673, he had control over most of western

Maharashtra and had made 'Raigad' capital. In 1674 he assumed the title of "Chhatrapati" at his

elaborate coronation.  At the time of his death in 1680, nearly whole of the Deccan belonged to his

kingdom. He had developed an efficient administration and a powerful army.

His son Sambhaji succeeded Shivaji. He was taken prisoner and executed by Aurangzeb, in 1689.

Rajaram, Shivaji's second son then took the throne. After the death of Rajaram in 1700 Tarabai, the

widow of Rajaram, put her young son Sambhaji II on the throne, at the tender age of ten, and

continued the struggle against Aurangzeb. Tarabai continued to fight against the Mughals and

captured Rajgad, the former capital of the Maratha's. The fight against the Mughals ended with the

death of Aurangzeb in 1707. Balance of power shifted towards Marathas, which was soon to be

controlled by Peshwas.

Shivaji's grandson and Sambhaji's son Sahuji was released from Mughals captivity in 1707. He challenged Tarabai and

Sambhaji II for the Maratha leadership and with the help of his Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, Sahuji became the Maratha

Empror. Though as a Maratha Emperor Shahuji had a huge territory in his possession but he was

mostly a titular head of the Maratha emipre. He kept away from regular politics and settled down at

Satara. Maratha Empire was virtually  governed by the Peshwas of Pune. After Shahuji's death in 1749

his adopted son, Rajaram II succeeded him.  

Peshwa dynasty 1713 to 1818

Balaji Vishwanath - (1713 to 1721) - In 1713,  Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath was appointed a Peshwa

(Prime Minister) by Sahuji. Balaji Vishwanath assisted a young Shahu to consolidate his grip on an

empire.  In 1717 a Mughal emissary signed a treaty with the Marathas confirming their claims to rule

in the Deccan. 1718 marked the beginning of the Maratha influence in Delhi. Balaji Vishwanath's died

in 1721.
Bajirao Peshwa I  (1721 to 1740) - After death of Balaji Vishwanath, his elder son Bajirao, became

the Peshwa . Pune had regained its status as capital of Maratha Kingdom from Rajgad. In 1734,

Bajirao captured the Malwa territory in the north, and in 1739, he drove out the Portuguese from

nearly all their possessions in the Western Ghats. Bajirao died in 1740. Baji Rao's son, Balaji Bajirao

(Nanasaheb) succeeded as the Peshwa. He defeated Ahmad Shah Abdalli in 1756 near Delhi. But in

Third Battle of Panipat (1761), between Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdalli, Marathas lost the war.

This war destroyed both Abdalli and Peshwas. Balaji Bajirao died soon after the war shattered by the

death of his older son and brother.

His second son Madhav Rao assumed the title of Peshwa in 1761. He achieved many remarkable

victories and restored the glory of Maratha kingdom to a large extent. His outstanding achievements

included defeat of Nizam of Hyderabad, Hyder Ali of Mysore and Bhosle of Nagpur. In 1769,

Marathas lead by Mahadaji Shinde, headed the North India campaign. They defeated the Jats and

took hold of Agra and Mathura. Madhav Rao died in 1772 at an early age of 27 years.

Narayanrao Peshwa (1772 to 1773) just ruled for one year and was murdered in a palace

conspiracy. Raghunathrao was proclaimed the next Peshwa, although he was not heir to the title.

He was displaced from power by a clever plot by twelve Maratha chiefs and infant son of Madhav Rao

called Sawai Madhavrao was then declared the next Peshwa. The chief administrator was Nana

Phadnis. He handled the Peshwai well and with great unity among Maratha chiefs. They defeated the

rising British power in 1784, near Pune and halted their advancements, temporarily till the premature

death of Sawai Madhavrao in 1795. In 1796 Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao became the Peshwa.  

Nana Phadanis looked after the Maratha kingdom well until his death in 1800 A.D. After that Baji Rao

II signed a treaty with the British in 1802, which weakened the Peshwa power. His son,

Nanasaheb Peshwa opposed the British with whatever support he could muster. By 1818 the Peshwa

power came to an end. Nanasaheb Peshwa's fight still continued. But the failure of 1857 war put an

end to any lingering hopes. (Anglo Maratha Wars click here)

The Sikhs
Rooted in the bhakti movements that swept across North India during the fifteenth and sixteenth

centuries, the Sikh religion appealed to the hard-working peasants. Guru Nanak Dev born in 1469

was the first Sikh guru. The Sikh khalsa (army of the pure) under tenth Guru - Guru Gobind Singh

rose up against the economic and political repressions in Punjab toward the end of Aurangzeb's rule.

By the 1770s, Sikh hegemony extended from the Indus in the west to the Yamuna in the east, from

Multan in the south to Jammu in the north. But the Sikhs were a loose, disunited, and quarrelsome

conglomerate of twelve kin-groups. Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) became King of Punjab in In his

kingdom Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims lived together in comparative equality and increasing prosperity.

Ranjit Singh employed European officers and introduced strict military discipline into his army before

expanding into Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Ladakh. British signed a peace treaty with him. His rule was

called as the 'golden period of Punjab'. After his death there was a power vacuum and infighting

amongst the successors of Ranjit Singh. In 1846, the first Anglo-Sikh war commenced at Mudki

where Sikh forces were defeated because of treachery of their generals. There after the British power

became dominant in politics of Punjab and in 1849 after another Anglo-Sikh war Punjab was formally

annexed to British Empire.