ME477 Fall 2004

1. Machinability
• Machinability – A measure of the relative ease of a
machining operation usually on a work material and type
Economics and Product of machining operation, tooling, and cutting conditions.
– Longer tool life means better machinability
Design Considerations –
–
Greater forces and power mean lower machinability
Better surface finish means better machinability
– Easier chip disposal means better machinability
– Higher MRR means better machinability
1. Machinability • Mechanical properties and Machinability
– High hardness of work materials means abrasive wear resistance
2. Tolerance and Surface Finish – High strength of work materials means cutting forces, specific
energy, and cutting temperature increase
3. Selection of Cutting Conditions – High ductility of work materials means tearing of metal as chip is
formed, causing chip disposal problems and poor surface finish
4. Product Design Considerations
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Shape
Work Materials Brinnell Hardness Machinability Rating
Base Steel: B1112 180-220 1.00 • Shape
Low Carbon Steels 130-170 0.50
– Rotational parts – turning and boring
Med. Carbon Steels 140-210 0.65
High Carbon Steels 180-230 0.55
– Internal rotational features - drilling
Alloy Steels 170-230 0.25-1.5 – Non-rotational parts – milling
Cast Iron 60-230 0.40-0.70 – Dependency on the geometry of a tool
Ti Alloys 220-280 0.2 • Generating – Multi-axis milling machine
Aluminum (soft) 2.00 • Forming – form turning, drilling and broaching
Aluminum (Hard) 1.25 • Generating/Forming (threading)
MR of base material = 1.00 (100%)
MR of test material > 1.00 (100%) means better machinability
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2. Tolerances & Surface Finish Tolerance and Surface finish

• Tolerances • Geometric factor
Ratio, rai

– Machining provides high accuracy relative to most other processes – Types of Operations
– Closer tolerances usually mean higher costs – Cutting tool geometry 2 Ductile metals
• Surface roughness, R = f 1.8
• Surface roughness in machining is determined by: i
where NR= nose radius 32 NR
Cast iron
and Ra = rai Ri because it depends
– Work material factors
– Geometric factors of the operation on work material and cutting speed 1.2 Machining alloys

– Vibration and machine tool factors • Other expressions of roughness 1

Cutting speed
• Work Material Factors – Nose Radius, Feed and End Cutting Edge Angle
– Built-up edge effects Zero Nose Radius
– Damage to surface caused by chip
– Tearing of surface for ductile materials
Zero End Cutting Edge Angle
– Cracks in surface for brittle materials
– Friction between tool flank and new surface
Small feed
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Machining Operations Tolerance Surface Finish

Turning D<25mm
(Typical)
±0.025
(Typical best)
0.8µm
Chatter (Vibration)
25mm<D<50mm ±0.05
• Vibration and Chatter
Typical Tolerance

D>50mm ±0.075
Drilling D<2.5mm ±0.05 0.8µm – Related to machine tool, tooling, and setup:
2.5mm<D<6mm ±0.075 • Chatter (vibration) in machine tool or cutting tool
Surface Finish

6mm<D<12mm ±0.1 • Deflections of fixtures

12mm<D<25mm ±0.125 • Backlash in feed mechanism
D>25mm ±0.20 – Without chatter, surface roughness is determined by
Reaming D<12mm ±0.025 0.4µm geometric and work material factors
12mm<D<25mm ±0.05
• How to avoid Chatter
D>25mm ±0.075
Broaching ±0.05
– Add stiffness and/or damping to setup
Milling Peripheral ±0.025 0.4µm – Operate at speeds that avoid natural frequency of
Face ±0.025 machine tool system
End ±0.05 – Reduce feeds and depths to reduce forces
Shaping Slotting ±0.025 1.6µm – Change cutter design to reduce forces
Planing ±0.075 1.6µm
– Use a cutting fluid
Sawing ±0.5 6.0µm

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3. Selection of Cutting Conditions Selecting Feed and Speed

• One of the tasks in process planning • Feed: In general: feed first, speed second
• For each operation, decisions on machine tool, cutting – Tooling – Harder tool materials require lower feeds
– Roughing or finishing - Roughing means high feeds, finishing
tool(s), and cutting conditions based on workpart means low feeds
machinability, part geometry, surface finish, and so forth – Constraints on feed in roughing: cutting forces, setup rigidity,
• Cutting Tool Manufacturer’s Recommendation and sometimes horsepower
– Surface finish requirements in finishing – Select feed to produce
• Cutting conditions: speed, feed, depth of cut, and cutting desired finish
fluid • Cutting Speed
– Depth of cut predetermined by workpiece geometry and – Select speed to achieve a balance between high metal removal
operation sequence. rate and suitably long tool life
• In roughing, high depth to maximize material removal rate, but – Mathematical formulas are available to determine optimal speed
limited by horsepower, machine tool and rigidity, and strength of – Two alternative objectives:
cutting tool.
1. Maximum production rate
• In finishing, depth to achieve final part dimensions 2. Minimum unit cost

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Maximum Production Rate Maximum Production Rate

• Maximizing production rate = minimizing cutting Tt
Tc = Th + Tm +
time per unit np
Time per workpart

πDL Tt (πDLv(1/ n−1) )

• In turning, total production cycle time for one part Total time per piece

consists of: = Th + +
fv fC1/ n
− Part handling time per part = Th Tool change time dTc C
− Machining time per part = Tm, = 0 ⇒ vmax = n
πDL Part Handling Time
dv ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
For a simple turning, Tm = ⎢⎜ n −1⎟Tt ⎥
vf ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
− Tool change time per part = Tt/np ,where np = number Cutting time The tool life:
⎛1 ⎞
of pieces cut in one tool life where vmax Cutting speed Tmax = ⎜ −1⎟Tt
T fC 1/ n and, from Taylor’s model, tool life is ⎝n ⎠
np = =
Tm πDLv (1/( n −1) ) 1/ n 1/ n
T =C v
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Example Minimum Cost Per Part

Workpart: L=300mm and D=80mm. C
vmax =
Taylor’s Eq. for a HSS tool: n=0.13 and C=75(m/min)
Machining condition: f=0.4mm/rev. ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
−
n
• Cost of part handling CoTh
⎢ n 1⎟Tt ⎥
⎜
Operator and machine cost=$30/hr ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Tooling cost/edge=$4 • Cost of machine time CoTm
2min to load and unload and 3.5min to change tools
⎛1 ⎞
(a) Cutting speed for max. production rate
(b) Tool life in min. for max. production rate
Tmax = ⎜ − 1⎟Tt
⎝n ⎠ • Cost of tool change CoTt n p
P
(c) Cycle time and cost per unit of product for max. production rate
Tm =
πDL • Tooling cost Ct n p C = n t
t for disposable inserts
e
vf
(a) Co=$30/hr=$.50/min Pt
vmax=75/[(1/.13-1)(3.5)].13 =49.8m/min T CoTt Ct Ct = + T g C g for regrindable inserts
np = Cc = CoTh + CoTm + + ng
(b) Tmax=(75/49.8)1/.13 =23.42min Tm n
np np dCc ⎛ n Co ⎞
(c) Tm=πDL/fv=π(8)(300)/(.4x49.8x103)=3.787min = 0 ⇒ vmin = C ⎜⎜ ⋅ ⎟⎟
np=23.42/3.787~6pc/tool life T
Tc = Th + Tm + t (CoTt + Ct )⎡⎢πDLv
1
n −1 ⎤ dv ⎝ 1 − n CoTt + Ct ⎠
Tc=Th+Tm+Tt/np=2+3.787+3.5/6=6.37min/pc np CoπDL ⎣ ⎥⎦
= CoTh + + ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ C T + Ct ⎞
Cc=CoTc+Tool cost per edge/np=0.5(6.37)+4/6=$3.85/pc fv 1
n Tmin = ⎜ − 1⎟⎜⎜ o t ⎟⎟
fC ⎝ n ⎠⎝ Co ⎠
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Example Comments
Workpart: L=300mm and D=80mm.
Taylor’s Eq. for a HSS tool: n=0.13 and C=75(m/min) • As C and n increase in Taylor’s equation,
Machining condition: f=0.4mm/rev.
Operator and machine cost=$30/hr
n
optimum cutting speed should be reduced
Tooling cost/edge=$4 ⎛ n Co ⎞
2min to load and unload and 3.5min to change tools vmin = C ⎜⎜ ⋅ ⎟⎟
– Cemented carbides & ceramic tools at higher speeds.
⎝ 1 − n CoTt + Ct ⎠
(a) Cutting speed for min. cost
(b) Tool life in min. for min. cost ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ C T + Ct ⎞⎟
• vmax is always greater than vmin.
Tmin = ⎜ − 1⎟⎜⎜ o t ⎟
(c) Cycle time and cost per unit of product for min. cost ⎝ n ⎠⎝ Co ⎠ – Reason: Ct/np term in unit cost equation pushes
optimum speed to left in the plot of Cc vs. v.
(a) Co=$30/hr=$.50/min • Cutting speed should be reduced as tool change
vmin=75/[0.5(1/.13-1)(0.5x3.5+4)].13 =42.6m/min
(b) Tmin=(75/42.6)1/.13 =76.96min time Tt and/or tooling cost Ct increase,
(c) Tm=πDL/fv=π(8)(300)/(.4x42.6x103)=4.42min – Tools should not be changed too often if either tool
np=76.96/4.42~17pc/tool life
Tc=Th+Tm+Tt/np=2+4.42+3.5/17=6.63min/pc
cost or tool change time is high.
Cc=0.5(6.63)+4/17=$3.55/pc – An advantage of disposable inserts over regrindable
tools due to the lower tool change time.
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Product Design Guidelines I Product Design Guidelines II

• Design parts to minimize machining • Avoid features such as sharp corners, edges, and points
– by using net shape (precision casting, closed die forging, or – They are difficult to machine
plastic molding) or near net shape processes (impression die
forging) – Sharp cutting tools tend to break and create burrs
• Essential Reasons for machining • Machined parts from standard stock sizes
– Close tolerances • Machining with standard cutting tools
– Good surface finish
– Flexibility – Avoid special form tools
– Special features such as threads, precision holes, cylindrical – Minimize the number of individual cutting tools used
sections with high degree of roundness
• Select materials with good machinability
• Specify Tolerances to satisfy functional requirements
– Materials with low machinability take longer and cost more.
and process capabilities (unnecessary cost from additional
processing, fixturing, inspection, sortation, rework, and scrap) – Minimize the number of setups
• Specify surface finish to meet functional and/or
aesthetic requirements (add processing cost by requiring
additional operations such as grinding or lapping)

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