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Fault Analysis in Transmission System Using Matlab
Fault Analysis in Transmission System Using Matlab
INTRODUCTION
Any abnormal conditions which causes flow of huge current in the conductors
or cable through inappropriate paths in the circuit can be defined as a fault. In normal
operating conditions all the circuit elements of an electrical system carry currents whose
magnitude depends upon the value of the generator voltage and the effective
impedances of all the power transmission and distribution system elements including
the impedances of the loads usually relatively larger than other impedances.
Modern electric systems may be of great complexity and spread over large
geographical area. An electric power system consists of generators, transformers,
transmission lines and consumer equipment. The system must be protected against flow
of heavy short-circuit currents, which can cause permanent damage to major
equipments, by disconnecting the faulty section of system by means of circuit breaker
and protective relaying. Such conditions are caused in the system accidentally through
insulation failure of equipment or flashover of lines initiated by a lightning stroke or
through accidental faulty operation.
The safe disconnection can only be guaranteed if the current does not exceed
the capability of the circuit breaker. Therefore, the short circuit currents in the network
must be computed and compared with the ratings of the circuit breakers at regular
intervals as part of the normal operation planning.
Balanced three phase faults may be analyzed using an equivalent single phase
circuit. With asymmetrical three phase faults, the use of symmetrical components help
to reduce the complexity of the calculations as transmission lines and components are
by and large symmetrical, although the fault may be asymmetrical. Fault analysis is
usually carried out in per-unit quantities as they give solutions which are somewhat
consistent over different voltage and power ratings, and operate on values of the order
of unity.
know fault current due to unsymmetrical condition too for which knowledge of
symmetrical components is required.
Depending on the location, the type, the duration, and the system grounding,
short circuits may lead to
• electromagnetic interference with conductors in the vicinity (disturbance of
communication lines),
• stability problems,
• mechanical and thermal stress (i.e. damage of equipment, personal danger)
• danger for personnel
In high voltage networks, short circuits are the most frequent type of faults.
Short circuits may be solid or may involve an arc impedance. Figure 1 illustrates
different types of short circuits.
The synchronous generator during short circuit has a characteristic time varying
behavior. In the event of a short circuit, the flux per pole undergoes dynamic change
with associated transients in damper and field windings.
The reactance of the circuit model of the machine changes in the first few cycles
from a low subtransient reactance to a higher transient value, finally settling at a still
higher synchronous (steady state) value. Depending upon the arc interruption time of
the circuit breakers, an appropriate reactance value is used for the circuit model of
synchronous generators for the short circuit analysis.
There are two different approaches to calculate the short circuits in a power
system:
• Calculation of transient currents
• Calculation of stationary currents
With the above assumptions the line can be represented by the circuit model
shown above. The short circuit is assumed to take place at t = 0. The parameter α
controls the instant on the voltage wave when short circuit occurs. It is known from
circuit theory that the current after short circuit is composed of two parts, i.e.
With
It follows easily from figure 3 that the maximum momentary short circuit current
imm corresponds to the first peak. If the decay of transient current in this short time is
neglected, then:
This has the maximum possible value for α = 0, i.e. short circuit occurring when the
voltage wave is going through zero. Thus imm may be a high as twice the maximum of the
symmetrical short circuit current:
For the selection of circuit breakers, momentary short circuit current is taken
corresponding to its maximum possible value.
Modern circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the current in the first few cycles
(five cycles or less). With reference to Figure, it means that when the current is
interrupted, the DC off-set it has not yet died out and contributes thus to the current to
be interrupted. Rather than computing the value of the DC off-set at the time of
interruption (this would be highly complex in a network of even moderately large size),
the symmetrical short circuit current alone is calculated. This current is then increased
by an empirical multiplying factor to account for the DC off-set current.
6
Consider now the sudden short circuit of a synchronous generator that has initially
been operating under open circuit conditions. The machine undergoes a transient in all
the three phases finally ending up in the steady state condition described above. The
circuit breaker must interrupt the current long before the steady condition is reached.
Immediately upon short circuit, the DC off-set currents appear in all three phases, each
with a different magnitude since the point on the voltage wave at which short circuit
occurs is different for each phase. These DC off-set currents are accounted for
separately on an empirical basis.
Therefore, for short circuit studies, we need to concentrate our attention on the
symmetrical short circuit current only. In the event of a short circuit, the symmetrical
short circuit current is limited initially only by the leakage reactance of the machine.
Since the air gap flux cannot change instantaneously, to counter the demagnetization of
the armature short circuit current, currents appear in the field winding as well as in the
damper winding in a direction to help the main flux. These currents decay in accordance
with the winding time constants. The time constant of the damper winding which has
low X/R-ratio is much less than the one of the field winding, which has high leakage
inductance with low resistance. Thus, during the initial part of the short circuit, the
damper and field windings have transformer currents induced in them. In the circuit
model their reactances—Xf of field winding and Xdw of damper winding—appear in
parallel with Xa as shown in figure below.
7
As the damper winding currents are first to die out, Xdw effectively becomes open
circuited and at a later stage Xf becomes open circuited. The machine reactance thus
changes from the parallel combination of Xa, Xf , and Xdw during the initial period of the
short circuit to Xa and Xf in parallel (Figure ) during the middle period. The machine
reactance finally becomes Xa in steady state (Figure 7.8). The reactance presented by
the machine in the initial period of the short circuit, i.e.
is called the subtransient reactance of the machine; while the reactance effective
after the damper winding currents have died out, i.e.
is called the transient reactance. Of course, the reactance under steady conditions is the
synchronous reactance. Obviously X′′d < X′d < Xd. The machine thus offers a time-
varying reactance which changes from X′′d to X′d and finally to Xd.
8
A three phase fault is a condition where either (a) all three phases of the
system are short circuited to each other, or (b) all three phase of the system are
earthed.
9
FIGURE 8 – (a) Balanced three phase fault (b) Balanced three phase to earth fault
This is in general a balanced condition, and we need to only know the positive-
sequence network to analyze faults. Further, the single line diagram can be used, as all
three phases carry equal currents displaced by 120◦.
Typically, only 5% of the initial faults in a power system, are three phase faults
with or without earth. Of the unbalanced faults, 80 % are line-earth and 15% are double
line faults with or without earth and which can often deteriorate to 3 phase fault.
Broken conductor faults account for the rest.
where
MVAfault – Fault Level at a given point in MVA
Ibase – Rated or base line current
Isc – Short circuit line current flowing in to a fault
The per unit value of the fault Level may thus be written as
The Short circuit capacity (SCC) of a busbar is the fault level of the busbar. The
strength of a busbar (or the ability to maintain its voltage) is directly proportional to its
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SCC. An infinitely strong bus (or Infinite bus bar) has an infinite SCC, with a zero
equivalent impedance and will maintain its voltage under all conditions.
The Short circuit MVA is a better indicator of the stress on CBs than the short
circuit current as CB has to withstand recovery voltage across breaker following arc
interruption.
The following figure shows a part of a power system, where the rest of the
system at two points of coupling have been represented by their Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit (or by a voltage source of 1 pu together its fault level which corresponds to the
per unit value of the effective Thevenin’s impedance).
Each of the lines are given to have a per unit impedance of 0.3 pu.
Z1 = Z2 = 0.3 p.u.
Suppose with CB1 and CB2 closed,the SCCs (or Fault Levels) of the busbars in the system
is to be determined.
11
The circuit can be reduced and analysed as shown in the figure 11.
This is a 16% increase on the short circuit capacity of bus 1 with the circuit
breakers open. The network may also be reduced keeping the identity of Bus 2. This
would yield a value of Zin as 0.157 pu, giving the short circuit capacity at busbar 2 as
| SCC2 |= 1/0.157 = 6.37 p.u
This is a 28% increase on the short circuit capacity of bus 2 with the circuit
breakers open.
The symmetrical components differ in the phase sequence ,that is, the order in
which the phase quantities go through a maximum. There may be a positive phase
sequence, negative phase sequence and a zero phase sequence. Thus the balanced set
of components can be given as positive sequence component, negative sequence
component and zero sequence component. These are shown below in the figure:
\
13
The positive sequence system is that system in which the phase or line currents
or voltages attain a maximum in the same cyclic order as those in a normal supply e.g.
assuming conventional counter clockwise rotation, then the positive phase sequence
phasors are as shown above in the figure. A balanced system corresponding to normal
conditions contains a phase sequence only. It is also the condition for 3 phase fault.The
positive sequence components are marked by subscript 1.The three phasors of positive
sequence system are of equal magnitude, spaced 120 degrees apart.
The negative sequence system is that system in which phasors still rotate anti-
clockwise but attain maximum value in the reverse order as shown in the figure. This
sequence only arises in the case of occurrence of an unsymmetrical fault. Such faults
also contain the positive sequence system. The negative components are marked by
subscript 2.The three phasors of positive sequence system are of equal magnitude,
spaced 120 degrees apart .
The zero phase sequence system a single phasor system combining three equal
phasors in phase as illustrated in the figure given above and represents the residual
current or voltage present under fault conditions on a 3 phase system with a fourth wire
or earth return present. Clearly the zero phase sequence embraces the ground ,
therefore in addition to the three line wires and represents a fault condition to ground
or to a fourth wire if present. Its presence arise only where fault to earth currents can
return to the system via the star point of that system or via an artificial neutral point
provided to earth a delta system. In an earth fault, positive and negative phase
sequences are also present. The zero phase sequence components are marked by the
subscript 0.
The phase components are the addition of the symmetrical components and can
be written as follows.
14
The unknown unbalanced system has three unknown magnitudes and three
unknown angles with respect to the reference direction. Similarly, the combination of
the 3 sequence components will also have three unknown magnitudes and three
unknown angles with respect to the reference direction.
Thus the original unbalanced system effectively has 3 complex unknown quantities
a, b and c (magnitude and phase angle of each is independent), and that each of the
balanced components have only one independent complex unknown each, as the others
can be written by symmetry. Thus the three sets of symmetrical components also have
effectively 3 complex unknown quantities. These are usually selected as the components
of the first phase a (i.e. a0, a1 and a2) . One of the other phases could have been
selected as well, but all 3 components should be selected for the same phase. Thus it
should be possible to convert from either sequence components to phase components
or vice versa.
When the balanced components are considered, it is seen that that the most
frequently occurring angle is 120◦. In complex number theory, j is defined as the
complex operator which is equal to √-1 and a magnitude of unity, and more importantly,
when operated on any complex number rotates it anti-clockwise by an angle of 90◦.
i.e. j = √-1 = 1 ∠90◦
The three phasors (1+j0), α 2 and α (taken in this order) form a balanced,
symmetrical , set of phasors of positive sequence rotation since the phasors are of equal
length displaced by equal angles of 1200 from each other, and cross the reference line in
the order 1, α 2 and α (following the usual convention of counter-clockwise rotation for
the phasor diagram). The phasors 1, α and α 2 (taken in order) form the balanced,
symmetrical, set of phasors of negative phase-sequence, since the phasors do not cross
15
the reference line in the order named, keeping the same convention of counter-
clockwise rotation, but third name following the first etc.
Some Properties of α
Phasor Addition
The sequence components of the unbalanced quantity are again examined, with
each of the components written in terms of phase a components, and the operator α, as
in figure shown below.
This gives the basic symmetrical component matrix equation, which shows the
relationship between the phase component vector Ph and the symmetrical component
vector Sy using the symmetrical component matrix [Λ]. Both the phase component
vector Ph and the symmetrical component vector Sy can be either voltages or currents,
but in a particular equation, they must of course all be of the same type. Since the
matrix is a [3×3] matrix, it is possible to invert it and express Sy in terms of Ph.
Since α−1 = α2, α−2 = α and 1 + α + α2 = 0, the matrix equation further simplifies to
17
It is seen that α is the complex conjugate of α2, and α2 is the complex conjugate of α.
Thus the above matrix [Δ]-1 is one-third of the complex conjugate of [Δ]. Thus,
1
a) Positive sequence impedance- Z 1=
(Z + α Zb + Zc)
3 a
1
b) Negative sequence impedance – Z2 = (Za + Zb + α Zc)
3
1
c) Zero sequence impedance – Z3= (Za + Zb + Zc)
3
For a three phase symmetrical static circuit without internal voltages like
transformers and transmission lines, the impedances offered to the currents of any
sequences are the same in the three phases; also the current of a particular
sequence will cause voltage drop of the same sequence or a voltage of a particular
sequence will give rise to current of the same sequence only which means that there
there is no mutual coupling between the sequence networks.
Since in case of a static device, the sequence has no significance, the positive
and negative sequence impedances are equal. But the zero sequence im pedance
which includes impedance of the return path through the ground is usually different
from the positive and negative sequence impedances. The impedances offered by
rotating machine to positive sequence components of currents is usually different
from those offered to the negative sequence components of currents.
18
The zero sequence network likewise will be free of internal voltages, the
flow of current being caused by the voltage at fault point. Zero sequence reactance
of the transmission line is higher than for positive sequence. The impedances of
transformers or generators will depend upon the type of connections ( delta or star
(grounded or isolated) )
sequence impedance Zg1 in series with it. The neutral impedance Zn does not appear
in the circuit because phasor sum of I a1, Ib1 and Ic1 is zero and no positive sequence
current can flow through Zn. Since it is a balanced network, so it can be drawn on
single phase basis. The reference bus for positive sequence network is at neutral
potential.
Synchronous machine does not generate any negative sequence voltage. The
negative sequence network can be represented by a negative sequence impedance
Zg2. In this case also, no neutral impedance appears as there is no negative sequence
current through Zn. Since it is a balanced network, so it can be drawn on single phase
basis. The reference bus for negative sequence network is also at neutral potential.
The transmission line (or cable) may be represented by a single reactance in the
single-line diagram. Typically, the ratio of the zero sequence impedance to the positive
sequence impedance would be of the order of 2 for a single circuit transmission line
with earth wire, about 3.5 for a single circuit with no earth wire or for a double circuit
20
line.For a single core cable, the ratio of the zero sequence impedance to the positive
sequence impedance would be around 1 to 1.25.
When only zero sequence currents flow in a transmission line, the currents in
each phase are identical in both magnitude and phase. Such currents return partly
through ground and the rest through overhead ground wires. The magnetic field due to
the flow of zero sequence currents is very different from that set up by the flow of
positive or zero sequence currents.
(c)Single windings
Each of the simple types of windings for the zero sequence path is considered.
These diagrams are shown, along with the zero sequence single line diagram in figure.
The unearthed star connection does not provide a path for the zero sequence
current to pass across, and hence in the single line diagram, there is no connection to
the reference. With an earthed star connection, the winding permits a zero sequence
current to flow, and hence is shown with a direct connection to the reference. The
earthed star with impedance, is similar except that 3 times the neutral impedance
appears in the zero sequence path. The delta connection on the other hand does not
permit any zero sequence current in the line conductors but permits a circulating
current. This effect is shown by a closed path to the reference.
(d)Transformers
impedances are equal because the impedance is independent of phase order , provided
the applied voltages are balanced. Thus, for a transformer
Z1 = Z2 = Zleakage
The situation with 3 phase transformer is more complex with regard to zero
sequence impedance because of the possibility of variety of connections. The zero
sequence currents can flow through the winding connected in star only if the star point
is grounded. Moreover, the zero sequence currents cannot flow in the windings if the
star point is isolated. No zero sequence currents can flow in the lines connected to a
delta star winding as no return path is available for them. The zero sequence currents
can , however flow through the delta connected winding themselves if any zero
sequence voltages are induced in delta.
Two-winding transformers
Considering the transformer as a whole, it can be seen that the single-line diagrams
indicate the correct flow of the zero-sequence current from primary to secondary.
Three-winding transformers
Three phase, three winding have an additional tertiary winding, and may be
represented by a single line diagram corresponding to the ampere-turn balance, or
power balance.
This may be represented by three reactances connected in T, giving the general single
line diagram for fault studies for the 3 winding transformer, as shown in figure .
ANALYSIS OF FAULTS
The generated voltages in the transmission system are assumed balanced prior
to the fault, so that they consist only of the positive sequence component Ef (pre-fault
voltage). This is in fact the Thevenin’s equivalent at the point of the fault prior to the
occurrence of the fault.
Va0 = 0 – Z0 Ia0
Va1 = Ef – Z1 Ia1
Va2 – 0 – Z2 Ia2
[ ][ ][
V a 1 = Ef - 0 Z 1 0 I a1
V a2 0 0 0 Z 2 I a2 ][ ]
25
I a0 1 1 1 Ia
and
[ ] [
I a2
1
I a 1 = 1 α α 2 I b=0
3
1 α 2 α I c=0 ][ ]
26
Ia
giving Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = 3
[ ][ ][
V a2 0 0 0 Z 2 I a2 ][ ]
V a 1 = Ef - 0 Z 1 0 I a1 where Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia/3
Thus, we get
T
Simplification, with If = Ia, gives
3 Ef
If = Z 1+ Z 2+ Z 0
In this case, Ia corresponds to the fault current If, which in turn corresponds to
3 times any one of the components ( Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia/3). Thus the network would also
yield the same fault current as in the mathematical analysis. In this example, the
connection of sequence components is more convenient to apply than the
mathematical analysis. Thus for a single line to ground fault (L-G fault) with no fault
impedance, the sequence networks must be connected in series and short circuited.
Now an L-G fault is considered with fault impedance Z f as shown in figure 25.
27
[ ] [ 1
][ ]
I a 1 = 1 α α 2 I b=0 giving Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 =
I a2
3
1 α 2 α I c=0
Ia
3
would yield a circuit connection of the 3 sequence networks in series with an effective
impedance of 3Zf.
Line-to-line faults are usually the result of galloping lines because of high
winds or because of a line breaking and falling on a line below. Line-to-Line faults may
occur in a power system, with or without the earth, and with or without fault
impedance.
Solution of the L-L fault gives a simpler solution when phases b and c are
considered as the symmetrical component matrix is similar for phases b and c. The
complexity of the calculations reduce on account of this selection.
Under the fault condition,
I a0 1 1 1 I a=0
[ ] [
I a2
1
I a1 = 1 α α 2
3 ][ ]
Ib
1 α 2 α I c=−Ib
V a0 1 1 1 Va
[ ] [
V a1 =
V a2
1
3
1 α α2 Vb
1 α 2 α V c=Vb][ ]
which on simplification yields Va1 = Va2.
29
The boundary conditions Ia0 = 0, Ia1 + Ia2 = 0, and V a1 = Va2 indicate a sequence
network where the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel and the zero
sequence is open circuited, as shown in following figure
In broken conductor (or open conductor) faults, the load currents cannot be
neglected, as these are the only currents that are flowing in the network. The load
currents prior to the fault are assumed to be balanced.
31
In the case of open conductor faults, the voltages are measured across the
break, such as a-a′. For the single conductor broken on phase “a” condition, shown in
figure 32. the boundary conditions are
Ia = 0, Vb = Vc = 0
This condition is mathematically identical to the condition in the L-L-G fault in the
earlier section, except that the voltages are measured in a different manner. The
connection of sequence networks will also be the same except that the points
considered for connection are different.
MATLAB THEORY
32
What Is MATLAB?
The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB was written
originally to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear
system package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.
MATLAB supports the entire data analysis process, from acquiring data from
external devices and databases, through preprocessing, visualization, and numerical
analysis, to producing presentation-quality output. It has powerful built-in routines that
enable a very wide variety of computations. It also has easy to use graphics commands
that make the visualization of results immediately available. Specific applications are
collected in packages referred to as toolbox. There are toolboxes for signal processing,
symbolic computation, control theory, simulation, optimization, and several other fields
of applied science and engineering.
Desktop Tools and Development Environment This is the set of tools and facilities that
help you use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user
interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a command history,
an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the
search path.
The MATLAB Language This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow
statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming
features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty
throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex
application programs.
Graphics MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully
customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user
interfaces on your MATLAB applications.
The MATLAB External Interfaces/API This is a library that allows you to write C and
Fortran programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines
from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for
reading and writing MAT-files.
34
SIMULATION MODEL
The circuit shown below is designed for the simulation of various types of faults in the
transmission lines.
35
SIMULATION GRAPHS
1. THREE PHASE TO GROUND FAULT
36
Description
The Simplified Synchronous Machine block models both the electrical and mechanical
characteristics of a simple synchronous machine. The electrical system for each phase
consists of a voltage source in series with an RL impedance, which implements the
internal impedance of the machine. The value of R can be zero but the value of L must
be positive.
Description
The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a
series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits a
constant impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are
proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
Description
The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase
transformer using three single-phase transformers. You can simulate the saturable core
or not simply by setting the appropriate check box in the parameter menu of the block.
40
Three-Phase Breaker
Description
Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the opening
and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal (external
control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode). The Three-
Phase Breaker block uses three Breaker blocks connected between the inputs and the
outputs of the block. This block can be used in series with the three-phase element that
one wants to switch. If the Three-Phase Breaker block is set in external control mode, a
control input appears in the block icon. The control signal connected to this input must
be either 0 or 1, 0 to open the breakers, 1 to close them. If the Three-Phase Breaker
block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified in the dialog box
of the block. The three individual breakers are controlled with the same signal.
Description
41
The Distributed Parameter Line block implements an N-phase distributed parameter line
model with lumped losses. The model is based on the Bergeron's traveling wave method
used by the Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP) . In this model, the lossless
distributed LC line is characterized by two values (for a single-phase line): the surge
impedance Zc = √ (L¿¿ C)¿ and the phase velocity v= 1/ √ (LC). The model uses the fact
that the quantity e+Zi (where e is line voltage and i is line current) entering one end of
the line must arrive unchanged at the other end after a transport delay of τ= d/v, where
d is the line length.
Description
The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and
currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the
three phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents. The block
can output the voltages and currents in per unit (p.u.) values or in volts and amperes.
Description
The Three-Phase Sequence Analyzer block outputs the magnitude and phase of the
positive- (denoted by the index 1), negative- (index 2), and zero-sequence (index 0)
components of a set of three balanced or unbalanced signals. The signals can contain
harmonics or not.
42
Scope
Displays signals generated during a simulation
Description
The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can
have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time range with independent
y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values
displayed. The Scope window can be moved and resized and the Scope's parameter
values can be modified during the simulation. When the simulation is started, Simulink
does not open Scope windows, although it writes data to connected Scopes. As a result,
if a Scope is opened after a simulation, the Scope's input signal or signals will be
displayed. If the signal is continuous, the Scope produces a point-to-point plot. If the
signal is discrete, the Scope produces a stair-step plot. The Scope provides toolbar
buttons that enables to zoom in on displayed data, display all the data input to the
Scope, preserve axis settings from one simulation to the next, limit data displayed, and
save data to the workspace.
Three-Phase Fault
Description
The Three-Phase Fault block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the
opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal
(external control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode). The
Three-Phase Fault block uses three Breaker blocks that can be individually switched on
and off to program phase-to-phase faults, phase-to-ground faults, or a combination of
phase-to-phase and ground faults.
43
CONCLUSION
After the MATLAB simulation for faults, it was
observed that the voltage and current waveforms were transient
in nature in the initial period after the occurrence of faults.
During the initial part of short circuit, the short circuit current
was limited by subtransient reactance of synchronous machine
and impedance of transmission line between the machine and
point of fault. After that, it was limited by transient reactance of
synchronous machine and impedance of line.
44
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS BY C.L WADHWA.
ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS BY W.D. STEVENSON.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS BY C.F.WAGNER & R.D.EVANS.
THE TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY BY
H.COTTON.
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS BY
GORAN ANDERSSON
http://ocw.mit.edu
http://wikipedia.org
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