OBJECTIVES

The Bipolar
Transistor 4
After studying the material in this chapter, you will be able to describe and/or analyze:
❍ transistor architecture,
❍ transistors functioning as switches,
❍ transistor characteristics,
❍ base biasing of amplifier circuits,
❍ signal parameters of the amplifier circuit,
❍ the procedure for measuring input and output impedance,
❍ transistor output characteristic curves, and
❍ troubleshooting techniques for transistor circuits.

N TO TRANSISTORS 4.1 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSISTORS

Bipolar transistors, also called BJTs (bipolar junction transistors), are three-terminal devices
that can function as electronic switches or as signal amplifiers. In this chapter, you will learn
how transistors perform both of these important functions. Figure 4–1 shows the schematic
symbols for the two types of bipolar transistors.
The schematic symbols show the three terminals of the transistor. The leg with the arrow is
called the emitter, the collector is the other slanted leg, and the base is the leg connected
perpendicular to the line connecting the emitter and the collector. If the arrow of the schematic

Collector Collector
Base Base

Emitter Emitter
NPN PNP
FIGURE 4–1 Transistor symbols
113
114 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

symbol points outward, the transistor is an NPN transistor. If the arrow points inward, the
transistor is a PNP transistor.

4.2 INSIDE THE TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a three-layer device, whereas a diode has only two layers. Figure 4–2(a) shows
how two layers of N-type material sandwich one layer of P-type material to make an NPN
transistor. Figure 4–2(b) shows how two layers of P-type material sandwich one layer of N-type
material to form a PNP transistor. In both cases, the layer in the center is the base, and the two
outer layers are the emitter and collector. The arrow on the schematic symbol identifies the
emitter and always points to the N-type material. By remembering this, you should always be
able to determine whether a transistor is an NPN or PNP type.

Collector Collector

Base N C Base P C
B B
P N
N E P E

Emitter Emitter
(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–2 Transistor architecture

Let us examine the operation of an NPN transistor. At first glance, you might assume the NPN
transistor would function like two diodes where the anodes are connected to the base terminal.
Indeed, if each junction of the transistor is used independently, it does function as two diodes.
However, when the base/emitter junction is forward biased and the base/collector junction is
reverse biased, a phenomenon happens that makes the transistor possible.
Figure 4–3 shows the bias voltages needed to turn on an NPN transistor (current limiting
resistors have been left out for simplification). Supply VBB is connected in such a manner as to
forward bias the base/emitter junction. The voltage on the base is positive 0.7 V with respect to
the emitter, which is at ground potential. Supply Vcc sets the collector to +10 V potential with

+ +
9.3 V V N 9.3 V V
– VCC = – VCC =
P 10 V
10 V
N
VBB = VBB =
0.7 V 0.7 V

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–3 Bias voltages

4.2 INSIDE THE TRANSISTOR 115

respect to the emitter. The collector is 9.3 V more positive than the base; therefore, the
base/collector junction is reverse biased. With the base/emitter junction forward biased and the
base/collector junction reverse biased, the transistor is turned on.
Using electron current flow, let us discuss the current flow in the circuit in Figure 4–4. Begin
by assuming switch S1 open, thus disconnecting Vcc from the collector. If this is the case, we only
need to be concerned with VBB. Supply VBB is forward biasing the base/emitter junction, causing
current to flow.

IC IC = 0 IC

S1 S1
IB = IE N
IB P IB
VBB = N VCC = VCC =
10 V VBB =
0.7 V 10 V
0.7 V IE
IE

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–4 Base/emitter current with collector open

Meters IE and IB have the same current flowing through them. Meter Ic has zero current flow
because switch S1 is open. If the bias supply (VBB) is adjusted more positive, the current through
meters IE and IB will increase. If the bias supply (VBB) is reduced, less current will flow through
meters IE and IB. In other words, with only supply VBB connected, the base/emitter junction
functions like a normal forward-biased diode.
If we close switch S1, 10 V will be applied to the collector,reverse biasing the base/collector junction.
The base/emitter junction is still forward biased with supply VBB. At first glance, one would think
the current flow would remain the same (IE = IB and IC = 0 A), but this is not the case.
What actually takes place in the circuit when S1 is closed (see Figure 4–5) is majority current
carriers from the emitter (electrons) cross the forward-biased base/emitter junction, and some
combine with the majority current carriers in the base (holes) and cause base current. However,

IC IC
S1 S1
IE = IB + IC N
IB P IB
VCC = VCC =
VBB = N 10 V VBB = 10 V
0.7 V 0.7 V IE
IE

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–5 Bias currents

116 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

the base is physically thin and lightly doped when compared to the emitter. The emitter injects
a large number of electrons into the base region relative to the limited number of holes available
in the base region. The result is a large number of electrons present in the base region that do
not immediately combine with holes.
Once in the base region, if the electron does not combine with a hole, it will fall under the
influence of the collector supply Vcc. Remember that the base/collector junction is reverse
biased, and the majority current carriers are prohibited from crossing the junction. However,
when a junction is reverse biased for majority current carriers, it is forward biased for
minority current carriers. The electrons in the base, being minority carriers, find it easy to
pass through the base/collector junction. Once in the collector, the electrons are attracted by
the positive terminal of the Vcc supply and flow through meter Ic, causing the meter to indicate
current. As Figure 4–5(a) shows, the current leaving the emitter divides, and a small amount
flows out as base current (IB), but the majority of the current flows out as collector current (IC).
The current flow can be expressed mathematically by the formula IE = IB + IC.

BETA OF THE TRANSISTOR __________________________________________________

The ratio of how the emitter current divides into base and collector current is a function of the
particular transistor being used. Typically only about 1% of the emitter current will exit the base,
and 99% will exit the collector. The ratio of collector current to base current is a parameter of
the individual transistor and is called beta (β). Beta can be stated mathematically as β = IC/IB.
Beta is sometimes referred to as hFE, which stands for forward current gain in the common
emitter configuration.
Beta is the current gain of the transistor where IC is output current and IB is input current
(beta has no units, since it is a ratio of two currents). The important thing to remember about
beta is that it is a fixed ratio between collector current and base current. Therefore, a small
change in base current will cause a large change in collector current. The base current is the
control current.
Let us assume values for the circuit in Figure 4–6. Let β = 100 and IB = 10 µA. Then IC equals
1 mA (IC = 100 × 10 µA). If the base current increases to 15 µA, the collector current will go to
1.5 mA. This is because beta, the ratio between IC and IB, is constant, and an increase in input
current will result in an increase in output current. Likewise, if the base current decreases to
5 µA, the collector current will decrease to 0.5 mA. The following two formulas should be
remembered:
IE = IB + IC Transistor current divider
β = IC/IB Transistor current gain (beta)

IC

IE = IB + IC
IB I
β= C
IB

IE

FIGURE 4–6 Beta of the transistor

4.2 INSIDE THE TRANSISTOR 117

EXAMPLE 4.1

A transistor is connected as shown in Figure 4–7. It has a base current of 8 µA and a

collector current of 1.2 mA. What is the emitter current and the beta of the transistor?

IC

IB

IE

FIGURE 4–7 Transistor currents and beta

Step 1. Calculate emitter current.

IE = I B + IC
IE = 8 µA + 1.2 mA
IE = 1208 µA
Step 2. Calculate beta.
β = IC/IB
β = 1200 mA/8 mA
β = 150

EXAMPLE 4.2

A transistor is connected as shown in Figure 4–7. It has an emitter current of 2.42 mA

and a collector current of 2.4 mA. What is the base current and beta of the transistor?
Step 1. Calculate base current.
IE = IB + IC
IB = IE – IC
IB = 2.42 mA – 2.40 mA
IB = 0.02 mA or 20 µA
Step 2. Calculate beta.
β = IC/IB
β = 2400 µA / 20 µA
β = 120

EXAMPLE 4.3

A transistor is connected as in Figure 4–7 and has a base current of 16 µA and a beta of
80. What is the collector current and emitter current of the transistor?
Step 1. Calculate the collector current.
β = IC/IB
118 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

EXAMPLE 4.3 continued

IC = β × IB
IC = 80 × 16 µA
IC = 1280 µA or 1.28 mA
Step 2. Calculate the emitter current.
IE = IB + IC
IE = 16 µA + 1280 µA
IE = 1296 µA or 1.296 mA

Transistors of the same type will have large variations in beta. However, in this chapter, we
will consider beta to be a constant. In the next chapter, we discuss circuits that correct for
variations in beta.

4.3 TRANSISTOR SWITCHES

INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________
A transistor can function as an SPST (single-pole single-throw) switch, but rather than being
mechanically controlled, it is controlled by an electronic signal driving the base terminal.
Figure 4–8 shows a comparison between an open SPST switch and an NPN transistor.

12 V 12 V

Bulb off Bulb off

Control
Signal
OFF

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–8 Open switch equals off transistor

When the switch is open, as shown in Figure 4–8(a), there is no current flowing in the circuit
and the bulb is off. When the control signal on the base terminal of the transistor turns the
transistor off, as shown in Figure 4–8(b), the transistor acts like an open switch. The resistance
between the collector and the emitter terminals rises infinitely high and prevents current flow
in the circuit. The bulb in series with the transistor is off.
Figure 4–9 shows a comparison between the SPST switch and the transistor when turned on.
When the switch is closed, current flows in the circuit and lights the bulb. Likewise, when the
control signal on the base terminal turns the transistor on, the resistance between the collector
and emitter drops to zero, and the current flow lights the bulb.
Actually, the transistor is not a perfect switch. When it is off, the resistance between the
collector and emitter does not go to infinity, and when it is on, the resistance between the collector
and emitter does not drop to zero. Even though the transistor is not a perfect switch, it is close
enough to function well in most circuits.
4.3 TRANSISTOR SWITCHES 119

12 V 12 V

Bulb on Bulb on

Control
Signal
ON

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–9 Closed switch equals on transistor

DESIGNING A TRANSISTOR SWITCHING CIRCUIT _____________________________

Figure 4–10 shows a transistor switching circuit designed to control the on/off condition of a
12 V bulb. When the control signal equals 5 V, the bulb is on, and when the control signal equals
0 V, the bulb is off. The current flowing through the bulb is the collector current. The collector
current is zero when the bulb is off and is limited by the bulb resistance when the bulb is on.
Example 4.4 shows how to design the switching circuitry.

EXAMPLE 4.4

Design the transistor switching circuit shown in Figure 4–10.

Ic(off) = 0 A
Bulb I = 1.2 A
10 Ω c(on)
VCC = 12 V
Control Rb = 330 Ω
0 V = off β = 100
5 V = on

FIGURE 4–10 Transistor switching circuit

Step 1. Calculate the collector current when the bulb is in the on state. The supply
voltage is divided by the resistance of the load (bulb).
IC = IL = VCC/RL = 12 V/10 Ω = 1.2 A
Step 2. Using beta, calculate the needed base current.
IB = IC/β = 1.2 A/100 = 12 mA
Step 3. Calculate the value of VRB.
VRB = Vcontrol – VBE = 5 V – 0.7 V = 4.3 V
Step 4. Calculate the value of Rb.
Rb = VRB/IB = 4.3 V/12 mA = 358 Ω (Use the next lower standard value, 330 Ω.)
Step 5. Draw the switching circuit. (The switching circuit is shown in Figure 4–10.)

If the control voltage in Figure 4–10 is zero, the base/emitter junction will be reverse biased,
and there will be zero base current. With zero base current, the collector current would also be
zero (IC = β × IB). With the collector current being zero, there would be no current through the
bulb, and the light would be off. The transistor is functioning as an open switch.
120 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

If the control voltage in Figure 4–10 is 5 V, the base/emitter junction is forward biased. The
junction drops 0.7 V, leaving a 4.3 V drop across Rb. The current through Rb is 13 mA (4.3 V/330 Ω =
13 mA). Since the transistor has a minimum beta of 100, the minimum expected collector current (IC)
would equal 1.3 A (100 x 13 mA). However, the resistance of the load limits the collector current to 1.2 A
(12 V/10 Ω). The collector current flows through the bulb, causing the bulb to light.
When a transistor is fully on and its current is limited by the load resistance, it is in saturation.
The collector/emitter voltage (VCE) across a saturated transistor is approximately 0.2 V to 0.3 V.
For calculations, assume 0.2 V is dropped across a saturated transistor. In Example 4.4, we
assume an ideal transistor with zero voltage drop from collector to emitter in the on state. If we
assume a 0.2 V drop across the saturated transistor, the voltage across the bulb will be 11.8 V,
and the current through the bulb will be 1.18 A.

HIGH POWER LOAD BEING CONTROLLED WITH LOW POWER SIGNAL _________
At this point, you may think transistor switching circuits do nothing more than allow one voltage
source to turn off and on another voltage source, but let us examine the circuit more closely. In
the off state, the current through the load is equal to zero. Therefore, the power dissipated by
the load is equal to zero watts (P = IV). In the off state, zero volts are applied to the base circuit,
so the base current equals zero, and the control signal power is also equal to zero.
When the transistor switch in Example 4.4 is on, the load current is equal to 1.2 A, and the
voltage drop across the load is equal to 12 V. Therefore, the power dissipated in the load is equal
to 14.4 W (1.2 A × 12 V). The input control signal is 5 V at 12 mA, and the input power dissipated
is equal to 60 mW (12 mA × 5 V).
Notice that a low power input signal (60 mW) is able to control a relatively high power output
(14.4 W). It is important to realize that the transistor is a control device, and not a power
generator. The transistor provides the control function of opening or closing a current path, but
the power dissipated in the load comes from the power supply (Vcc).
The wattage rating of the switching transistor used in the circuit is determined by calculating the
power dissipated by the transistor. When the transistor is off, the current flowing through the
transistor is zero. Consequently, zero power is dissipated by the transistor. When the transistor is
on, the current through the transistor is determined by the resistance of the load and the supply
voltage. The voltage across the transistor is approximately 0.2 V. The transistor in Example 4.4
dissipates approximately 240 mW (1.2 A × 0.2 V) when the transistor is conducting.

IMPROVING TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SPEED ________________________________

Figure 4–11 shows two transistors being switched by the same control signal. At low switching
speed, the signal present on the collectors of both transistors would look like the signal shown

12 V 1 µS

5V
TP1
0V
TP1
1 kΩ 0.01 µF 1 kΩ
TP2 TP3 10 V
Control TP2
Signal Q1 Q2 0.2 V
22 kΩ 2N3904 22 kΩ 2N3904
12 V
TP3
0.2 V

FIGURE 4–11 Improving transistor switching speed

4.3 TRANSISTOR SWITCHES 121

at TP3. However, as the switching speed increases, transistor Q1 will not switch sharply and will
have a collector voltage that ramps up and down as shown in Figure 4–11. Adding a capacitor in
parallel with the base resistor, as shown Figure 4–11, will permit transistor Q2 to switch at a higher
speed. The capacitor passes a current spike that clears the current carriers out of the junction area
and permits the transistor to cut off quickly. When the transistor is switched on, the capacitor passes
the needed voltage directly to the base and drives the transistor quickly into saturation.

SUMMARY OF THE TRANSISTOR IN THE SWITCHING MODE __________________

When a transistor is used for switching, it is in one of two states: on or off. In the off state, the base
bias current (IB) is zero, and the transistor is cut off. (Actually there is a small amount of leakage
current, but it can be ignored in most cases.) In the on state, the base bias current (IB) is set large
enough to drive the transistor into saturation. In saturation, the voltage drop across the transistor
(VCE) decreases to zero, and the voltage across the load goes to Vcc. (Actually the voltage drop across
the transistor decreases to approximately 0.2 V, and the voltage drop across the load rises to Vcc
minus 0.2 V). Transistors find many uses in the switching mode. They are used to switch off and on
electrical loads of all types and are used extensively in digital electronics where the circuitry requires
an on or off state. Example 4.5 will review transistor switching circuit concepts.

EXAMPLE 4.5

Design a circuit to control the on/off conditions of a 50 Ω load connected to 30 V. The

control signal is a voltage switch between 0 V and 4 V. The load will be on when the
control voltage is 4 V and off when the control voltage is 0 V. The transistor used in the
circuit will have a beta of 50.
Step 1. Draw a diagram of the switching circuit. (Figure 4–12 shows a diagram of the
circuit.)

Load
50 Ω VCC = 30 V
Control Rb
0 V = off β = 50
4 V = on

FIGURE 4–12 Transistor switching circuit

Step 2. Calculate the collector current when the load is in the on state. The supply
voltage is divided by the load resistance. The saturation voltage (0.2 V) of the
transistor could be subtracted from the supply voltage, but it is not significant
in this case.
IC = IL = 30 V/50 Ω = 600 mA
Step 3. Calculate the base current needed.
IB = IC/β = 600 mA/50 = 12 mA
Step 4. Calculate the value of VRB.
VRB = Vcontrol – VBE = 4 V – 0.7 V = 3.3 V
Step 5. Calculate the value of Rb.
Rb = VRB/IB = 3.3 V/12 mA = 275 Ω (Use the next lower standard value, 270 Ω.)
122 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

EXAMPLE 4.5 continued

Step 6. Calculate the wattage rating of Rb.

P = IV = 12 mA × 3.3 V = 39.6 mW
The resistor selected should be able to dissipate approximately twice the calculated
wattage or more. A 1/8 W or larger resistor is needed in this case.
Step 7. Calculate the wattage rating of the transistor.
P = IV = 600 mA × 0.2 V = 120 mW
The transistor selected should be able to dissipate 120 mW or more.

4.4 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS AND DATA SHEETS

There are hundreds of transistors on the market. The differences in these transistors can be
found by examining the electrical characteristics listed on the data sheets. The three most
important characteristics for the technician to know are the maximum collector current (IC),
maximum power dissipation (PD), and small signal beta (β). Certain technical literature uses
H-parameters to identify transistor characteristics. We will not use H-parameters in this text,
although in the following list of transistor characteristics, we will give the H-parameter names
when relevant. The following paragraphs state the most common transistor characteristics.
Maximum collector current (IC) is the maximum continuous current that can flow in the
collector leg of the transistor without damage to the transistor. Bipolar transistors are available
with maximum collector current ratings from 50 mA to 50 A.
Maximum power dissipation (PD) is the maximum power the transistor can dissipate
without being damaged. An approximation of the power being dissipated by a transistor can be
calculated by multiplying the voltage across the transistor from collector to emitter (VCE) times
the collector current (IC). Bipolar transistors are available with maximum power dissipation
ratings from 0.2 W to 250 W.
Small signal beta (β) or (hfe) is the signal current gain of the transistor in the common-emitter
configuration. The input terminal is the base, the output terminal is the collector, and the emitter
is the reference terminal. The formula for small signal beta is β = ic/ib.
DC beta (β) or (hFE) is the DC current gain of the transistor in the common-emitter
configuration. In most applications, the small signal beta and the DC beta are interchangeable.
In this text, we will assume they are interchangeable unless otherwise noted. The formula for
DC beta is β = IC/IB. Transistors are available with beta ratings from 10 to 1000.
Maximum base current (IB) is the maximum current that can flow in the base leg of the
transistor without damage to the transistor.
Collector to base breakdown voltage (VCBO) is the maximum reverse-biased voltage that
can be applied across the collector to base junction. Bipolar transistors are available with collector
to base breakdown voltage ratings from 20 V to 1500 V.
Collector to emitter breakdown voltage (VCEO) is the maximum voltage that can be
applied across the transistor from collector to emitter. Bipolar transistors are available with
collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage ratings from 20 V to 800 V.
Emitter to base breakdown voltage (VEBO) is the maximum reverse-biased voltage that
can be applied across the emitter to base junction. Bipolar transistors are available with emitter
to base breakdown voltage ratings from 4 V to 20 V.
 4.5 THE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER 123

Gain-bandwidth product (fT) is the frequency at which the gain of the transistor drops to
unity. The gain-bandwidth product is normally given in megahertz and can range from less than
1 MHz to 5000 MHz.

OR AMPLIFIER 4.5 THE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

GAIN AND AMPLIFICATION _________________________________________________

Transistor amplifiers are circuits that provide signal gain. Gain is an important concept in
electronics. Let us take a moment to make sure we have a common understanding of the word.
Gain is the ratio of output to input. The general formula is Gain = Output/Input. Gain has no
units because the output and the input must be in the same units, and the units cancel.
Figure 4–13 shows the symbol used for an amplifier. An amplifier is an electronic circuit used
to obtain gain. In Figure 4–13, the amplifier has an input of 0.6 Vp-p and an output of 6 Vp-p. By
using the gain formula, we can calculate the voltage gain to be 10 (6 Vp-p/0.6 Vp-p = 10). The word
voltage preceding gain indicates that the gain ratio is comprised of the output voltage and the
input voltage. It is also possible to have current and power gains.

6 Vp-p
0.6 Vp-p
Input Amplifier Output

FIGURE 4–13 Amplifier

THE TRANSISTOR AS AN ADJUSTABLE CURRENT SOURCE ____________________

Figure 4–14 shows a conventional current source in series with a resistor. The variable current
source is adjustable from zero to 2 mA. If the current source is adjusted to 1 mA (IC = 1 mA), the
current flow through the resistor will be 1 mA. The 5 kΩ resistor will drop 5 V, causing the output
voltage to be 5 V. The calculation follows:
If IC = 1 mA, then
VRC = IC × Rc = 1 mA × 5 kΩ = 5 V
Vout = VCC – VRC = 10 V – 5 V = 5 V

VCC = 10 V
7.5 V
Rc 5 kΩ
1 Hz

5 Vp-p
Ic
Output Voltage
Adjustable
0 to 2 mA
2.5 V
1 sec.

FIGURE 4–14 Adjustable current source

124 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

If the current source is adjusted to 1.5 mA, the output voltage will drop to 2.5 V. Adjusting the
current source to 0.5 mA will cause the voltage to rise to 7.5 V. The calculation of each output
voltage follows:
If IC = 1.5 mA, then
VRC = IC × Rc = 1.5 mA × 5 kΩ = 7.5 V
Vout = VCC – VRC = 10 V – 7.5 V = 2.5 V
If IC = 0.5 mA, then
VRC = IC × Rc = 0.5 mA × 5 kΩ = 2.5 V
Vout = VCC – VRC = 10 V – 2.5 V = 7.5 V
Any voltage between 2.5 V and 7.5 V can be obtained at the output by adjusting the current
source between 0.5 mA and 1.5 mA. If the current source is properly adjusted over a one-second
period, it is possible to obtain the sine wave shown in Figure 4–14. The output signal voltage is
a function of the changing current flowing through the 5 kΩ resistor.
Figure 4–15 shows a transistor in series with a 5 kΩ resistor. It is possible to control the
collector current between 0 mA and 2 mA by controlling the base signal. The 2 mA limit is set
by the 10 V supply and the 5 kΩ resistor (10 V/5 kΩ). If the control signal on the base is set to
cause 1 mA of collector current (IC), the output voltage will be 5 V. By controlling the signal on
the base of the transistor, the collector current can be adjusted to 1.5 mA, which will cause the
output voltage to drop to 2.5 V. If the signal on the base is adjusted so the collector current
decreases to 0.5 mA, the output voltage will rise to 7.5 V. If the proper control signal is applied
to the base of the transistor over a one-second period, it is possible to obtain the waveform in
Figure 4–15.

VCC = 10 V
7.5 V
Rc 5 kΩ

1 Hz
5 Vp-p

Control Ic Output Voltage

Signal
2.5 V
1 sec.

FIGURE 4–15 The transistor as an adjustable current source

The signal voltage output in Figure 4–15 is a function of the changing collector current flowing
through the 5 kΩ resistor. The transistor functions as a current source in series with the 5 kΩ
resistor. The collector current through the transistor is adjustable by applying a control signal
to the base terminal of the transistor. In the coming sections, it will be shown how a small input
signal on the base of a transistor amplifier can control a large output signal on the collector.

BIASING THE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER _______________________________________

Biasing a transistor amplifier circuit is the process of setting the DC voltage and current to the
proper level so a signal can be accepted and amplified by the circuit. A comparison can be made
between an automobile idle and the transistor amplifier bias current. With the idle set properly,
the automobile is ready to receive an input from the accelerator. With the bias current set
properly, the transistor amplifier is ready to receive an input from the signal generator. In the
4.5 THE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER 125

case of the automobile, we are trying to set the engine to a constant rpm with no input applied. In
the case of the transistor amplifier, we are trying to set the collector current (IC) to a constant value
with no input signal applied. Theoretically, the idle of an automobile could be set anywhere from
zero rpms (engine off) to the maximum rpms (engine wide open). The proper idle point is somewhere
between the two extremes. The same is true of a transistor amplifier; theoretically, the bias could
be set anywhere from IC = 0 amps (cutoff) to maximum IC (saturation). The proper bias point is
somewhere between the two extremes and is called the quiescent operating point, or Q-point.
When an amplifier is biased so the Q-point is near the middle of its operating range (halfway
between cutoff and saturation), it is said to be operating class-A. This operation permits the output
current to increase and decrease from the Q-point as the input swings through a complete cycle.
In other words, output current flows for the full 360º of the input cycle. Figure 4–16(a) shows a
class-A amplifier that permits the output current to flow for the full 360º of the input cycle.

360º 180º 90º

Amp Amp Amp

Input Output Input Output Input Output

Class A Class B Class C

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4–16 Classes of transistor operation

When an amplifier is biased at cutoff, it is operating class-B. In class-B operation, the output
current will flow only for one alternation, or 180º, of the input cycle. Figure 4–16(b) shows a
class-B amplifier.
In class-C operation, the amplifier is biased below cutoff. This means the input signal must
cross zero and move partway through an alternation before output current starts to flow. In other
words, output current flows less than 180º. Figure 4–16(c) shows a class-C amplifier.
Class-B and class-C amplifiers do not provide a true reproduction of the input signal; however,
they are both much more efficient that class-A amplifiers. Chapter 16 describes how the higher
efficiencies of class-B and class-C amplifiers can be put to use in power amplifiers.
In this chapter, we will limit our study to class-A amplifier circuits. Since class-A amplifier
circuits have output current flow for the complete cycle of the input signal, the output wave shape
will be the same as the input. However, because the circuit has gain, the magnitude of the output
signal is larger.

BASE BIAS AMPLIFIER ______________________________________________________

Figure 4–17(a) shows a transistor amplifier circuit using base bias, also called fixed bias. The function
of bias circuitry is to set the Q-point by setting the collector current (IC) to a constant value without
a signal applied to the circuit. Since bias currents are steady-state DC, the coupling capacitors block
bias current flow. For bias analysis, the circuit can be simplified to the circuit shown in Figure
4–17(b). Example 4.6 shows how the bias voltages and currents can be calculated.

EXAMPLE 4.6

Calculate VE, VB, VC, IB, IE, and IC for the circuit in Figure 4–17(a).
Step 1. Simplify the circuit as shown in Figure 4–17(b) for analyzing bias voltages and
currents.
126 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

EXAMPLE 4.6 continued

VCC = 10 V
VCC = 10 V

Rc
Rb Rc
Rb 5 kΩ
1 MΩ 5 kΩ
1 MΩ + –
– + β = 100
β= RL
100 10 kΩ

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–17 Base bias circuits

Step 2. Calculate VE. The emitter is connected to ground; therefore, VE = 0 V.

Step 3. Calculate VB. The base/emitter junction is forward biased; therefore, VB = 0.7 V.
Step 4. Calculate IB. First, the voltage drop across Rb is calculated, and then Ohm’s law
is used to calculate IB.
VRB = VCC – VB = 10 V – 0.7 V = 9.3 V
IB = VRB/Rb = 9.3 V/1 mΩ = 9.3 µA
Step 5. Calculate IC. The formula for beta is used to calculate IC.
IC = β × IB = 100 × 9.3 µA = 0.93 mA
Step 6. Calculate Vc. First, the voltage drop across Rc is calculated, then this voltage is
subtracted from the supply voltage (VCC) to obtain the voltage on the collector.
VRC = Rc × IC = 5 kΩ × 0.93 mA = 4.65 V
Vc = Vcc – VRc = 10 V – 4.65 V = 5.35 V
Step 7. Calculate IE.
IE = IC + IB = 0.93 mA + 0.0093 mA = 0.9393 mA
IE ≈ IC ≈ 0.93 mA
In most cases, the emitter and collector currents are assumed to be equal.

Figure 4–18 shows the transistor amplifier with the important voltage and current values
calculated in Example 4.6. The technician can measure voltage values and compare them to
the calculated values to determine if a circuit is operating properly. If the circuit in Example
4.6 is constructed and the collector voltage reads approximately 5.3 V, the bias circuit is
functioning properly. If the collector voltage reads low, the collector current of the transistor is
too high. If the collector voltage reads high, the collector current of the transistor is too low.
Engineers normally design class-A amplifiers for midpoint bias; thus, the transistor collector
voltage will read approximately one-half of Vcc. There are other factors the engineer must
consider when designing the class-A amplifier. For this reason, the collector voltage may not read
exactly 50% of Vcc but will normally read between 30% to 70% of Vcc. Hence, the technician can
quickly get an indication of proper circuit operation by measuring the collector voltage of a class-A
amplifier.
 4.6 SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF THE BASE-BIASED AMPLIFIER 127

VCC = 10 V

Rc
Rb
VB = 0.7 V 1 MΩ 5 kΩ
IC = 0.93 mA
IB = 9.3 µA VC = 5.35 V
+ –
– +
β = 100 RL
0 Vp-p 10 kΩ

FIGURE 4–18 Base bias circuit

SIS OF THE BASE-BIASED AMPLIFIER

4.6 SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF THE BASE-BIASED AMPLIFIER

Class-A transistor amplifiers are set to a Q-point by DC bias currents. The first step in
troubleshooting these circuits is to verify that the bias circuit is functioning properly. You cannot,
however, completely troubleshoot or analyze the amplifier circuit without knowing the signal
parameters.
In this section, you will learn how to calculate signal parameters. When referring to signal
values, we will use lowercase letters. Beta and transistor current divider formulas, as shown
below for bias parameters, are also valid for signal parameters.
IE = IB + IC also ie = ib + ic Transistor current divider
β = IC/IB also β = ∆ic/∆ib Beta

INPUT IMPEDANCE (zin) ____________________________________________________

Input impedance (zin) is the impedance the signal source sees when looking into the amplifier.
Let us examine the amplifier in Figure 4–19(a) and determine its equivalent input impedance.
The input coupling capacitor (C1) has a very low reactance (Xc) for the frequency of the signal
and looks like a short. The DC power source has a very low internal impedance for signal
frequency; therefore, the DC power bus is always considered to be signal ground. This means,
from the perspective of the signal source, resistor Rb connects directly to ground. Figure 4–19(b)

VCC

Rc
Rb C2
C1

Signal RL Signal rb
Source r 'e
Source

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–19 Input impedance

128 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

shows an equivalent circuit with C1 removed and rb connected directly to ground. Lowercase rb
is used for the signal resistance from the base terminal to ground. The resistance rb will include
all signal paths to ground with the exception of the path through the transistor. In this case,
there is only one path through Rb, so rb will equal Rb.
The transistor base/collector junction is reverse biased. The signal source sees this reverse-
biased junction as a open circuit, so the signal path through the collector is considered an open
circuit as shown in Figure 4–19(b). The signal source sees a path to ground through the
forward-biased base/emitter junction. The dynamic resistance of the base/emitter junction will
limit signal current flow through the junction. The dynamic resistance of the junction is shown
in the equivalent circuit as resistor r'e.
Let us review the concept of dynamic resistance. In Chapter 1, we discussed the detailed diode
model that shows how forward-biased current increases steeply with changes in forward-biased
voltage. We stated that the dynamic resistance of a diode junction can be calculated by taking a
small change in voltage and dividing it by the change in current caused by the change in voltage
(r = ∆v/∆i). However, these changes in voltage and current are difficult to obtain. Dr. Shockley
developed an approximation formula that simplifies solving for dynamic resistance. Shockley’s
formula states that the dynamic resistance of a diode junction is equal to 25 mV divided by the
forward-biased current through the diode junction (r = 25 mV/I). So, once the bias current is
known, the dynamic resistance can be easily calculated.
In a simple diode, there is only one current flowing; however, in a transistor, there are three
currents: emitter current, base current, and collector current. The formula for calculating the
dynamic resistance of the forward-biased base/emitter junction is r'e = 25 mV/IE. The emitter
bias current (IE) is used to calculate the dynamic resistance (r'e) of the base/emitter junction
because the emitter current is the current flowing through the base/emitter junction. The fact
that only a small percentage of emitter current exits the base has no effect on the dynamic
resistance of the junction.
To calculate the input impedance, we now have two parallel paths for signal current flow: one
through the base resistance (rb) and another through the forward-biased base/emitter junction,
which has dynamic resistance in the emitter leg. The resistance in the emitter leg will be seen
as beta times larger from the perspective of the base. The explanation that follows will show why
the resistance in the emitter leg must be multiplied by beta.
Figure 4–20(a) shows an equivalent circuit with the three possible Kirchhoff ’s voltage loop
equations. We will use the Kirchhoff ’s voltage loop equation containing the signal voltage source
and base/emitter junction (Vs – Vr'e = 0) to start our explanation.
Vs – Vr'e = 0
Using Ohm’s law to expand our equation gives us:
Vs – (ie × r'e) = 0

VS – Vrb = 0 V
Vrb – Vr 'e = 0 V
VS – Vr 'e = 0 V
Signal
rb r 'e
Signal
rb β × r 'e
Source Source

zin = rb || (β × r 'e)

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–20 Input impedance equivalent circuits

4.6 SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF THE BASE-BIASED AMPLIFIER 129

From the perspective of the signal source, the current flowing into the transistor is base current.
We can rewrite the voltage loop equation using base current.
ie = (β + 1) × ib
Since beta is much larger than one:
ie ≈ β × ib
Substituting β × ib for ie:
Vs – (ib × β × r'e) = 0
The previous equation could be written as:
Vs = ib × (β × r'e).
Since the signal source drives the base circuitry, the value of r'e looks beta times larger when
viewed from the perspective of the signal source. Figure 4–20(b) is an equivalent circuit showing
the input impedance from the perspective of the signal source. Note that the base/emitter
junction and r'e are replaced with a resistor that is equal to β × r'e. This branch is in parallel with
all other signal paths to ground. The general formula for input impedance is zin = rb || βre, where
rb is the signal resistance of the base circuitry and re is the signal resistance of the emitter
circuitry. Example 4.7 shows how the impedance of an amplifier circuit can be calculated.

EXAMPLE 4.7______________________________________________________________________________

Calculate the input impedance for the circuit in Figure 4–21.

VCC = 10 V
Rc
Rb 5 kΩ
1 MΩ C2
C1
β = 100 RL
20 mVp-p 10 kΩ

FIGURE 4–21 Base bias amplifier circuit

Step 1. Calculate the bias emitter current (IE).

VB = 0.7 V
VRB = VCC – VB = 10 V – 0.7 V = 9.3 V
IB = VRB/Rb = 9.3 V/1 MΩ = 9.3 µA
IC = β × IB = 100 × 9.3 µA = 0.93 mA
IE ≈ IC = 0.93 mA

Step 2. The signal input impedance can now be calculated.

zin = rb || βr'e
β = 100 from schematic
r'e = 25 mV/IE = 25 mV/0.93 mA = 27 Ω
rb = 1 MΩ
zin = 1 MΩ || (100 × 27 Ω) = 2.63 kΩ
130 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

An analogy that is helpful when calculating input impedance is to picture the forward-biased
base/emitter as a telescope that magnifies the resistance in the emitter leg by a factor of beta
when viewed from the base terminal. Figure 4–22 shows this analogy.

Eyeball

Emitter
Resistance

Telescope

FIGURE 4–22 Emitter resistance when viewed from base

VOLTAGE GAIN _____________________________________________________________

The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as signal voltage out divided by signal voltage in
(Av = Vout/Vin) and can be easily calculated if both the input and output signal voltages are known.
In troubleshooting, however, it is helpful to be able to estimate the voltage gain from circuit
values. In this section, we will develop a formula that makes this possible.
The input signal voltage (Vin) is equal to the terminal voltage of the signal source (vs)
connected to the circuit. The Kirchhoff ’s voltage equation for the loop containing the signal
voltage source (vs) and base/emitter junction is vs – (ie × re) = 0, where re is the signal
impedance in the emitter leg. Therefore, the signal voltage (vs) is equal to the signal emitter
current (ie) times the signal impedance in the emitter. Expressed in mathematical terms, the
input signal voltage is Vin = vs = ie × re.
The output signal voltage (Vout) is equal to the output signal current (ic) times the signal
impedance (rc) in the collector leg. Figure 4–23(a) shows that the collector signal current has two
paths to ground: one through Rc and the other through RL. The power source (Vcc) and the
coupling capacitor are shorts for signal current. Therefore, the signal equivalent circuit in Figure
4–23(b) shows RL and Rc connected in parallel. Expressed in mathematical terms, the signal
impedance in the collector leg is rc = Rc || RL. The signal output voltage equals Vout = ic × rc. Now
we have sufficient information to determine a formula for voltage gain using circuit components.

VCC = 16 V

Ic

Rc
Rb

Rc RL
β = 120
RL

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–23 Signal load impedance

4.6 SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF THE BASE-BIASED AMPLIFIER 131

Av = Vout/Vin
Vout = ic × rc (where rc is the signal impedance in the collector leg)
Vin = ie × re (where re is the signal impedance in the emitter leg)
Av = ic × rc/ie × re (since ie ≈ ic, the currents cancel)
Av = rc/re

EXAMPLE 4.8

Calculate the voltage gain for the circuit in Figure 4–24.

VCC = 10 V

Rc
Rb 1 MΩ 5 kΩ

β = 100
RL = 10 kΩ
20 mVp-p

FIGURE 4–24 Amplifier circuit

Step 1. Determine the signal resistance in the emitter leg. Examining the circuit in
Figure 4–24 reveals that r'e is the only resistance in the emitter leg. The bias
emitter current must be calculated in order to calculate r'e.
VB = 0.7 V
VRB = VCC – VB = 10 V – 0.7 V = 9.3 V
IB = VRB/Rb = 9.3 V/1 MΩ = 9.3 µA
IC = β × IB = 100 × 9.3 µA = 0.93 mA
IE ≈ Ic ≈ 0.93 mA
r'e = 25 mV/IE = 25 mV/0.93 mA = 27 Ω
re = r'e
Step 2. Determine the signal resistance in the collector leg.
rc = Rc || RL
rc = 5 kΩ || 10 kΩ = 3.3 kΩ
Step 3. Calculate the voltage gain.
Av = rc/re
Av = 3.3 kΩ/27 Ω = 123

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE (zout) _________________________________________________

The output of an amplifier is usually connected to some type of load. It may be a resistor (RL), a
transducer, or the input impedance of the next stage. In any event, the amplifier becomes the
signal source for the load. All signal sources have some internal impedance, and so does an
132 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

VCC

Rc
zout
Looking Back
RL into the Circuit zout = Rc
Using Thevenin’s
Vout Output Theorem
Unloaded

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4–25 Output impedance

amplifier. From the perspective of the amplifier, this internal impedance is referred to as output
impedance. Figure 4–25(a) shows that zout is in series with the load resistance connected to the
amplifier.
The value of the output impedance (zout) is calculated by looking back into the circuit from the
load as shown in Figure 4–25(b) and calculating the Thevenin equivalent impedance. There are
two parallel signal paths to ground looking back into the circuit. One is through the reverse-
biased collector/base junction of the transistor, and the other is through Rc and the power source.
The reverse-biased collector/base junction has a signal impedance in the megohms. The imped-
ance of the other path is equal to the value of Rc in series with the signal impedance of Vcc. The
signal impedance of Vcc is close to zero, so the impedance of this path is equal to Rc. Since Rc is
in kilohms and the impedance through the transistor is in megohms, the equivalent output
impedance (zout) is simply equal to Rc (zout = Rc) as shown in Figure 4–25(c).

SIGNAL PHASE INVERSION _________________________________________________

A positive voltage swing of the input signal increases base current (ib), which causes the collector
current to increase. The increased collector current causes a decrease (negative swing) in the
output signal voltage. The inverse is also true—a negative swing of the input signal causes a
positive swing in output signal. We describe an amplifier as having phase inversion when the
output is 180º out of phase with respect to the input.

SUMMARY OF TRANSISTOR PARAMETERS ___________________________________

The concepts developed in this section permit you to analyze circuit signal parameters by using
circuit component values. This is demonstrated in Example 4.9.

EXAMPLE 4.9

What is the (a) input impedance, (b) voltage gain, (c) output impedance, (d) signal output
voltage, and (e) signal output phase for the circuit in Figure 4–26?
Step 1. Calculate input impedance.
zin = rb || βr'e
r'e = 25 mV/IE
IB = Vcc – VB/Rb = 23.3 V/1.165 MΩ = 20 µA
IC = β × IB = 100 × 20 µA = 2 mA
IE ≈ IC = 2 mA
4.6 SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF THE BASE-BIASED AMPLIFIER 133

EXAMPLE 4.9 continued

VCC = 24 V

Input

Rb Rc = 6 kΩ
1.165 MΩ

β = 100
RL = 3 kΩ
20 mVp-p
Output

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–26 Amplifier with input and output signals

r'e = 25 mV/IE = 25 mV/2 mA = 12.5 Ω

re = r'e
zin = rb || βre = 1.165 MΩ || (100 × 12.5 Ω) = 1250 Ω
Step 2. Calculate voltage gain.
Av = rc/re
rc = Rc || RL = 6 kΩ || 3 kΩ = 2 kΩ
re = r'e
Av = rc/re = 2 kΩ/12.5 Ω = 160
Step 3. Calculate output impedance.
zout = Rc
zout = 6 kΩ
Step 4. Calculate Vout.
Av = Vout/Vin, therefore Vout = Av × Vin
Vout = 160 × 20 mVp-p = 3.2 Vp-p
Step 5. Determine the phase of the output signal with respect to the input signal. A
positive swing in base voltage causes an increase in collector current. The
increase in collector current causes an increase in the voltage dropped across
Rc, which reduces the collector voltage. Hence, the output signal is 180º out of
phase with respect to the input signal.

The base-biased amplifier can be analyzed using a schematic diagram of the circuit containing
component values and knowing the beta of the transistor. The first step is to calculate the DC
bias currents and voltages. The second step is to calculate the signal circuit parameters of input
impedance, output impedance, and voltage gain. With these values known, you have the needed
information to troubleshoot the circuit. In actual troubleshooting, you might not use paper and
pencil to do exact calculations, but you should have approximate calculations in your mind.
Having a list of formulas to plug values into and then cranking out the answers is not the way
to understand electronic circuits. However, there are a few relationships one needs to know in
134 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

order to work with bipolar transistor circuitry. The list of relationships below are important and
should be memorized.
IE = IB + IC Transistor current divider
β = IC/IB Current gain (beta)
r'e = 25 mV/IE Signal junction resistance
zin = rb || βre Input impedance
zout = Rc Output impedance
Av = Vout/Vin General voltage gain
Av = rc/re Voltage gain

4.7 MEASURING INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

The input and output impedance of a transistor amplifier circuit cannot be measured with an
ohmmeter. Using our knowledge of series circuits and a little common sense, however, we will
develop a method that can be used in the lab to determine the input and output impedance of
any circuit.
The box in Figure 4–27(a) is an electronics circuit that has an input lead, an output lead, and
a common lead. The generator signal is applied across the input and common leads, and the load
is connected across the output and common leads. We do not know what is in the box, but we do
know that all circuits look like a single impedance to the generator driving the circuit. Fig-
ure 4–27(b) shows the circuit with the signal generator adjusted to 1 V and a 1 k resistor
connected in series between the generator and the input lead. A voltage of 0.8 V is read from the
input lead to the common lead. Example 4.10 demonstrates how the information shown in Figure
4–27(b) can be used to calculate the input impedance of the unknown circuit.

EXAMPLE 4.10

Calculate the input impedance of the unknown circuit shown in the box in Figure 4–27(b).

Input Unknown Output 1 kΩ Unknown

Circuit Circuit
Vgen = 1 V
Signal Common V Vin
Load
Generator = 0.8 V

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–27 Input impedance test circuit

Step 1. Calculate the voltage across the 1 kΩ resistor.

VR = Vgen = Vin
VR = 1 V – 0.8 V = 0.2 V
Step 2. Calculate the generator current. Since the 1 kΩ resistor is in series with the
generator, it has the same current as the generator.
 4.7 MEASURING INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE 135

EXAMPLE 4.10 continued

igen = VR/R
igen = 0.2 V/1 kΩ = 0.2 mA
Step 3. Calculate the input impedance of the circuit. The current flowing into the circuit
equals the current through the 1 kΩ resistor, since the resistor is in series with
the circuit. The voltage across the circuit is known to be 0.8 V.
iin = iR = igen
zin = Vin/iin
zin = 0.8 V/0.2 mA = 4 kΩ

Thevenin’s theorem states that from the perspective of the load, any circuit can be replaced
with a source (VTh) and a series resistance (RTh). Figure 4–28(a) shows the original circuit driving
the load, and Figure 4–28(b) shows the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit driving the load. The
Thevenin’s resistance is equal to the output impedance of the original circuit. Therefore, if
Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit can be determined, we will know the output impedance (zout).

RTh = zout
Input Unknown Output
Circuit
Signal Load Load
Common VTh
Generator

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–28 Thevenin’s equivalent

Figure 4–29 shows the procedure for determining the output impedance in the lab. First, the
load is removed from the circuit. The load will remain out of the circuit for the rest of the
procedure. Second, the open circuit voltage is read and recorded [shown in Figure 4–29(a)]. The
open circuit voltage is equal to the Thevenin voltage (VTh). Third, a resistor with a known ohms
value (1 kΩ in this case) is connected across the circuit as shown in Figure 4–29(b), and the
voltage across the resistor is read and recorded. Fourth, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is drawn
showing the known voltage values [shown in Figure 4–29(c)]. Fifth, the circuit is solved for the
value of the Thevenin resistance, which equals the output impedance.
Step 1. Calculate the current in the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
iTh = VR/R = 3 V/1 kΩ = 3 mA

Remove Load Remove Load

Unknown Unknown RTh = zout
Load Load VTh
Vgen Circuit Vgen Circuit
=4V
Open Circuit 1 kΩ 3V V 1k
Vout = V Vout = V
Voltage = VTh
4V 3V
Known
Resistor

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4–29 Output impedance test circuit

136 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

Step 2. Calculate the voltage drop across zout.

Vzout = VTh – VR = 4 V – 3 V = 1 V
Step 3. Calculate zout.
zout = Vzout/iTh = 1 V/3 mA = 333 Ω

In the lab, using the procedure described, you will be able to measure the input and output
impedance of all types of circuits. If the impedances are not pure resistance, the phase angle
needs to be considered. In this text, we will consider the input and output impedance to be pure
resistance unless otherwise noted.
In Figure 4–30(a), the unknown circuit is a bipolar amplifier. Figure 4–30(b) shows how a variable
resistor can be connected in the circuit to determine input impedance. The resistor can be adjusted
to any known value, and the input impedance can be calculated. However, if the resistance were
adjusted until the signal at the input of the circuit equaled 50% of the generator signal, the resistance
of the variable resistor would equal the input impedance of the circuit. After the variable resistor is
adjusted to the correct value, it can be removed from the circuit and measured with an ohmmeter.
Unknown Circuit Unknown Circuit Unknown Circuit
VCC VCC VCC
Remove
Load

100%
SW Open

Vgen Vgen
V 50 % of V Vgen V 50%
Load gen Load
SW Closed

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4–30 Experimentally determining input and output impedance

Figure 4–30(c) shows how a variable resistor can be connected in the circuit to determine the
output impedance. Again, the resistance can be adjusted to any known value, and the needed
data can be obtained to calculate the output impedance. However, if the variable resistor were
adjusted until the closed switch signal equaled 50% of the open switch signal, the value of the
variable resistor would equal the output impedance.
The output impedance of most function generators is 50 Ω, and this value is normally displayed
on the face plate of the generator. Next time you are in the lab, verify the impedance of your
function generator using the procedure discussed.

4.8 TRANSISTOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

A graph showing collector current (IC) versus collector/emitter voltage (VCE) with base current
(IB) held constant is called an output characteristic curve. Figure 4–31(a) shows an experimental
circuit used to obtain the needed data to draw an output characteristic curve. Figure 4–31(b)
shows the output characteristic curve obtained by holding the base current constant at 5 µΑ and
monitoring the collector current as the collector/emitter voltage is varied from 0 V to 20 V.
4.8 TRANSISTOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVES 137

M2
IC
IC
2 mA
0 to
M1 M3 20 V
5 µA IB VCE 1 mA
Constant Ib
Current 5 µA
0A
0V 5V 10 V 15 V 20 V
VCE
(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–31 Circuit for developing characteristic curves

If the base current is adjusted to a second value and the process is repeated, data can be
obtained for a second curve. This process can be repeated several times, and a family of output
characteristic curves can be obtained as shown in Figure 4–32.

IC
25 µA
2 mA 20 µA
15 µA Ib
1 mA 10 µA
5 µA
0A
0V 5V 10 V 15 V 20 V
VCE

FIGURE 4–32 Family of output characteristic curves

Output characteristic curves can be used to examine how a transistor will function over a
dynamic range. Figure 4–33(a) shows a fixed bias amplifier with a 10 kΩ resistor in the collector
leg (Rc). Figure 4–33(b) shows the output characteristic curves for the transistor with the DC
load line for the 10 kΩ resistor plotted. The end point of the DC load line on the horizontal axis
is calculated by assuming the transistor is cut off and then calculating the voltage across the
transistor. This would equal the power supply voltage (20 V in this case). The end point of the
DC load line on the vertical axis is calculated by assuming the transistor is in saturation. With
the transistor in saturation, the only resistance limiting current flow is resistor Rc, so the collector
current at saturation is found by dividing the power supply voltage by the value of Rc. In this
case, the collector current at saturation is equal to 2 mA (20 V/10 kΩ). The DC load line can be used
to select the Q-point. Figure 4–33(b) shows that for class-B operation the Q-point would be
selected at the cutoff point on the DC load line. For class-A operation the Q-point should be
selected near the center of the DC load.
Based on the DC load line, it would appear that the circuit in Figure 4–33(a) could have an
undistorted output signal of 20 Vp-p as shown in Figure 4–33(b). However, the signal flowing in
the collector leg not only sees Rc but also sees RL. Therefore, in order to determine maximum
undistorted output signal, an AC load line must be plotted. The AC and DC load lines share the
same Q-point; hence, we already have one point on the AC load line. The second point on the AC
load line is determined by calculating the signal saturation current (ic). The signal saturation
current is equal to quiescent collector current (Ic) plus the change in collector voltage (VCE)
138 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

Ic Saturation

VCC = 20 V IC
25 µA

Rc 2 mA 20 µA
Rb 10 kΩ 15 µA Ib
Q-Point
Class A
1 mA 10 µA
RL 5 µA Q-Point
20 kΩ Class B
0A
0V 5V 10 V 15 V 20 V
Cutoff
∆VCE

20 Vp-p

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–33 DC load line

divided by the signal resistor in the collector leg (rc). Example 4.11 shows that the AC load line
can be used to determine the maximum undistorted output signal.

EXAMPLE 4.11

For the circuit in Figure 4–33(a) draw the AC load line and determine the maximum
output swing without distortion.
Step 1. Determine the signal resistance in the collector leg.
rc = Rc || RL = 10 k || 20 k = 6.7 k
Step 2. Determine the quiescent collector current from the graph in Figure 4–33(b).
Ic = 1 mA
Step 3. From the graph in Figure 4–33(b) determine the change in VCE between the
Q-point and saturation.
VCE = 10 V
Step 4. Calculate the signal saturation current.
ic = Ic + VCE/rc = 1 mA + 10 V/6.7 k = 2.5 mA
Step 5. Draw the AC load line on the graph in Figure 4–34 from the signal saturation
current point on the vertical axis through the Q-point to the horizontal axis.
Step 6. Draw the maximum symmetrical output signal without distortion below the
horizontal axis. The signal cannot exceed saturation or cutoff on the AC load
line. Notice the signal can swing only 6.5 V from the Q-point before cutoff is
reached on the horizontal axis. Therefore, the maximum symmetrical signal the
circuit could handle without distortion is 13 Vp-p as shown in Figure 4–34.
 4.9 TROUBLESHOOTING TRANSISTORS 139

Ic Saturation
IC
2.5 mA 25 µA
AC Load Line
2 mA 20 µA
15 µA Ib
Q-Point
1 mA DC 10 µA
Load Line
5 µA
0A
0V 5V 10 V 15 V 20 V VCE

13 Vp-p

FIGURE 4–34 AC load line

Engineers make use of characteristic curves for designing devices and circuits. The technician
does not normally utilize characteristic curves in circuit troubleshooting; however, understanding
characteristic curves is useful for technicians when using a curve tracer. A curve tracer is an
instrument that permits the technician to check the dynamic conditions of an electronic device.
By using a curve tracer, the technician can display a family of output characteristic curves to
check the dynamic performance of transistors. For example, if a circuit needs matching transis-
tors, a curve tracer can compare the performance of transistors over a dynamic range. If the
transistors are matched, their characteristic curves will be matched. If they are not matched,
the characteristic curves will be different.

OTING TRANSISTORS4.9 TROUBLESHOOTING TRANSISTORS

With the transistor out of the circuit, the two diode junctions of the transistor can be checked
with an ohmmeter. Figure 4–35 shows that the transistor can be thought of as two diodes
connected back-to-back. This test also can be used to identify the transistor as an NPN or a PNP.
For an NPN transistor, as shown in Figure 4–35, the test is as follows: connect the positive
lead of the ohmmeter to the base, and connect the negative (common) lead to the emitter. This
should forward bias the base/emitter junction, and the ohmmeter will read low. Now connect the
negative lead to the collector. This will forward bias the base/collector junction, and the ohmmeter
will again read low. These readings are shown in Figure 4–35(b). Now, if the ohmmeter is reversed,
the two junctions can be read in reverse bias, and both junctions should read high as shown in
Figure 4–35(c). If one of the junctions reads low in both directions, the junction is shorted and
the transistor is bad. If one of the junctions reads high in both directions, the junction is open
and the transistor is bad. Next, make a reading between the collector and emitter, then reverse
the meter leads and make a second reading. Both of these readings should be high. If they are
not, the transistor has a collector-to-emitter short and should be replaced.
140 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

C + C
–
Low High
C Reading Reading
+ –
B B B
+ –
E Low High
Reading Reading
– +
E E

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4–35 Transistor out-of-circuit test

If the terminals are unknown, you can find the base terminal by identifying which terminal
has a low reading in relation to the other two terminals. This terminal is the base. If the low
readings are caused by the base being positive, the transistor is an NPN. If the low readings are
caused by the base being negative, the transistor is a PNP. If the checks are being performed by
a DMM, the emitter and collector terminals can be determined. Most DMMs give a millivolts
reading on the diode scale. Carefully read and record the millivolts obtained when checking the
forward-biased base/emitter and base/collector junctions. The junction that has the higher
reading is the base/emitter junction.
If the transistor passes the ohmmeter test, it is probably good. However, the transistor could
be breaking down under circuit conditions not present with the meter test. In addition, this test
does not check the signal characteristics, for example current gain (β) of the transistor. There are
many transistor testers on the market that do check the signal characteristics, and if one is
available, it would be preferable to using a meter. The procedure for using the transistor tester
will be provided in the operator’s manual of the tester. The technician also can use a curve tracer
to check the dynamic response of a transistor. No form of out-of-circuit testing totally simulates
the circuit in which the device is operating. For this reason, a device may pass all out-of-circuit
tests and still cause the circuit to fail.
Figure 4–36 shows a transistor functioning as a switch. Reading the collector voltage will
quickly tell the technician the condition of the switch. If the switch is off, the voltage on the

VCC VCC

Load Load

VB = 0.7 V
VC = VCC VC = 0.2 V
Rb Rb
Transistor off Transistor on
Control Control
circuitry circuitry

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–36 Transistor switching circuits

4.9 TROUBLESHOOTING TRANSISTORS 141

collector should measure approximately the supply voltage (Vcc). The technician can turn the
transistor off by connecting a jumper between the base and emitter. If this procedure does not
turn the transistor off, it is bad and needs to be replaced.
If the switch is on, the voltage on the collector will measure approximately 0.2 V, and the base
will measure approximately 0.7 V. The technician can connect the base to Vcc through a pull-up
resistor, and this should cause the transistor to turn on. If the transistor does not turn on, the
transistor is bad or the control circuitry is holding the base at ground.
Always remember that a transistor functioning as a switch should be in cutoff (Vc = Vcc) or in
saturation (Vc ≈ 0.2 V). If the collector voltage is measuring some other voltage, the transistor is
not operating as a switch and the transistor is bad or the control circuitry is not functioning
properly.
Figure 4–37 shows a transistor functioning as a class-A amplifier. The technician should make
a quick check of the collector voltage (Vc), which should be approximately one-half of the supply
voltage (Vcc). If the collector voltage reads under 30% or over 70%, the operating conditions on
the amplifier should be questioned. If the collector voltage is in question, then measure the
voltage between the base and emitter (VBE), which should measure approximately 0.7 V. If the
DC readings are within range, the technician can then proceed with signal insertion to check the
gain of the amplifier.

VCC

Rc VC = approximately 1/2 VCC

Rb C2
C1

RL
VBE = 0.7 V

FIGURE 4–37 Transistor class-A amplifier circuit

PRE-LAB 4.1 143

PRE-LAB 4.1
Transistor Switch and Transistor Amplifier
1. Assuming the transistor to have a minimum beta of 100, calculate and record the value
of Rb for the circuit in Figure 4–38.
Rb = _____

16 V
200 Ω TP1

+ –
00.000 V
S1
Key = Space

2N3904
Rb
5V

FIGURE 4–38

2. Calculate and record the voltage at TP1 with S1 open and with S1 closed for the circuit
in Figure 4–38.
S1 open = _____ S1 closed = _____
3. Simulate and record the voltage at TP1 with S1 open and with S1 closed for the circuit in
Figure 4–38.
S1 open = _____ S1 closed = _____
4. Calculate and record the control power in and the power delivered to the load when the
transistor is on.
Pin = _______ Pout = _________
5. Calculate and record VB, VC, zin, zout, Av, and Vout for the circuit in Figure 4–39. Assume
a beta of 150.
VB = ______ VC = ______ zin = ______
zout = _____ Av = _____ Vout = ______
6. Simulate and record VB, VC, AV, and Vout for the circuit in Figure 4–39.
VB = _____ VC = _____ AV = _____ Vout = _____
7. Calculate the beta of the transistor based on the simulated readings.
Beta = _____
144 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

20 V
560 kΩ 2.0 kΩ

10 uF
+

10 uF
+ 2N3904
5.1 kΩ

+ 10 mV 4 kHz
–

FIGURE 4–39
LAB 4.1 145

LAB 4.1
Transistor Switch and Transistor Amplifier
I. Objectives
1. To construct and analyze a transistor switching circuit.
2. To construct and analyze a base-biased transistor amplifier.
II. Test Equipment
(1) sine wave generator (1) 0 to 15 V power supply
(1) dual-trace oscilloscope (1) multimeter
III. Components
Bulb: (1) 12 V @ 80 mA
Capacitors: (2) 10 µF
Resistors: (1) 150 Ω/2 W, (2) 1 kΩ, and (1) 220 kΩ
Potentiometers: (1) 5 kΩ and (1) 100 kΩ
Transistors: (1) 2N3904
IV. Procedure
1. Assuming the transistor to have a minimum beta of 50, calculate and record the value of
Rb for the circuit in Figure 4–40.
Rb = _____ Next smaller standard value = _____
2. Construct the circuit in Figure 4–40 using the standard value resistor determined in step
1.
3. Measure the voltage across the load with the transistor on and off.
VRL (off) = _____ VRL (on) = _____
4. Calculate and record the control power in and the load power out when the transistor
is on.
Pin = _______ Pout = _________

Vcc = 12 V

RL = 150 Ω

Rb

Control
Voltage
0 or 5 V

FIGURE 4–40

5. Replace the load resistor in Figure 4–40 with a light bulb. Adjust the supply voltage (Vcc)
to the voltage rating of the bulb. With the control voltage on, make the needed adjustment
146 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

in Rb to ensure the transistor is functioning as a closed switch. Note the collector voltage
should measure approximately 0.2 V when the transistor is on.
6. Measure the current through the bulb.
7. Calculate and record the control power in and the bulb power out when the transistor is on.
Pin = _______ Pout = _________
8. Calculate and record VB, VC, zin, zout, Av, and Vout for the circuit in Figure 4–41. Assume
a beta of 150.
VB = ______ VC = ______ zin = ______
zout = _____ Av = _____ Vout = ______
9. Construct the circuit in Figure 4–41. Use a transistor tester to find a transistor with a
beta near 150. Adjust the 100 kΩ potentiometer to 66 kΩ. This will give a starting value
of Rb equal to 286 kΩ: the correct value if the transistor has a beta of 150.

VCC = 15 V

Rc
Rb
100 kΩ 1 kΩ
C2
220 kΩ
C1
10 µF
RL
50 mVp-p 1 kΩ
2 kHz 10 µF

FIGURE 4–41

10. Apply DC power (Vcc) to the circuit. Adjust the 100 kΩ potentiometer until the collector
voltage measures 7.5 V.
11. Measure VB and Vc.
VB = ______ VC = ______
12. Turn on the signal generator and adjust the input signal to 50 mVp-p at 2 kHz. Measure
the output signal (Vout). Note the output signal of this amplifier will have some
distortion, but do not worry about it at this point. The next chapter will examine
amplifiers with less distorted output.
Vout = ______
13. Calculate the voltage gain using measured values for Vin and Vout.
Av = ______
14. Using the procedure discussed in this chapter, measure the input impedance of the
amplifier circuit.
zin = ______
15. Using the procedure discussed in this chapter, measure the output impedance of the
amplifier circuit.
zout = ______
V. Points to Discuss
1. Why should the next smaller standard resistor be used for Rb in the transistor switch
rather than the next larger standard value?
LAB 4.1 147

2. What would be the power delivered to the 150 Ω load if the control voltage were reduced
to 2 V?

3. With only 2 V of control voltage, would the transistor be operating in saturation? Explain.

4. Could the transistor switch circuit be redesigned to operate properly from a control
of (a) 2 V and (b) 0.5 V? Explain.

5. Would you expect the values to change greatly if a second 2N3904 transistor were used
to replace the one in the amplifier circuit? Explain.

6. Could the input and output impedances of this circuit be measured using an ohmmeter?
Explain.
QUESTIONS 149

QUESTIONS

4.1 Introduction to Transistors

1. What are the three terminals of a bipolar transistor?
a. emitter, base, collector
b. T1, T2, T3
c. source, gate, drain
d. emitter, gate, collector
2. The arrow on the transistor symbol always points to what type of material?
a. P-type
b. N-type
c. Base-type
d. PN-type
3. Bipolar transistors are classified as _________.
a. PPN and PIN devices
b. NPN and PNP
c. NNP and PPN devices
d. N-type and P-type
4. The schematic symbol of a bipolar PNP transistor is shown below as ______.

a. b. c. d. e.

4.2 Inside the Transistor

5. How many PN junctions are there in the bipolar transistor?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
e. 4
6. What type of material is the base section of a PNP transistor?
a. P-type
b. N-type
c. Base-type
d. PN-type
7. Compared to the collector and emitter, the base section of a transistor is _____.
a. very thick
b. very thin
c. very soft
d. very hard
150 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

8. In a transistor, the base current is ______ when compared to the collector and emitter
currents.
a. small
b. large
c. fast
d. slow
9. A bipolar transistor is constructed so that its base region is very thin and _____.
a. heavily doped
b. doped the same as the collector
c. lightly doped
d. doped the same as the emitter
10. The collector current of a transistor is always __________.
a. much lower than its emitter current
b. lower than its base current
c. equal to the emitter current
d. equal to the emitter current minus base current
11. During normal operation of an NPN transistor, most electrons entering the emitter
terminal ____________.
a. leave the transistor through the collector terminal
b. leave the transistor through the base terminal
c. are absorbed by the transistor
d. none of the above
12. Which equation expresses the correct relationship between the base, emitter, and
collector currents?
a. IE = IB + β
b. IC = IB + IE
c. IE = IB + IC
d. IB = IE + IC
13. The ratio of collector current to base current is called ______.
a. rho
b. pi
c. omega
d. beta
e. alpha

4.3 Transistor Switches

14. When a transistor switch is in saturation, VCE is approximately equal to ______.
a. Vcc
b. VB
c. 0.2 V
d. 0.7 V
15. When a transistor switching circuit is on, the collector current is limited by __________.
a. the base current
QUESTIONS 151

b. the load resistance

c. the base voltage
d. the base resistance
16. When a transistor switch is cut off, VCE is approximately equal to ______.
a. Vcc
b. VB
c. 0.2 V
d. 0.7 V

4.4 Transistor Characteristics and Data Sheets

17. The three important transistor characteristics are beta, maximum power dissipation,
and _____.
a. minimum rho
b. maximum pi
c. maximum collector current
d. minimum hold current
18. The H-parameter hfe is equal to the _______ of the transistor.
a. alpha
b. beta
c. maximum collector current
d. minimum hold current

4.5 The Transistor Amplifier

19. When the transistor amplifier is biased properly for class-A operation, the _______.
a. base/emitter junction is forward biased and the base/collector junction is reverse
biased
b. base/emitter junction is reverse biased and the base/collector junction is reverse
biased
c. base/emitter junction is forward biased and the base/collector junction is forward
biased
d. base/emitter junction is reverse biased and the base/collector junction is forward
biased
20. For class-A amplifier operation, the collector/base junction of the transistor has to be
______.
a. an open circuit
b. a closed circuit
c. forward biased
d. reverse biased
21. The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier is equal to _______.
a. VB/VE
b. Vin/Vout
152 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

c. Vout/Vin
d. Vcc/Vc
22. The bias voltage at the collector (Vc) of a class-A amplifier is approximately equal to
______.
a. Vcc
b. one-half of Vcc
c. 0 V
d. 0.2 V

4.6 Signal Analysis of the Base-Biased Amplifier

23. The input impedance of the amplifier covered in this chapter is ____.
a. equal to 1 kΩ
b. inversely related to beta
c. directly related to beta
d. none of the above
24. The output impedance of the amplifier covered in this chapter is _______.
a. Rc
b. inversely related to beta
c. directly related to beta
d. 1 kΩ
25. The phase difference between the input and output signals of the amplifier covered in
this chapter is ______.
a. 0º
b. 90º
c. 180º
d. 270º
26. The general formula for calculating voltage gain for the amplifiers covered in this
chapter is ______.
a. Av = Vcc/Vc
b. Av = VB/VE
c. Av = rc/re
d. Av = RL × β

4.7 Measuring Input and Output Impedance

27. The input impedance of a transistor amplifier can be measured using a/an ________.
a. ohmmeter
b. impedance meter
c. curve tracer
d. potentiometer in series with the function generator
28. The output impedance of a transistor amplifier can be measured using a/an ________.
a. ohmmeter
b. impedance meter
QUESTIONS 153

c. curve tracer
d. potentiometer in place of the load resistance

4.8 Transistor Output Characteristic Curves

29. A curve tracer can be used to display output characteristic curves, which is a graph of
the _______.
a. base current versus collector/emitter voltage
b. collector current versus base/emitter voltage
c. collector current versus collector/emitter voltage
d. emitter current versus base/emitter voltage

4.9 Troubleshooting Transistors

30. When checking a good transistor with an ohmmeter, the bipolar transistor ___________.
a. should exhibit a high ratio of forward-to-reverse resistance across both junctions
b. should exhibit a high ratio of forward-to-reverse resistance across the collector/base
junction
c. should exhibit a high ratio of forward-to-reverse resistance across the emitter/base
junction
d. none of the above
31. When the positive probe of an ohmmeter is connected to the base and the negative
probe is connected to the collector of an NPN transistor, what resistance will be
measured?
a. 0 Ω
b. low resistance
c. 5 kΩ
d. high resistance
32. When the negative probe of an ohmmeter is connected to the base and the positive
probe is connected to the emitter of an NPN transistor, what resistance will be
measured?
a. 0 Ω
b. low resistance
c. 5 kΩ
d. high resistance
33. What resistance is read between the collector and the emitter of a good transistor?
a. 0 Ω
b. low resistance
c. 5 kΩ
d. high resistance
34. What is the voltage on the collector of the transistor in Figure 4–42(a)?
a. 0.2 V
b. 0.7 V
c. 7.5 V
d. 15 V
154 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

VCC = 15 V VCC = 15 V

RL = 100 Ω RL = 100 Ω

Rb = 1 kΩ Rb = 1 kΩ
β = 50 β = 50
Control Control
Voltage Voltage
=5V =0V

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4–42

35. What is the voltage on the collector of the transistor in Figure 4–42(b)?
a. 0.2 V
b. 0.7 V
c. 7.5 V
d. 15 V
36. What is the DC voltage on the collector of the transistor in Figure 4–43?
a. 0.2 V
b. 0.7 V
c. 7.5 V
d. 15 V

VCC = 15 V

Rc
5 kΩ
Rb 1 MΩ C2
C1
β = 100
RL
50 mVp-p 5 kΩ

FIGURE 4–43

37. What is the DC voltage on the base of the transistor in Figure 4–43?
a. 0.2 V
b. 0.7 V
c. 7.5 V
d. 15 V
PROBLEMS 155

38. What is the signal voltage on the collector of the transistor in Figure 4–43?
a. 50 mVp-p
b. 0.2 Vp-p
c. 7.5 Vp-p
d. 15 Vp-p
39. If the output capacitor opens (C2) in Figure 4–43, what would be the signal voltage on
the collector of the transistor?
a. 50 mVp-p
b. 0.2 Vp-p
c. 7.5 Vp-p
d. 15 Vp-p

PROBLEMS
1. If β = 80 in the circuit in Figure 4–44, what are the readings on meters IB, IE, IC, and
VCE?

IC

R2
VCE 6 kΩ
IB
R1
100 kΩ
V1 V2
IE
1.7 V 10 V

FIGURE 4–44

2. If the base current is 30 µA and the collector current is 4 mA, what is the value of the
emitter current?

3. If the base current is 20 µA and the collector current is 4 mA, what is the value of beta?
156 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

4. The transistor in Figure 4–45 is used as a switch. Find the voltage at the collector when
the transistor is conducting.

VCC = 20 V

5 kΩ

Output
10 kΩ
Input

FIGURE 4–45

5. Find the collector voltage when the transistor in Figure 4–45 is turned off.

6. If the beta of the transistor in Figure 4–45 is 50, what minimum voltage is necessary at
the input to saturate the transistor?

7. When the input to the circuit in Figure 4–45 is 5 V, what beta is required to saturate the
transistor?

8. In the circuit in Figure 4–45, suppose the collector current is 4 mA, and the input current
is 0.5 mA, if the input current is increased to 1 mA, what will the collector current equal?
PROBLEMS 157

9. If the “on” voltage at the input is known to be a minimum of 3.7 V, what is the maximum
value of the input resistor that can be used to achieve saturation in Figure 4–45 (βmin = 50)?

10. Find the values requested below for the circuit in Figure 4–46 (β = 80).
VB = ________ VC = ________

VCC = 20 V

775 kΩ 3.3 kΩ

FIGURE 4–46

11. What resistance value would Rb (775 kΩ) in Figure 4–46 need to be changed to in order
to cause the collector voltage to equal 10 V (β = 80)?

12. In the circuit of Figure 4–47, if Rc is 3.3 kΩ and beta is 120, find the value for Rb, which
will provide midpoint bias (Vc = 7.5 V).

VCC = 15 V

Rc
Rb C2

C1

RL

FIGURE 4–47
158 Chapter 4 The Bipolar Transistor

13. What will the collector voltage equal in the circuit in Figure 4–47 if Rb = 755 kΩ, Rc = 3.3 kΩ,
and β = 240?

14. In Figure 4–47, if Rb is 600 kΩ and beta is 200, what value of Rc would be appropriate
for midpoint bias (Vc = 7.5 V)?

15. In Figure 4–47, if Rb is found to be 800 kΩ and Rc is found to be 4.7 kΩ, what beta is
required to provide midpoint bias (Vc = 7.5 V)?

16. What is the value of r'e, zin, and zout for the circuit in Figure 4–48?
r'e = ________ zin = ________ zout = _______

17. What is the voltage gain for the circuit in Figure 4–48?
Av = ______

VCC = 15 V

Rc
Rb 5 kΩ
C2
1.43 MΩ
C1
β = 150 RL
10 kΩ

FIGURE 4–48
PROBLEMS 159

18. If capacitor C2 is open, what would be the voltage gain for the circuit in Figure 4–48?
Av = ______

19. For the circuit in Figure 4–49, find:

Vc = ______ VB = _____ VE = _____ VCE = ______
zin = ____ zout = ____ Vout = _______ Av = _______

VCC = 15 V

Rc
6 kΩ
Rb
C2
1.2 MΩ
C1
β = 120 RL
20 mV 12 kΩ
1 kHz

FIGURE 4–49

20. For the circuit in Figure 4–50, find:

Vc = ______ VB = _____ VE = _____ VCE = ______
zin = ____ zout = ____ Vout = _______ Av = _______

VCC = 12 V

Rc
Rb 4 kΩ
C2
720 kΩ
C1
β = 80
RL
40 mV
6 kΩ
1 kHz

FIGURE 4–50