Sensation and Perception

Chapter 3

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Sensation vs. Perception
 Sensation
 The experience of sensory stimulation
 Perception
 The process of creating meaningful patterns
from raw sensory information

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Nature of Sensation

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 The Basic Process
 Receptor cells
 Specialized cells that respond to a particular
type of energy
 Doctrine of specific nerve energies
 One-to-one relationship between stimulation
of a specific nerve and the resulting sensory
experience
 For example, applying pressure with your
finger to your eye results in a visual
experience
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Sensory Thresholds
 Absolute threshold
 The minimum amount of energy that can be
detected 50% of the time

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Absolute Thresholds
 Taste: 1 gram (.0356 ounce) of table salt in 500
liters (529 quarts) of water
 Smell: 1 drop of perfume diffused throughout a
three-room apartment
 Touch: the wing of a bee falling on your cheek
from a height of 1cm (.39 inch)
 Hearing: the tick of a watch from 6 meters (20
feet) in very quiet conditions
 Vision: a candle flame seen from 50km (30
miles) on a clear, dark night

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Sensory Thresholds
 Sensory adaptation
 An adjustment of the senses to the level of
stimulation they are receiving
 Difference threshold
 The smallest change in stimulation that can
be detected 50% of the time
 Also called the just noticeable difference

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Sensory Thresholds
 Weber’s Law
 States that the difference threshold is a
constant proportion of the specific stimulus
 Senses vary in their sensitivity to changes in
stimulation

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Subliminal Perception
 The notion that we may respond to stimuli
that are below our level of awareness
 Research shows that the effect only
occurs in controlled laboratory studies
 Research outside the laboratory shows no
significant effect of subliminal information

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Extrasensory Perception
 Refers to extraordinary perception such as
 Clairvoyance – awareness of an unknown
object or event
 Telepathy – knowledge of someone else’s
thoughts or feelings
 Precognition – foreknowledge of future events

 Research has been unable to conclusively

demonstrate the existence of ESP

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Vision

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 The Visual System
 Cornea
 Transparent protective
coating over the front
of the eye
 Pupil
 Small opening in the
iris through which light
enters the eye
 Iris
 Colored part of the eye

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 The Visual System
 Lens
 Focuses light onto the
retina
 Retina
 Lining of the eye
containing receptor
cells that are sensitive
to light
 Fovea
 Center of the visual field

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Receptor Cells
 Cells in the retina that are sensitive to light
 Visual receptors are called rods and cones

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Receptor Cells
 Rods  Cones
 About 120 million rods  About 8 million cones
 Respond to light and  Respond to color as
dark well as light and dark
 Very sensitive to light  Work best in bright
 Provide our night light
vision  Found mainly in the
fovea

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Receptor Cells
 Bipolar cells
 Receive input from
receptor cells
 Ganglion cells
 Receive input from
bipolar cells
 Blind spot
 Area where axons of
ganglion cells leave
the eye

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Adaptation
 Dark adaptation
 Increased sensitivity of rods and cones in
darkness
 Light adaptation
 Decreased sensitivity of rods and cones in
bright light
 Afterimage
 Sense experience that occurs after a visual
stimulus has been removed

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 From Eye to Brain
 Optic nerve
 Made up of axons of
ganglion cells
 carries neural
messages from each
eye to brain
 Optic chiasm
 Point where part of
each optic nerve
crosses to the other
side of the brain
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Color Vision
 Properties of color
 Hue – refers to colors such as red and green
 Saturation – refers to the vividness of a hue
 Brightness – the nearness of a color to white

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Theories of Color Vision
 Additive color mixing
 Mixing of lights of different hues
 Lights, T.V., computer monitors (RGB)

 Subtractive color mixing

 Mixing pigments, e.g., paints

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Theories of Color Vision
 Trichromatic theory
 Three different types of cones
 Red
 Green
 Blue-violet

 Experience of color is the result of mixing of

the signals from these receptors
 Can account for some types of colorblindness

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Forms of Colorblindness
 Approximately 10% of
men and 1% of women
have some form of
colorblindness
 Dichromats
 People who are blind to
either red-green or blue-
yellow
 Monochromats
 People who see no color at
all, only shades of light and
dark

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Theories of Color Vision
 Trichromatic theory cannot explain all
aspects of color vision
 People with normal vision cannot see
“reddish-green” or “yellowish-blue”
 Color afterimages

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Theories of Color Vision
 Opponent-process theory
 Three pairs of color receptors
 Yellow-blue
 Red-green
 Black-white

 Members of each pair work in opposition

 Can explain color afterimages

 Both theories of color vision are valid

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Color Vision in Other Species
 Other species see colors differently than
humans
 Most other mammals are dichromats
 Rodents tend to be monochromats, as are
owls who have only rods
 Bees can see ultraviolet light

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Hearing

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Sound
 Sound waves
 Changes in pressure
caused by molecules
of air moving
 Frequency
 Number of cycles per
second in a wave,
measured in Hertz (Hz)
 Frequency determines
pitch

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Sound
 Amplitude
 Magnitude (height) of
sound wave
 Determines loudness,
measured in decibels (dB)
 Overtones
 Multiples of the basic tone
 Timbre
 Quality of texture of sound

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 The Ear
 Eardrum
 Middle ear
 Contains three small
bones; the hammer,
anvil, and stirrup
 These bones relay and
amplify the incoming
sound waves

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 The Ear
 Oval window
 Membrane between
middle ear and inner
ear
 Cochlea
 Part of inner ear
containing fluid that
vibrates
 This causes the
basilar membrane to
vibrate

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 The Ear
 Basilar membrane
 Membrane in the
cochlea which
contains receptor
cells, called hair cells
 Auditory nerve
 Connection from ear to
brain
 Provides information
to both sides of brain

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Theories of Hearing
 Place theory
 Pitch is determined by location of vibration
along the basilar membrane
 Frequency theory
 Pitch is determined by frequency hair cells
produce action potentials
 Volley Principle
 Pattern of sequential firing determines pitch

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Hearing Disorders
 About 28 million people have some form of
hearing damage in the U.S.
 Can be caused by
 Injury
 Infections
 Explosions
 Long-term exposure to loud noises

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Other Senses

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Smell
 Detecting common odors
 Odorant binding protein is
released and attached to
incoming molecules
 These molecules then
activate receptors in the
olfactory epithelium
 Axons from those
receptors project directly to
the olfactory bulb

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Smell
 Women have a better sense of smell than
men
 Anosmia
 Complete loss of the ability to smell

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Smell
 Pheromones
 Used by animals as a form of communication
 Provides information about identity
 Also provides information about sexual receptivity
 Pheromones stimulate the vomeronasal organ
(VNO)
 Information from the VNO is sent to a special
part of the olfactory bulb used for pheromonal
communication

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Taste
 Four basic tastes
 Sweet
 Salty
 Sour
 Bitter

 Recent discovery of fifth taste

 Umami

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Taste
 Receptor cells are
located in taste buds
 Taste buds are
located in papillae on
the tongue
 Chemicals dissolve in
saliva and activate
receptors

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Other Senses

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Kinesthetic Senses
 Kinesthetic senses provide information
about speed and direction of movement
 Stretch receptors sense muscle stretch and
contraction
 Golgi tendon organs sense movement of
tendons

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Vestibular Senses
 Vestibular senses provide information
about equilibrium and body position
 Fluid moves in two vestibular sacs
 Vestibular organs are also responsible for
motion sickness
 Motion sickness may be caused by
discrepancies between visual information
and vestibular sensation
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 The Skin Senses
 Skin is the largest sense organ
 There are receptors for pressure,
temperature, and pain
 Touch appears to be important not just as
a source of information, but as a way to
bond with others

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Pain
 Serves as a warning about injury or other
problem
 Large individual differences in pain
perception
 Gate control theory
 Neurological “gate” in spinal cord which
controls transmission of pain to brain

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Pain
 Biopsychosocial theory
 Holds that pain involves not just physical stimulus, but
psychological and social factors as well
 Placebo effect
 Shows that when a person believes a medication
reduces pain, their pain is often reduced even though
no medication was given
 Pain relief is likely the result of endorphin release

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Pain
 Alternative approaches
 Hypnosis
 Self-hypnosis
 Accupuncture

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Perceptual Organization
 Figure-ground
 We perceive a
foreground object
(figure) against a
background (ground)
 Animals may look like
the background they
inhabit as a way of
destroying figure-
ground distinction

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Perceptual Organization
 Other principles of
organization
 Proximity
 Similarity
 Closure
 Continuity

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Perceptual Organization
 Perceptual Constancy
 Our tendency to
perceive objects as
stable and unchanging
despite changing
sensory information
 Size constancy
 Shape constancy
 Brightness constancy
 Color constancy
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Perception of Distance and
Depth
 Monocular cues –
those that require
only one eye
 Aerial perspective
 Texture gradient
 Linear perspective
 Motion parallax
 Superposition

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception of Distance and Depth
 Binocular cues – those that require both
eyes
 Retinal disparity
 Convergence

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Localizing Sounds
 We use both monaural
and binaural cues
 Loudness
 Louder sounds are
perceived as being closer
 Time of arrival
 Sounds will arrive at one
ear sooner than the other
 This helps determine
direction of the sound

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Perception of Movement
 Apparent movement
 Illusion that still objects are moving
 Autokinetic illusion
 Perceived motion of a single object
 Stroboscopic motion
 Created by a rapid series of still pictures
 Phi phenomenon
 Apparent motion created by lights flashing in
sequence
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Visual Illusions
 Occur because of
misleading cues in
the stimulus
 Gives rise to false
perceptions

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Individual Differences and
Culture in Perception
 Motivation
 Our desires or needs shape our current
perceptions
 Values
 Expectations
 Cognitive Style
 Experience and Culture
 Personality
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall