CHAPTER 2

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
2.1 Definition and Terminologies
2.1.1 Algebraic Expressions

Examples of algebraic expressions are:
a) 9 b)
xy 2
c)
3
) 5 2 (

x d)
5 2 ) 1 ( 3
2 3
+ + x x e)
2
1

+
x
x
f)
3
2 2
5
2 5 2
y
y xy x +
g)
4 2 3
2
) 1 ( +

z x
xz y
2.1.2 Constants
Examples of constants are: 3, 5 ,
2
1
, 6,

2.1.3 Variables
Variables are represented by the letters of the alphabet.
Examples of variables are: a, b, t, x, y, z

2.1.4 Polynomials

Examples of polynomials are:
a)
7 6
3 y x b)
2
5
2 3
x
x x + c)
5
1 4 7
4 3 2 2 3
+ ab b a b a


2.1.5 Terms of a Polynomial

A term of a polynomial is a nonzero constant or the product of a nonzero
constant and one or more variables with nonnegative integral or whole number
exponents.
A polynomial can be considered as the sum of a finite number of terms. For
example, the
2
2 3
5
x
x x + can be written as
2
2 3
) 5 (
x
x x + + and the terms are
3
x ,
2
5x , and
2
x
.
1
An algebraic expression is a constant, a variable, or a combination of
constants and variables involving a finite number of the indicated operations
of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power and
extraction of roots.
A constant is a number whose value is fixed or a symbol that is used to
represent a single real number.
A variable is a symbol that can represent different numbers.
A polynomial is a special type of an algebraic expression in which the
exponents of the variables in all of its terms are nonnegative integers and
there is no variable in the denominator.
Any factor of a term is called the coefficient of the other factors. For example, in
2a
2
b
3
, 2 is the coefficient of a
2
b
3
, 2a
2
is the coefficient of b
3
, and so on.
The nonzero constant in a tem is the numerical or constant coefficient and the
remaining factor is the literal coefficient. For example, in 5xyz, the numerical or
constant coefficient is 5 and the literal coefficients are x, y, and z.
Terms having the same literal coefficients are similar terms. For example, 9y
3
z
4
,
4 3
2
1
z y , and y
3
z
4
are similar terms with
4 3
z y as the common literal coefficients.
Terms that have different literal coefficients are dissimilar terms. For example, 3x
3
y
2
and 7x
2
y
3
are dissimilar terms.
2.1.6 Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a term of a polynomial in one variable is the exponent of the
variable, while the degree of a term in two or more variables is the sum of the
exponents of all the variables of a polynomial. For example, the degree of 7y
7
is 7,
while the degree of 5x
2
y
5
z
3
is 10. The degree of a nonzero term is zero.
The degree of a polynomial is the same as the degree of the term with the
highest degree in the polynomial. For example, the degree of the polynomial 4x
5
y
4
2x
6
y
5
+ 3xy + 8 is 11 because 2x
6
y
5
is the term with the highest degree, 11. The
degree of the constant zero is not defined.
2.1.7 Standard Form of a Polynomial
A polynomial is in standard form if its terms are arranged in the decreasing
power of one variable. The polynomial, x
7
2x
6
+ 5x
5
4x
3
+ 7x 2 is in standard
form because the terms are arranged in the decreasing power of x. Likewise, the
polynomial 3a
4
b
2
2a
3
b + 6ab
3
+ 4b
4
is in standard form because the terms are
arranged in the decreasing power of a not of b.
2.1.8 Classification of Polynomials
Polynomials are classified according to:
A. Number of Terms
a) monomial a polynomial of one term.
b) binomial a polynomial of two terms.
c) trinomial a polynomial of three terms.
d) quadrinomial a polynomial of four terms.
e) multinomial a polynomial of two ore more terms.

B. Degree
a) linear a polynomial of degree 1.
b) quadratic a polynomial of degree 2.
c) cubic a polynomial of degree 3.
d) quartic a polynomial of degree 4.
e) n
th
degree a polynomial of degree n.
The following table shows the classification of polynomials according to
the number of terms and degree.
Polynomials
Number
of
Terms
Type Degree
20 1 monomial 0
2x 3 2 binomial 1
x
4
5x
3
y
3
+ 3y
2
3 trinomial 6
2
2x
4
y
5
+ x
3
y
3
3x
2
y
2
xy 4 quadrinomial 9
x
8
+ x
5
7x
3
+ 3x
2
2 5 multinomial 8
2.2 Evaluation of Algebraic Expressions
To evaluate an algebraic expression means to find the numerical value of the given
expression by replacing the variables with the specified numbers, and performing the
indicated operations. The replacement or substitution property is used in evaluating an
algebraic expression.
Example. Evaluate each of the following expressions for the specified value of the
variable.
1)
x
x x
2
2 3
3 + + for x = 2 2) 1 ) ( 5 ) ( 2
2
+ y x x y x for x = 2 and y =3
3)
3 2
3 4 c
b a
b a

for a = 1, b = 1, c = 2 4) )] 2 ( 3 [ 2
2
z y x x + + for x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3


2.3 Powers with Integral Exponents

The expression a
n
is a power or the n
th
power of a. The number a is the base (the
repeated factor), and the number n is the exponent (the number of times the base is taken as a
factor). When no exponent is written, the exponent is understood to be one. This means that
there is only one factor and a
1
= a.

Examples:
a) 6 6 6 6 6 6
5
(product of 5 factors each equal to 6)
b) 5 5 5 5 5
4
(product of 4 factors each equal to 5)
c)
4 4 4 4
3

(product of 3 factors each equal to 4)
d) 3 3 3
2
(product of 2 factors each equal to 3)
e) 2
1
= 2 (one factor equal to 2)
Like powers are powers having the same base. Thus,
a
x
2
,
1 + k
x , and
b
x

are like
powers with x as the common base.
3
A power is a compact or shorthand notation representing the product of
repeated factors.
Definition
If a is a real number other than 0 and n is a positive integer, then a
n
denotes the product of n factors each of which is a. Thus,
a a a a a
n
... (n factors of a)
2.3.1 Laws of Exponents
The laws of exponents are very useful in simplifying expressions containing
powers.
Zero Exponents

Negative Integral Exponents


Example 1. Evaluate the following expressions.
a)
0
2x e)
2
3

b)
0
2 x + f)
2
3
7
2

c) x
0
2 g)
d) ( )
0
0 2
1 5 2 + x x
4
Laws of Exponents
If m and n are integers; a and b are real numbers, then
Product of Powers applies only to multiplication of like powers.

n m n m
a a
.
a
+

Power of a Power:
mn n m
a a ) (
Power of a Product:
m m m
b a ab ) (
Quotient of Powers applies only to division of like powers
0 ,
i f
1

i f
i f

'

<

>

a
n m
a
n m 1
n m a
a
a
m n
n m
n
m
Power of a Quotient: 0 ,
,
`

.
|
b
b
a
b
a
m
m
m
( )
3
4

Definition
If a is a real number other than 0, then a
0
= 1.
(If a = 0, 0
0
is undefined)
Definition
If a is a real number and n is any positive integer, then

0 a ,
a
a
n
n

1
Example 2. Perform the indicated operations using the laws of exponents and simplify.
Assume that no denominator is equal to zero.
a) ( )( )
4 3 2
3 5 b a b a

b) ( )( )
1 4 2 2 3 4
2 5

z y x z y x c)
( )( )
( )( )
3 2
6 5
3 3
3 3

d)



e) ( )
3
2 1
5


y x f)
2
3 3
3 4 2
2
5

,
`

.
|
d c
b a
g) h) ( )( )
2 3 3 2
3 3
+ x x
i)
( )
( )
2
2
2
3
+

x
x
b
b



2.4 Operations on Polynomials
2.4.1 Addition and Subtraction
Basic Principle:
Only similar terms can be combined algebraically by using the distributive
property. The sum or difference of dissimilar terms can only be indicated.
A. Monomials
The following are the rules in adding and subtracting monomials.
Rule 1: For addition of similar terms, add the numerical coefficients using
the rule of sign for addition and multiply the sum by the common
literal coefficients.
Rule 2: For subtraction of similar terms, change the sign of the subtrahend
and add.
Rule 3: For addition and subtraction of dissimilar terms, the sum and
difference can only be indicated.
B. Polynomials
The following are the steps in adding and subtracting polynomials.
Step 1: Arrange the terms of the given polynomials such that similar terms are
in the same vertical columns.
Step 2: For addition, combine similar terms in each column.
For subtraction, change the sign of all the terms of the subtrahend and
add.

Example 1. Add the following monomials:
a) b a
2
3 , b a
2
5 , b a
2
, b a
2
7 , and b a
2
6
b)
2 3
3 y x ,
2 3
y x ,
3 2
7 y x ,
2 3
3 y x , and
3 2
2 y x

Example 2. Add the following polynomials:
5
3 2
2 3 2
21
12
c ab
c b a

( )
( )
2
3 2 1
3
4 2 2
2
3

z y x
z y x
a)
2 2 2 2 2 2
5 , 2 3 3 , 4 7 b a ab ab a b b ab a + + +
b)
2 4 2 3 4 3 2 4 2 3
3 2 9 , 2 5 6 , 4 2 5 3 , 1 5 4 3 x x x x x x x x x x x x x + + + + +


Example 3. Subtract:
a) 2 2 3 5
2 3
+ + x x x from 5 9 3 2
2 3
+ x x x
b) the sum of 1 7 2
2
+ + x x and 5 7 + x from 3 2 4
2
+ x x
c) the sum of 5y
2
+ 8y + 4 and 7y
2
+ 9y 6 from
the sum of 8y
2
+ 7 and 6y 11

2.4.2 Multiplication
A. Product of Monomials
Rule: Multiply the numerical coefficients applying the rule of sign for
multiplication and the literal coefficients applying the product of powers.
Example. Find the product of the following:
1) ) )( 7 )( 2 (
2 3 4 2 3
y x y x y x 2)
) )( 2 )( 3 (
2 2 2 3 3 2 3
x c a y bc x b a



Product of a Monomial and a Polynomial
Rule: Apply the distributive property. (Multiply the monomial to each of the
terms of the polynomial and simplify).

Example. Find the product of the following.
1) ) 6 5 3 5 ( 4
2 3 2
+ a a a a ) 1 4 5 2 )( 3 ( ) 2
2 2 3 3 2 3 3 2
+ z x z y y x z y x
Product of Polynomials
The following are the steps in multiplying polynomials
Step 1: Arrange both multiplicand and multiplier in decreasing
6
power of a common letter
Step 2: Multiply each term of the multiplier to all the terms of the
multiplicand. The result is called a partial product.
Step 3: Add all partial products obtained in Step 2.

Example. Find the product of the following:
1) ( )( ) 1 3 4 3 5 2
2 2
+ x x x x 2) ( )( )
2 2 4 3 3 2 2 4
2 5 2 4 2 3 y x y y x xy y x x + +

B. Symbols of Grouping
Symbols of grouping are used to indicate that two or more terms are to be considered as
one. The three commonly used symbols of grouping are the parentheses ( ), the brackets
[ ], and the braces { }.
One way to simplify an algebraic expression is by removing the symbols of grouping and
combining similar terms. Removing the symbols of grouping is an application of the
distributive property.
The following are the rules in removing symbols of grouping.
Rule 1: Remove the symbols of grouping one at a time starting from the innermost symbol
of grouping.
Rule 2: If the symbol of grouping is preceded by:
a) +1, simply remove the symbol of grouping and combine similar terms.
b) 1, change the signs of all the terms enclosed and combine similar terms.
Rule 3: If the symbol of grouping is preceded by any number other than t 1, apply the
distributive property and combine similar terms.

Example 1. Simplify each of the following expressions by removing the symbols of
grouping and combining similar terms.
a)
( ) ( ) ( ) y x y x y x + + 5 5 2 2 3 4

b)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) b a c c b a b a c b 5 2 2 4 3 3 2 5 +

c)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) b a y b a x y x b y x a + + + 2 3 2 3 3 2

d)
( ) [ ] ( ) b a b a b a + 2 3 7 3 2 5
e) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] 5 6 2 3 4 9 3 + x x x
f)
( ) ( ) [ ] x x x x x + + + 1 2 4 5 5
g) ( ) [ ] { ( ) [ ] { y x y x 2 3 2 3 6 3 5 2 4 7 4 +
h) ( ) [ ] ( ) { x y x y x y x 5 4 4 3 10 7 6 +
i ) ( ) { [ ] ( ) { [ ] c b a c b b a c b a 3 3 2 2 3 2 3 2 + +
j ) ( ) ( ) [ ] { a b a c b c a 2 2 3 2 2 6 3 + + +
Example 2. Complete the statements by inserting the correct expression inside the
parentheses.
7
Note: When grouping terms, the same rules in removing symbols of grouping
shall also apply.
a)
( ) + + a c b a 2 3 5 2
d)
( ) 7 21 14 7 + s r p
b)
( ) x z y x 5 7 2 5
e)
( ) 5 30 20 5 + s r q
c)
( ) + n p n m 3 5 3 6
f)
( ) 2 4 6 8 c b a
2.4.3 Division
A. Quotient of Monomials
Rule: Divide the numerical coefficients applying the rule of sign for division and the
literal coefficients applying the quotient of power
Example: Find the quotient of the following.
1)
4 3 2 6 10 8
80 64 t s r t s r 2)
c b a c b a
z y x z y x
3 2 2 2 5 3
27 81
B. Quotient of a Polynomial by a Monomial
Rule: Divide each term of the polynomial by the monomial and simplify.
Example: Find the quotient of the following.
1)
2 2 2
3 5 2 4 4 4 3 3
9
36 18 27
c b a
c b c b a c b a

+
2)
2
2 2 1 2 5 3
3
5 9 15 21
+
+ +
+
n
n n n n
x
x x x x
Quotient of Polynomials
The following are the steps in dividing polynomials.
Step1: Arrange the terms of both dividend and divisor in decreasing power of a common letter.
For the dividend, leave a space for every missing power.
Step2: Divide the 1
st
term of the dividend by the 1
st
term of the divisor to get the 1
st
term of
the quotient. The result is called a partial quotient.
Step3: Multiply the partial quotient obtained in STEP 2 to each of the terms of the
divisor and subtract the product from the dividend. The result is called a new dividend.
Step4:Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until the new dividend is zero (no remain-
der) or of a degree lower than the degree of the divisor (this represents the remainder)
Step 5: Write the quotient as:
8
Q
= partial quotient
Divisor
Remainder
+
Example. Find the quotient of the following.
1) ( ) ( ) x x x x x 3 2 4 6 18 9 8
2 3 2 4
+ + 2) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 2 4 4 5
2 10 24 5 6 y x y x xy y x x
Synthetic Division
Synthetic division is the shortest and simplest method of dividing a polynomial, P(x), by
a binomial in the form x c, where c is a constant. Thus,

c x
R
x Q
c x
x P

) (
) (
, c is a constant

The following are the steps in performing synthetic division:
Step 1: Write the dividend, P(x) in the form

0 1
2
2
1
1
... a x a x a x a x a
n
n
n
n
n
n
+ + + + +

Step2: On one line, write the numerical coefficients of the dividend in the decreasing power of
the letter. Supply zero as the coefficient of every missing power
Step3: Replace the divisor xc with c and write this on the 1
st
line after the last coefficient.
Step 4: Bring down the 1
st
coefficient, a
n
to the 1
st
position on the 3
rd
line.
Step5: Multiply a
n
by c, and write the product in the 2
nd
line below
the 2
nd
coefficient, a
n-1
; add the product to a
n-1
, and write the sum in the 3
rd
line.
Step6: Multiply this sum by c and write the product in the 2
nd
line below
the 3
rd
coefficient a
n-2
; add the product to a
n-2
and write the sum in the 3
rd
line.
Step7: Continue the process of Step 5 and 6 until a product is added to the last coefficient.
Step8: The last number in the 3
rd
line is the remainder and the
numbers reading from left to right are the coefficients of the quotient, which is one
degree lower than the degree of the dividend.
D.1 Remainder Theorem
The Remainder Theorem is used to find the remainder when a polynomial in x, P(x),
is divided by a divisor, x c without actually performing synthetic division.

Multiply both sides by x c
Replace x with c

This shows that the remainder is the value of P(x) when x = c. The theorem is known
as the Remainder Theorem.
9
( ) c x
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( ) R c Q c P
R c c c Q c P
R c x x Q x P
c x
c x
R
x Q
c x
x P
c x
R
x Q
c x
x P
+
+
+

,
`

.
|

0
( ) R c P
Proof:
Theorem
If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x c, where c is any real
number, then the remainder R is P(c).
Example. A. Find the quotient of the following using synthetic division. Check the remainder
obtained using the Remainder Theorem.
1) ( ) ( ) 3 2 3 5 2
3 4
x x x x 3)
) 1 3 ( ) 15 21 18 27 (
2 3
+ + + + x x x x
2) ( ) ( ) 4 1 8 10 5 2
2 3 4 5
+ x x x x x 4) ( ) ( ) 1 2 2 4
2 4
+ x x x




Example. B. Find the quotient of the following using synthetic division.
1) ( ) ( ) 5 2 4 10 19 9 8 7
2 3 2 3 4 5
+ + + + + x x x x x x x x

2) ( ) ( ) 1 2 2 3 7 6 2 4
2 2 3 4
+ + + m m m m m m

3) ( ) ( ) 5 2 15 24 23 11 2
2 2 3 4 5 6
+ + + x x x x x x x x
10