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Reference material for Chapter

Gr08_3_Prep--Chapter 3. Polynomials and Special Products

Definition of Polynomials. Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
»Definition: A polynomial is a sum or difference of monomials, or terms, such as a + b
or 
2x 2− 3x y + 5y 2.

REMINDER:
Like terms, or similar terms, are monomials that have the same literal factors. We
simplify polynomials by combining (through addition or subtraction) like terms.

EXAMPLES
1) x 2y and −3x 2y are like terms. 
2) 3x y 2 and −7x 2y are not  like terms.

»Definition: The degree of a polynomial is the greatest degree of its monomials.

EXAMPLE
The degrees of the terms of the polynomial 7x 2 + 2x y − y are 2, 2, and 1, respectively.
So, the degree of the polynomial is 2.

Product of a Monomial and a Polynomial. Multiplication of Polynomials

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To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, we need to do the following:

1. Use the distributive property of multiplication and multiply each term of the
polynomial by the monomial.
2. Simplify the products of the monomials (terms) using the laws of exponents.

EXAMPLE
Find the product.
1 5
− 3x y 3(5x 2 − 3x y + y )
3
Solution
1 5 1
− 3x y 3(5x 2 − 3x y +  y ) = ( − 3x y 3) · (5x 2) − ( − 3x y 3) · 3x y + ( − 3x y 3) ·  y 5
3 3
= − 15x 3y 3 + 9x 2y 4 − x y 8

Example
Expand (x + y ) · (u + v ).
Solution
We can treat the first binomial like we have previously treated a monomial and
distribute the multiplication over the terms of the second binomial.
(x + y ) · (u + v ) = (x + y ) · u + (x + y ) · v
Now we can multiply the binomials by the monomials.
(x + y ) · u + (x + y ) · v = x u + y u + x v + y v

Observe that the resulting expanded polynomial's terms are the products of the terms of
the original binomials. Notice that if we use the distributive property to multiply
polynomials where at least one of them contains more than two terms, we would make the
same observation.

CONCLUSION:
To multiply two polynomials, we need to multiply each term of the first polynomial
by every term of the second, add the products, and simplify.

Factoring Polynomials. Factoring by Grouping

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»Definition: To factor a number or a polynomial means to rewrite it as a product

of its factors.

To make sure you factor completely, check that each factor cannot be further factored.

There are several methods for factoring polynomials. In this course, we will address
the following: factoring out a common monomial, factoring by grouping, factoring using
special product formulas, and combinations of these methods.

Factoring Out a Common Monomial

To factor out the greatest common factor of a polynomial, we follow these steps:
Find the greatest common factor (GCF) of all the terms in the polynomial.
Use the distributive property to write the polynomial as a product of the GCF
and the polynomial factor.
Example
Factor the following expressions.
1) 3a b 2 + 21c − 18m 3 = 3 · (a b 2 + 7c  − 6m 3) (common factor is a number)
2) 2a 2b  + 3a c 2 = a  · (2a b + 3c 2) (common factor is a variable)
3)  − 10x y + 4x = − 2x · (5y − 2) (common factor is the monomial  − 2x )
4) 3x 3y 2z 2 − 6x 2y 3 = 3x 2y 2· x z 2− 3x 2y 2 · 2y (common factor is the monomial 3x 2y 2)
     = 3x 2y 2 · (x z 2 − 2y )
5) 12a m  + 3 − 3a m  + 24a 2m  + 1 (common factor is m th power of a )
     = 3a m  · 4a 3 − 3a m  +3a m  · 8a m  + 1
     = 3a m  · (4a 3 − 1 + 8a m  + 1)
6) 3 · (x + 1) + y · (x + 1) = (x  + 1) · (3 + y ) (common factor is a binomial)

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Using Factoring to Solve Different Problems

Factor to Evaluate Expressions

Sometimes, factoring an algebraic expression makes evaluating the expression more

efficient.

Example 1
Evaluate m 2 + 3.46m  if m  = 6.54.
Solution
m 2 + 3.46m  = m  · (m  + 3.46) (factored)
= 6.54 · (6.54 + 3.46) (substitution)
= 6.54 · 10 = 65.4 (evaluated)

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Factor to Solve Equations

Let's consider the following equation: x · (x + 2) · (x − 5) · (2x − 5) = 0. 

For the product to equal zero, at least one of the factors has to equal zero.
x =0
x =0 x = −2
x +2=0
 This means that    x = 5
x −5=0
5
2x − 5 = 0 x=
2
Each one of these values of x  will turn the original equation into the true equality.
Therefore, all of them are solutions of the equation. We use the bracket to signify that the
solution of any of these equations is also a solution of the original equation.

»Zero-Product Property: The product of two or more factors is equal to zero if and only
if at least one of them is equal to zero.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the roots of the equation 4x 2+ 3x = 0.
Solution
We can factor the left side of this equation.
x · (4x + 3) = 0
The product of two or more factors is equal to zero if and only if at least one of them is
equal to zero. Hence, in our case,
x = 0 or 4x + 3 = 0. 
3
So, this equation has two roots: x = 0 and x = − .
4

Factor to Prove Divisibility

Example 3
Prove that 176 + 175 is divisible by 18.
Solution
176 + 175 = 175 · (17 + 1) (factored common factor is 175)
= 175 · 18

The product of 18 and any other number is divisible by 18, so the original expression

is divisible by 18.

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A polynomial is a prime polynomial if its only integral factors are itself and 1, with
respect to a specified set of numbers.

EXAMPLE
2x – 1 is a prime polynomial with respect to the set of integers.

Why do we need to specify the set of integers? Obviously, we can always factor a
polynomial. For example, in this one, we can factor 2 out. However, in this case some of the
coefficients will become non-integral.

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In an expression such as 5 · (x − 2) + y · (x − 2), there are just two addends to consider. The
first addend is 5 · (x − 2), and the second addend is y · (x − 2). You should see that both
addends contain the common factor (x − 2). The distributive property allows us to factor
out (x − 2).
5 · (x − 2) + y · (x − 2) = (x − 2) · (5 + y )

EXAMPLE 1
Factor the following expressions.
y · (x 2 + 3) − 2 · (x 2 + 3) = (x 2 + 3) · (y − 2)
x · (a − b ) + b − a = x · (a − b ) + (b − a ) = x · (a − b ) − 1 · (a − b ) = (a − b ) · (x − 1)
8c · (m + n )2 − 9d · (m + n ) = (m + n ) · (8c · (m + n ) − 9d ) = (m + n ) · (8c m + 8c n −
9d )

Sometimes when the terms of a polynomial do not have a common factor, the polynomial
can be factored using other methods of factoring polynomials. One of them is called
factoring by grouping.

Follow these steps to factor by grouping:

Split the polynomial into two or more groups so that the terms in each group have a
common factor.
Factor out a common factor from each group.
If all groups have a common factor, factor it out from all of them.
If the groups have no common factor, start over by grouping the terms differently. 

EXAMPLE 2
Factor the polynomial 5x 2 − 25x + a x − 5a .
Solution
One of the ways to factor this polynomial is to group the first term with the second
term and the third term with the fourth term.
5x 2 − 25x + a x − 5a
= (5x 2 − 25x ) + (a x − 5a ) (grouped the terms)
= 5x · (x − 5) + a · (x − 5) (factored out the common factor from each group)
= (x − 5) · (5x + a ) (factored out the common binomial)

EXAMPLE 3
Factor by grouping.
25x 3 − 15x 2 + 5x − 3
Solution
25x 3 − 15x 2 + 5x − 3
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= (25x 3 − 15x 2) + (5x − 3) (grouped the terms) 

= 5x 2(5x − 3) + 1 · (5x − 3) (factored out the common factor from each group)
= (5x − 3) · (5x 2 + 1) (factored out the common binomial)

EXAMPLE 4
Factor the polynomial a x 2 − a y − b x 2 + c y + b y − c x 2.
Solution
ax2−ay −bx2+cy +by −cx2
= (a x 2 − a y ) + (b y − b x 2) + (c y − c x 2) (grouped the terms)
= a (x 2 − y ) − b (x 2 − y ) − c (x 2 − y ) (factored out the common factor from each group)
= (x 2 − y ) · (a − b − c ) (factored out the common binomial)

NOTE:
If no grouping of the terms in a polynomial works, it is possible that the polynomial
cannot be factored by grouping. However, you still need to try!

Proving Identities
»Definition: An identity is an equality of two algebraic expressions that is true for any
values of the variables.

The Square of a Sum and the Square of a Difference. Factoring Using the
Formulas for the Square of a Binomial
You learned what a polynomial is and how to perform arithmetic operations on two or
more polynomials. You have learned to add, subtract, multiply, and factor them.

People have been working with polynomials for a very long time, dating back to Ancient
Egypt! Since then, mathematicians discovered some general patterns and developed
formulas that help a lot when we need to multiply polynomials or to factor them.

These formulas are known under the general name special products.

In this chapter, you will derive and explore three of the formulas for these special products.
You will also learn how and when to apply them.

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We have observed the pattern, and now we are ready to derive the formulas for the
square of a sum of monomials and the square of a difference of monomials.
(a + b )2 = .....
(a − b )2 = .....
You can use these formulas as a shortcut for efficient calculations and simplifications.  

You derived the first two special product formulas. Now, we will see how they can be used
for factoring.

Formulas for the Square of a Binomial

Square of a sum: (a + b )2 = a 2 + 2a b + b 2
Square of a difference: (a − b )2 = a 2 − 2a b + b 2

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REMINDER:
x ,   if x ≥ 0
x2 = x =
−x, if x < 0

We can use this identity together with formulas for squares of binomials to solve some
equations with square roots.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation  x 2 + 10x + 25 = 3.
Solution
Observe that the trinomial under the square root is the square of a binomial. (We call
such a trinomial a perfect square .) So, the equation becomes the following.
(x + 5)2 = 3
x +5 =3
From solving the absolute value equation, we find two answers: x = −2 or x = −8. 

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation  x 2 − 4x + 4  = x − 2.
Solution
Observe that we have a perfect square trinomial under the square root. This allows us
to rewrite the equation as the following.
(x − 2)2 = x − 2
x −2 =x −2
The absolute value of a number is equal to the number itself only when the number is
non-negative. Thus, we can find the value of x .
x −2≥0
x ≥2

The Product of a Sum and a Difference. Factoring the Difference of Squares

In addition to the two special product formulas you now will learn the third. The third
formula is obtained when you multiply the sum of two numbers by their difference. 

(a + b )(a − b ) = ....

 We will explore this further.

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We have observed the pattern, and now we are ready to derive the formula. 

(a + b )(a − b )  = .....

You can use this formula as a shortcut for efficient calculations and simplifications.  

You derived and applied another special product formula: the difference of squares. Using
this formula for factoring can help you solve various types of problems.

Difference of Squares

a 2 − b 2 = (a − b )(a + b )

The Equation x² = a

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EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation x 2 = 25.
Solution 1
Since both sides of this equation are non-negative, take the square root of each side.
x 2 = 25
x =5
x = ±5
Solution 2
After subtracting 25 from both sides, factor the left-hand side to use the Zero-Product
Property.
x 2 − 25 = 0
(x − 5)(x + 5) = 0
x − 5 = 0  OR  x + 5 = 0
x = 5  OR  x = −5
(Now, let us check the solution using common sense. What numbers equal 25 when
squared? 5 and −5.)

NOTE:
We can write the answer for Example 1 in 3 different ways:
1) x = 5 or x = −5
2) x = ± 5
x =5
3) 
x  = −5

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation x 2 = 14.
Solution
x 2 = 14
x = 14
x = ± 14
Answer
x = ± 14

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