12a

MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT
MANFRED STECHER
Rhode & Schwarz GmbH &
Co.KG
1. RELEVANCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
MEASUREMENTS
The measurement of electromagnetic (EM) elds is rele-
vant for various purposes: for scientific and technical ap-
plications, for radio propagation, for electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) tests (i.e., testing of the immunity
of electronic equipment to electromagnetic emissions aim-
ing at the protection of radio reception from radio inter-
ference), and for safety reasons (i.e., the protection of
persons from excessive eld strengths). For radio propa-
gation and EMC measurements, below about 30 MHz a
distinction is made between electric and magnetic compo-
nents of the EM eld to be measured. In the area of human
safety, this distinction is continued to even higher fre-
quencies.
2. QUANTITIES AND UNITS OF MAGNETIC FIELDS
Especially in the measurement of radio propagation and of
radio interference, magnetic eld measurements with loop
antennas have traditionally been used to determine the
received eld intensity, which was quantied in units of
the electric eld strength, namely, in mV/m, respectively,
in dB(mV/m). For radio propagation this can be justied for
far-eld conditions where electric eld strength E and
magnetic eld strength H are related via the impedance
Z
0
of the free space; EHZ
0
(see also antenna factor def-
inition). Commercial EMC standards in Refs. 1 and 2
specify radiated disturbance measurements below
30 MHz with a loop antenna; however, until 1990 mea-
surement results and limits were expressed in dB(mV/m).
Since this measurement is done at less than the far-eld
distance from the equipment under test (EUT) over a wide
frequency range, the use of units of the electric eld
strength was difcult to justify. Therefore, the CISPR
(the International Special Committee on Radio Interfer-
ence) decided in 1990 to use units of the magnetic eld
strength mA/m, respectively, dB(mA/m).
Guidelines and standards for human exposure to EM
elds specify the limits of electric and magnetic elds. In
the low-frequency range (i.e., below 1 MHz [3]), limits of
the electric eld strength are not proportional to limits of
the magnetic eld strength. Magnetic eld limits in fre-
quency ranges below 10 kHz are frequently expressed in
units (T and G, for tesla and gauss) of the magnetic ux
density B despite the absence of magnetic material in hu-
man tissue. Some standards specify magnetic eld limits
in A/m instead of T (see Ref. 4 in contrast to Ref. 5). For
easier comparison with other applications we therefore
convert limits of the magnetic ux density to limits
of the magnetic eld strength using HB/m
0
or
1 T10
7
=4pA=m % 0:796
.
10
6
A=m and 1 G79.6A/m.
At higher frequency ranges all standards specify limits
of the magnetic eld strength in A/m. Above 1 MHz the
limits of the magnetic eld strength are related to limits of
the electric eld strength via the impedance of the free
space. Nevertheless both quantities, electric and magnetic
elds, have to be measured, since in the near eld the
exposition to either magnetic or electric eld may be
dangerous.
3. RANGE OF MAGNETIC FIELD LEVELS TO BE
CONSIDERED FOR MEASUREMENT
In order to show the extremely wide range of magnetic
eld levels to be measured, we give limits of some national
or regional standards. In different frequency ranges and
applications magnetic eld strength limits vary from as
much as 10MA/m down to less than 1 nA/m (i.e., over 16
decades). This wide range of eld strength levels will nor-
mally not be covered by one magnetic eld meter. Different
applications require either broadband or narrowband
equipment.
On the high level end there are safety levels and limits
of the magnetic eld strength for the protection of persons
that vary from as much as 4 MA/m (i.e., 4 10
6
A/m cor-
responding to the specied magnetic ux density of 5 T in
nonferrous material) at frequencies below 0.1 Hz, to less
than 0.1 A/m at frequencies above 10 MHz (see Fig. 1)
[36]. These limits of the magnetic eld strength are de-
rived from basic limits of the induced body current density
(up to 10 MHz), respectively, basic limits of the specific
absorption rate (SAR, above 10 MHz). There are also
M
d
B
(
A
/
m
)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
30
130
0.1 10 100 1.0 1 10 1 10 100
MHz kHz Hz
Figure 1. Safety limits of the magnetic eld strength derived
from the European Prestandard ENV 50166Parts 1 and 2:
120dB(A/m) are equivalent to 1 MA/m corresponding to 1.25T,
0 dB(A/m) are equivalent to 1 A/m.
2400
derived limits of the electric eld strength which are how-
ever not of concern here.
By using an approach different from the one of the
safety standards, the Swedish standard MPR II, which
has become an international de-facto standard for video-
display units (VDUs) without scientific proof, species
limits of the magnetic ux density in two frequency rang-
es, which are bounded by lters: a limit of 40 nT
(E0.032 A/m) in the range from 5Hz to 2 kHz and a lim-
it of 5 nT (E0.004 A/m) in the range from 2 kHz to
400kHz.
On the low-level end there are limits for the protection
of radio reception and electromagnetic compatibility in
some military standards (see Figs. 2 and 3).
International and national monitoring of radio signals
and the measurement of propagation characteristics re-
quire the measurement of low-level magnetic elds down
to the order of 30 dB(mA/m): see also subsequent discus-
sions and Refs. 79. For the protection of radio reception,
international, regional (e.g., European) and national ra-
diated emission limits and measurement procedures have
been standardized for industrial, scientific, medical (ISM)
and other equipment [1,2,1012]. An example is given in
Fig. 4.
Radiated emission limits of uorescent lamps and
luminaires are specied in a dB(mA) using a large-loop-
antenna system (LAS) [10]. For further information, see
the text below.
4. EQUIPMENT FOR MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS
4.1. Magnetic Field Sensors Others than Loop Antennas
An excellent overview of magnetic eld sensors other than
loop antennas is given in Ref. 13. Table 1 lists the different
types of eld sensors that are exploiting different physical
principles of operation.
4.2. Magnetic Field Strength Meters with Loop Antennas
Especially for the measurement of radiowave propagation
and radiated electromagnetic disturbance pickup devices,
the antennas become larger and therefore are used sepa-
rately from the indicating instrument (see Fig. 5). The in-
strument is a selective voltmeter, a measuring receiver, or
a spectrum analyzer. The sensitivity pattern of a loop an-
tenna can be represented by the surface of two spheres
(see Figs. 6 and 7). In order to determine the maximum
eld strength, the loop antenna has to be turned into the
direction of maximum sensitivity.
To obtain an isotropic eld sensor, three loops have to
be combined in such a way that the three orthogonal com-
ponents of the magnetic eld H
x
, H
y
, and H
z
are combined
to fulll the equation
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
20
0.15 1 10 30
d
B

A
/
m
j
MHz
Figure 4. Radiated emission limits for navigational receivers
according to draft revision IEC 945 (IEC 80/124/FDIS), originally
given in dB(mV/m), for the purpose of this article converted into
dB(mA/m).
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
170
0.03 0.1 1 10 100
d
B

A
/
m
j
kHz
Figure 2. Magnetic eld strength limits derived from U.S. MIL-
STD-461D RE101 (Navy only) [7]. These limits are originally giv-
en in dB(pT) (decibels above 1pT). The measurement procedure
requires a 36-turn shielded loop antenna with a diameter of
13.3cm. Measurement distance is 7cm for the upper limit and
50cm for the lower limit.
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
70
0.01 0.1 1 10 30
d
B

A
/
m
j
MHz
Figure 3. Narrowband emission limits of the magnetic eld
strength derived from the German military standard VG
95343Part 22 [8]. This standard gives the limits of H Z
0
in
dB(mV/m) of four equipment classes, the emissions have to be
measured with a loop antenna calibrated in dB(mV/m) in the near
eld of the equipment under test (EUT). Therefore, the limits
have been converted into dB(mA/m). The lower limits is Class 1,
the upper is Class 4.
MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT 2401
H
H
2
x
H
2
y
H
2
z
_
Isotropic performance is, however, only a reality in broad-
band magnetic eld sensors, where each component is de-
tected with a square-law detector and combined
subsequently. For the measurement and detection of ra-
dio signals isotropic antennas are not available. Hybrids
may be used for limited frequency ranges to achieve an
omnidirectional azimuthal (not isotropic) pickup.
4.2.1. Antenna Factor Definition. The output voltage V
of a loop antenna is proportional to the average magnetic
eld strength H perpendicular to the loop area. If the an-
tenna output is connected to a measuring receiver or a
spectrum analyzer, the set consisting of antenna and re-
ceiver forms a selective magnetometer.
The proportionality constant is the antenna factor K
H
for the average magnetic eld strength H:
K
H
H
V
in
A
m
1
V

1
O
.
m
1a
Table 1. Overview of Different Magnetic Field Sensors, their Underlying Physical Effects, their Applicable Level, and
Frequency Ranges from Ref. 13
a
Type Principles of Operation Level of Operation Frequency Range
Search coil magnetometer Faradays law of induction 10
6
10
9
A/m 1 Hz1MHz
Flux gate magnetometer Induction law with hysteresis of mag-
netic material
10
4
10
4
A/m DC10kHz
Optically pumped magne-
tometer
Zeeman effect: splitting of spectral
lines of atoms
10
6
10
2
A/m DC
Nuclear precession mag-
netometer
Response of nuclei of atoms to a mag-
netic eld
10
5
10
2
A/m DC (upper frequency limited by
gating frequency of hydrocar-
bon uid)
SQUID magnetometer Superconducting quantum interfer-
ence device
10
8
10
2
A/m; speciality:
differential eld mea-
surements
DC
Hall effect sensor Hall effect 10
1
10
5
A/m DC1MHz
Magnetoresistive magne-
tometer
Magnetoresistive effect 10
4
10
4
A/m DC1GHz
Magnetodiode Semiconductor diode with undopted sil-
icon
10
2
10
3
A/m DC1MHz
Magnetotransistor Hall and Suhl effects 10
3
10
3
A/m DC1MHz
Fiberoptic magnetometer MachZehnder interferometer 10
7
10
3
A/m DC60kHz
Magnetooptical sensor Faraday polarization effect 10
2
10
9
A/m DC1GHz
a
To facilitate comparison with values given in text, the values from Ref. 13 have been converted from gauss to A/m.
Measuring
receiver
Network
Z
L
R
i
r
I
X
H
av
R
i
Figure 5. Magnetic eld strength measuring loop. The network
may consist of a passive or active circuit.
E
x
E
x
P
z
P H
E
P H
E
P
z
P
z
H
y
I
I
H
H
H
y
H
y
y
z
x
E
x
P
z
H
y
H
y
:
:
E
x
n
Figure 6. Cross section of a loop antenna sensitivity pattern. The
arrow length H
a
shows the indicated eld strength at an angle a
which is a fraction of the original eld strength H, with H
a
Hcos a.
E
x
E
x
E
z
P
z
P
x
P
H
E
P
H
E
P
H
H
E
P
H
E
P
z
H
y
H
y
H
y
H
y
I
I
I
I
x
y
z
Figure 7. Direction of the eld vectors (H, E and P) under far-
eld conditions.
2402 MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT
For the average magnetic ux density B the corresponding
proportionality constant is
K
B
B
V

m
0
H
V
m
0
K
H
in
V
.
s
A
.
m
A
m
1
V

V
.
s
m
2
1
V

T
V
1b
In the far eld, where electric eld and magnetic elds
are related via the free-space wave impedance Z
0
, the
loop antenna can be used to determine the electric
eld strength E. For this case the proportionality constant
is
K
E
E
V

Z
0
H
V
Z
0
K
H
in
V
A
A
m
1
V

1
m
1c
In the area of radiowave propagation and radio distur-
bance measurement, quantities are expressed in logarith-
mic units. Therefore, the proportionality constants are
converted into logarithmic values, too:
k
H
20 logK
H
in dB
1
Om
_ _
2a
k
B
20 logK
B
in dB
T
V
_ _
2b
k
E
20 logK
E
in dB
1
m
_ _
2c
By using logarithmic antenna factors, a eld strength lev-
el 20 log(H) is obtained in dB(mA/m) from the measured
output voltage level 20 log(V) in dB(mV) by applying the
equation: 20 log(H) 20 log(V) k
H
. The nal section of
this article describes a method calibrate the antenna fac-
tors of circular loop antennas.
4.2.2. Concepts of Magnetic Field Strength Meters. The
loop antenna of a magnetic eld strength meter may be
mounted on the measuring receiver (or used as a separate
unit, connected to the measuring receiver) with a coaxial
cable. CISPR 16-1, the basic standard for emission mea-
surement instrumentation to commercial (i.e., nonmili-
tary) standards, requires a loop antenna in the frequency
range from 9kHz to 30 MHz which is completely enclosed
by a square having sides 0.6 m in length. For protection
against stray pickup of electric elds, loop antennas em-
ploy a coaxial shielding structure. For optimum perfor-
mance, the shielding structure may be arranged
symmetrically in two half-circles around a circular loop
with a slit between the two halves in order to avoid electric
contact between the two shields.
For narrowband magnetic eld measurements of radio
disturbance, measuring receivers employ standardized
bandwidths and weighting detectors in order to produce
standardized measurement results for all types of pertur-
bations including impulsive signals. For comparison with
the emission limit, usually the quasipeak (QP) detector is
to be used.
To understand the function of a weighting curve in
measuring receivers, the following interpretation is given.
The test receiver has certain elements that determine a
weighting curve (e.g., for the QP detector): the measure-
ment bandwidth, the charge and discharge times of the
detector circuit, and the time constant of the meter. When
measured with a QP detector, for the frequency range giv-
en in Fig. 8, an impulsive signal with a constant impulse
strength and a pulse repetition frequency of 100Hz will
cause a meter indication 10 dB above that of the indication
when the pulse repetition frequency is 10 Hz. Or, to
produce the same indication on the meter as a signal
with 100 Hz repetition frequency, the level of the 10-Hz
impulsive signal will have to be increased by an amount
of 10 dB.
Earlier manually operated eld-strength meters
achieved high sensitivity by operating the loop at reso-
nance [14]. The sensitivity was raised by the amount of
the Q factor of the resonating circuit. One of the latest
models that was used up to the 1980s reached a sensitivity
of 60 dB(mA/m) with a measurement bandwidth of
200 Hz in the frequency range from 100kHz to 30 MHz
[15].
For automated eld strength measurement systems,
tuning of the loop circuit could no longer be afforded. A
broadband active loop employs an output voltage propor-
tional to the short-circuited loop current, thus achieving a
at response of the antenna factor versus frequency [16].
A at response of the system is also achieved using a
current probe that measures the short-circuit current in
the large-loop antenna system [LAS] described by Berger-
voet and van Veen [9]. It is essentially a magnetic-eld-
induced current measurement (see subsequent explana-
tions). The highest sensitivity described in the literature
for a wideband system was achieved with a specially de-
signed active loop. With additional frequency-dependent
switching of elements [17], sensitivity is even better than
that of manually operated eld strength meters with tun-
ing of the loop circuit. Figure 9 shows the amplitude den-
sity of the minimum detectable magnetic eld strength
H
Neq
in dBmA=m
H
p
z equivalent to the internal elec-
tronic noise of the system consisting of antenna and mea-
suring receiver.
0
1
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
PK
QP
AV
RMS
CISPR band B (150 kHz to 30 MHz)
H
z
10
0
10
1
2 3 5 2 3 5 10
2
2 3 5 10
3
2 3 5 10
4
10
5
2 3 5
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
dB
Figure 8. Detector response of a test receiver for impulsive in-
terference as specied in Ref. 1.
5. MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH MEASUREMENT
METHODS
5.1. Measurement of Magnetic Fields with Regard to Human
Exposure to High EM Fields
Usually, to measure magnetic elds with regard to human
exposure to high elds, magnetic eld strength meters are
using broadband detectors and apply an isotropic re-
sponse. Modern concepts of low-frequency electric and
magnetic eld strength meters apply fast Fourier trans-
form (FFT) for proper weighting of the total eld with re-
gard to frequency-dependent limits [18,19].
5.2. Use of Loop Antennas for Radiowave Field Strength
Measurements up to 30 MHz
ITU-R Recommendation PI.845-1 Annex 1 gives guidance
to accurate measurement of radio wave eld strengths.
Rod antennas are the preferred receiving antennas since
they provide omnidirectional azimuthal pickup. The posi-
tioning of vertical rod antennas is important, however,
since the result is very sensitive to eld distortions by ob-
stacles and sensitive to the effects of ground conductivity.
It is a well-known fact that measurements with loop an-
tennas are less sensitive to these effects and their calibra-
tion is not affected by ground conductivity apart from the
fact that the polarization may deviate from horizontal if
ground conductivity is poor. Therefore, many organiza-
tions use vertical monopoles for signal measurements but
standardize results by means of calibration data involving
comparisons for selected signals indicated by eld
strength meters incorporating loop-receiving antennas.
Accuracy requirements are given in Ref. 20, general in-
formation on equipment and methods of radio monitoring
are given in Ref. 21.
5.2.1. Solutions to Problem with Ambients in Commercial
EMI Standards. CISPR Class B radiated emission limits in
the frequency range from 9kHz to 30 MHz have been at
34 dB(mV/m) at a distance of 30 m from the EUT for a long
time. Moreover, the test setup with EUT and vertical loop
antenna required turning of both EUT and the loop an-
tenna to nd the maximum emission. On most of the
open-area test sites the ambient noise level makes com-
pliance testing almost impossible. This is due to the fact
that ambient noise itself is near or above the emission
limit. Two different approaches were proposed as a solu-
tion to that problem:
1. To reduce the measurement distance from 30 to 10 m
or even 3m. A German group proposed frequency-
dependent conversion factors, justied by calcula-
tions and an extensive amount of measurements.
The conversion factors are given in Fig. 10. In
Fig. 10 the slopes between 1.8 and 16 MHz show
the transition region from near eld, where H is in-
versely proportional with r
3
or r
2.6
, to far eld,
where H is inversely proportional with r.
2. To reduce the measurement distance to zero. A
Dutch group proposed the large-loop antenna sys-
tem mentioned previously [9]. With this method the
EUT is placed in the center of a loop antenna sys-
tem, which consists of three mutually perpendicular
large-loop antennas (Fig. 11). The magnetic eld
emitted by the EUT induces currents in the large-
loop antennas. Since there are three orthogonal
loops, there is no need to rotate either the EUT or
the loop antenna system. The current induced in
each loop is measured by means of a current probe,
which is connected to a CISPR measuring receiver.
Since the current is measured, emission limits are
given in dB(mA) instead of dB(mA/m). Each loop an-
tenna is constructed of a coaxial cable that contains
two slits, positioned symmetrically with respect to
the position of the current probe. Each slit is loaded
by resistors in order to achieve a frequency response
at to within 72dB in the frequency range from
9 kHz to 30 MHz [9,10]. In order to verify and vali-
date the function of each large loop, a specially de-
signed folded dipole has been developed [9,10]. It
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
d
B
0.009 0.1 1 10 30
MHz
Figure 10. Conversion factors DH for the limit of the magnetic
eld strength from measurement distance 30m to measurement
distances 10 and 3 m above a conducting ground plane according
to Ref. 23. The upper curve is for 303m; the lower curve is for 30
10m distance.
Field-strength sensitivity (dB A/m Hz) j
20
0
20
40
60
90
100
Range 1
Range 2
Range 3
Range 4
Range 5
100 1000 10000 10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 9. Sensitivity per hertz bandwidth of the active loop [16].
produces both a magnetic dipole moment mHand an
electric dipole moment mE, when a signal is con-
nected to the folder dipole. The folded dipole serves
to test large loop antenna for its sensitivity in eight
positions.
5.2.2. Problems in the Near-FieldFar-Field Transition
Zone. Problems with magnetic eld strength measure-
ments in the transition region between near eld and
far eld are discussed in detail in Ref. 22. When a small
magnetic dipole is located in the free space, the electro-
magnetic eld in a point P(r, y, j) is described by the fol-
lowing three relations (see Fig. 12):
H
r
jk
2p
m
H
cos y
r
2
1
1
jkr
_ _
e
jkr
3a
H
y
k
2
4p
m
H
sin y
r
1
1
jkr
1
kr
2
_ _
e
jkr
3b
E
j
Z
0
k
2
4p
m
H
siny
r
1
1
jkr
_ _
e
jkr
3c
where k 2p/l and m
H
pR
2
0
I
0
is the magnetic dipole mo-
ment, a vector perpendicular to the place of the dipole.
Equations (3a)(3c) completely describe the electromag-
netic eld of the magnetic dipole.
Two situations are discussed further: (1) the near eld,
where r is much smaller than l but larger than the max-
imum dimension of the source (i.e., kr51); and (2) the far
eld, where r is much larger than l and much larger than
the maximum dimension of the source (i.e., krb1).
For the near-eld case, where kr51 and using e
jkr
cos(kr) j sin(kr), Eqs. (3a)(3c) are simplied to

H
r
2m
H
cos y
4pr
3
4a
H
y
m
H
sin y
4pr
3
4b
Ej
kZ
0
m
H
sin y
4pr
2
4c
From Eqs. (4a)(4c) we can see that H
r
and H
y
are in-
versely proportional to r
3
, whereas E
j
is inversely propor-
tional to r
2
.
For the far-eld case where krb1, Eqs. (3a)(3c) are
reduced to
H
r
jkm
H
cos y
2pr
2
e
jkr
)0 5a
H
y
k
2
m
H
sin y
4pr
e
jkr
5b
Ej
k
2
Z
0
m
H
sin y
4pr
e
ikr
5c
From Eqs. (5a)(5c) one can see that in the far eld H
r
vanishes in comparison to H
y
and that H
y
and E
j
are in-
versely proportional to r.
In the frequency range from 9 kHz to 30 MHz, where
emission limits have been set, the corresponding wave-
length is 33 km10 m. Since for compliance testing, ambi-
ent emissions on an open-area test site require a reduction
of the measurement distance to 10 m or even 3 m, mea-
surements are carried out in the near-eld zone over a
wide frequency range. At the higher frequency range the
transition zone and the beginning far eld zone are
reached. Goedbloed [22] investigated the transition zone
and identied the critical condition where H
r
and H
y
are
equal in magnitude. It occurs where
2m
H
4pr
3
1 k
2
r
2
_

m
H
4pr
3
1 k
2
r
2
k
4
r
4
_
6
or where
fr 112:3 in MHz
.
m 7
For r 10 m, H
ymax
4H
rmax
at frequencies greater than
11 MHz.
Coaxial-
switch
To test
receiver
Ferrite
absorbers
EUT
Current
probe
Figure 11. Simplied drawing of a large-loop antenna system
with position of the EUT.
y
z
x
H
r
I
o
R
o
E
0
H
0 r
P
0
Figure 12. Field components H
r
, H
y
, and E
j
in P at a distance r
from the center of the magnetic dipole in the xy plane.
The CISPR magnetic eld measurement method is il-
lustrated in Fig. 13, with the test setup on a metallic
ground plane and the receiving antenna in the vertical
plane. In Figs. 14 and 15, two different cases of radiating
electrically small magnetic dipoles are illustrated; the rst
one, with the dipole moment parallel to the ground plane
and the second one, with the dipole moment perpendicular
to the ground plane. Because of the reecting ground
plane two sources are responsible for the eld at the loca-
tion of the receiving antenna: the original source and the
mirror source. The points and crosses drawn in both sourc-
es show the direction of the current. In Fig. 14, the cur-
rents are equally oriented. In this case the loop antenna
detects the radial component H
d,r
and the direct tangen-
tial component H
d
,
y
0 since y
d
0. Therefore, direct ra-
diation will only contribute if fd5112MHz m [see
Eq. (7)]. In the case of fdb112MHz m, the loop antenna
will receive direct radiation if it is rotated by 901. This may
be observed frequently in practical measurements: at low
frequencies the maximum radiation is found with loop
antenna in parallel to the EUT and at high frequencies
with the loop antenna oriented perpendicular to the EUT.
In addition to these direct components, the indirect radial
and tangential components H
i,r
and H
i,y
are superposi-
tioned in the loop antenna. Assuming near-eld conditions
it follows from Eqs. (4), that the magnitude of the mag-
netic eld H
m
is given by
H
m
H
d;r
H
i;r
cos y
i
H
i;y
siny
i
m
H
4pd
3
2
d
3
d
3
i
2 cos
2
y
i
sin
2
y
i
_ _
8
where d
i
2h
2
d
2
_
is the distance between the mirror
dipole and the loop antenna.
Goedbloed gives a numerical example with m
H
4p10
3
mA
.
m
2
(e.g., 100mA through a circular loop with a
diameter of 0.40 m). Using Eq. (8) with d3m and h
1.3 m will give H
m
38.6dB(mA/m) with the mirror source
and 37.4 dB(mA/m) without the mirror source, which
shows that in this case the reecting ground plane has
little inuence. The inuence of the ground plane is quite
different in the case of a vertical dipole moment, speci-
cally, a dipole moment perpendicular to the ground plane
as illustrated in Fig. 15. In the case of Fig. 15 the loop
antenna does not receive direct radiation at all, as H
d,r
(y
d
p/2) 0 and H
d,y
is parallel to the loop antenna. Hence,
the received signal is completely determined by the radi-
ation coming from the mirror source, which also means
that the result is determined by the quality of the reect-
ing ground plane. With the reecting ground place H
m
H
i,r
siny
i
H
i,y
cos y
i
27.2 dB(mA/m), whereas without
the reecting ground plane no eld strength will be
measured. If the loop antenna were positioned horizontal-
ly above the ground plane at h1.3 m, then H
m
H
d,y
H
i,r
cos y
i
H
i,y
siny
i
32.4 dB(mA/m) and H
m
31.4 dB(mA/m) without the reecting ground plane. Mea-

surements in a shielded room would be even less predict-
able, since the result would be determined by mirror
sources on each side, including the ceiling of the shielded
room. Absorbers are not very helpful in the low frequency
ranges. From the results, Goedbloed concludes that in or-
der to judge the interference capability of an EUT, the
method proposed by Bergervoet and van Veen [9], is an
efcient method of magnetic eld measurements.
m
H
m
H
d
i
d
h
h
0
0
H
d,0

H
i,r
H
i,0
LA
Ground plane
(a)
(b)
i
Figure 15. (a) Receiving conditions for a magnetic dipole with a
vertical dipole moment, and the receiving loop antenna in the
vertical position as specied by the standard; (b) vectors of the
indirectly radiated H-eld components (no reception of direct
radiation).
EUT
Turntable
0.8 m
Metallic ground
plane
0.3 m
Loop antenna
To receiver
1 m
Figure 13. Basic CISPR setup for magnetic eld measurements.
Both EUT and loop antennas have to be turned round until the
maximum indication on the receiver has been found.
m
H
m
H
d
i
d
h
h
0
H
i,0
H
d,r
H
i,r
LA
Ground plane
(a)
(b)
0
i
Figure 14. (a) Receiving conditions for a magnetic dipole with a
horizontal dipole moment; (b) vectors of the directly and indirectly
radiated H-eld components.
6. CALIBRATION OF A CIRCULAR LOOP ANTENNA
A time-varying magnetic eld at a dened area S can be
determined with a calibrated circular loop. For narrow-
band magnetic eld measurements, a measuring loop con-
sists of an output interface (point X on Fig. 5), which links
the induced current to measuring receiver. It may have a
passive or an active network between loop terminals and
output. The measuring loop can also include a shielding
over the loop circumference against any perturbation of
strong and unwanted electric elds. The shielding should
be interrupted at a point on the loop circumference.
Generally in the far eld that streamlines of magnetic
ux are uniform, but in the near eld, that is, in the vi-
cinity of the generator of a magnetic eld, they depend on
the source and its periphery. Figure 19 shows the stream-
lines of the electromagnetic vectors generated by the
transmitting loop L
1
. In the near eld, the spatial distri-
bution of the magnetic ux, Bm
0
H, over the measuring
loop area is not known. Only the normal components of the
magnetic ux, averaged over the closed-loop area, can in-
duce a current through the loop conductor.
The measuring loop must have a calibration (conver-
sion) factor or set of factors, that, at each frequency, ex-
presses the relationship between the eld strength
impinging on the loop and the indication of the measur-
ing receiver. The calibration of a measuring loop requires
the generation of a well-dened standard magnetic eld
on its effective receiving surface. Such a magnetic eld is
generated by a circular transmitting loop when a dened
root-mean-square (RMS) current is passed through its
conductor. The unit of the generated or measured mag-
netic eld H
av
is A/m and therefore is also an RMS value.
The subscript av strictly indicates the average value of
the spatial distribution, not the average over a period of T
of a periodic function. This statement is important for
near-eld calibration and measuring purposes. For far-
eld measurements the result indicates the RMS value of
the magnitude of the uniform eld. In the following we
discuss the requirements for the near-zone calibration of a
measuring loop.
7. CALCULATION OF STANDARD NEAR-ZONE MAGNETIC
FIELDS
To generate a standard magnetic eld, a transmitting loop
L
1
is positioned coaxial and plane-parallel at a separation
distance d from the loop L
2
, as in Fig. 16. The analytical
formula for the calculation of the average magnetic eld
strength H
av
in A/m generated by a circular lamentary
loop at an axial distance d including the retardation due to
the nite propagation time was obtained earlier. The av-
erage value of eld strength H
av
was derived from the re-
tarded vector potential A
j
as tangential component on the
point P of the periphery of loop. L
2
:
H
av
Ir
1
pr
2
_
p
0
e
jbRj
Rj
cosj dj 9a
Rj
d
2
r
2
1
r
2
2
2r
1
r
2
cosj
_
9b
In these equations for the thin circular loop, I is trans-
mitting loop RMS current in amperes, d is distance be-
tween the planes of the two coaxial loop antennas in
meters, r
1
and r
2
are lamentary loop radii of transmit-
ting and receiving loops in meters, respectively, b is wave-
length constant, b 2p/l, and l is wavelength in meters.
Equations (9a) and (9b) can be determined by numer-
ical integration. To this end we separate the real and
imaginary parts of the integrand using Eulers formula
e
jj
cosj j sinj and rewrite Eq. (9a) as
H
av
Ir
1
pr
2
F jG 10a
where
F
_
p
0
cosbRj
Rj
cosj dj 10b
G
_
p
0
sinbRj
Rj
cosj dj 10c
and the magnitude of H
av
is then obtained as
jH
av
j
Ir
1
pr
2
F
2
G
2
_
10d
It is possible to evaluate the integrals in Eqs. (10) by nu-
merical integration with an appropriate mathematics soft-
ware on a personal computer. Some mathematics software
can directly calculate the complex integral of Eqs. (9).
8. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CIRCULAR LOOPS
8.1. Current Distribution around a Loop
The current distribution around the transmitting loop is
not constant in amplitude and in phase. A standing wave
of current exists on the circumference of the loop. We can
z
d
y
x
L2
L1
S
2
ds
1
S
1
I
2
r
2
r
1
E
G
A
I
R( )
A
B = A
H
av
+

P
Q
T
0
Figure 16. Conguration of two circular loops.
determine this current distribution along the loop circum-
ference by assuming that the loops circumference 2pr
1
is
electrically smaller than the wavelength l and the loop
current is constant in phase around the loop and that the
loop is sufciently loss-free. The single-turn thin loop was
considered as a circular balanced transmission line fed
at points A and D and short-circuited at points E and F
(Fig. 17).
In an actual calibration setup the loop current I
1
is
specied at the terminals A and D. The average current
was given as a function of input current I
1
of the loop:
I
av
I
1
tanbpr
1
bpr
1
11
The fraction of I
av
/I
1
from Eq. (11) expressed in dB gives
the conditions for determining of the highest frequency f
and the radius of the loop r
1
. The deviation of this fraction
is plotted in Fig. 18.
The current I in Eqs. (9) must be substituted with I
av
from Eq. (11). Since Eq. (11) is an approximate expression,
it is recommended to keep the radius of the transmitting
loop small enough for the highest frequency of calibration
to minimize the errors. For the dimensioning of the radius
of the receiving loop these conditions are not very impor-
tant, until the receiving loop is calibrated with an accu-
rately dened standard magnetic eld, but the resonance
of the loop at higher frequencies must be taken into ac-
count.
8.2. Circular Loops with Finite Conductor Radii
A measuring loop can be constructed with one or more
winding. The form of the loop is chosen as a circle, because
of the simplicity of the theoretical calculation and calibra-
tion. The loop conductor has a nite radius. At high fre-
quencies the loop current ows on the conductor surface
and it shows the same proximity effect as two parallel, in-
nitely long cylindrical conductors. Figure 19 shows the
cross section of two loops intentionally in exaggerated
dimensions. The streamlines of the electric eld are ortho-
gonal to the conductor surface of the transmitting loop
L
1
and they intersect at points A and A
0
. The total con-
ductor current is assumed to ow through an equivalent
thin lamentary loop with the radius a
1
r
2
1
c
2
1
_
;
where a
1
OAOP
OQ
2
QP
2
_
. The streamlines of
the magnetic eld are orthogonal to the streamlines of
electric eld. The receiving loop L
2
with the nite conduc-
tor radius c
2
can encircle a part of magnetic eld with its
effective circular radius b
2
r
2
c
2
.
The sum of the normal component of vectors H acting
on the effective receiving area S
2
pb
2
2
induces a current
in the conductor of the receiving loop L
2
. This current
ows through the lamentary loop with the radius a
2
. The
average magnetic eld vector H
av
is dened as the integral
of vectors H
n
over effective receiving area S
2
, divided by
S
2
. The magnetic streamlines, which ow through the
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
d
B
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
MHz
Figure 18. Deviation of I
av
/I
1
for a loop radius, 0.1m as
20log(I
av
/I
1
) in dB versus frequency.
V
L
V
O
V
L
V
O
H
av
Z
L
Z
L
I
1
I
1
I
2
=

I
max
I
2
=

I
max
I
2
=

I
max
I
av
I
av
Z
2
=

0
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
I
x
x
I
x
I
x
r
1
r
1
0
D
A
A
D
Q
Q
F
F
E
E
x
l
1
=

r
1
V
2
= 0
l
Figure 17. Current distribution on a circular loop.
H
H
h e
H
n
c
2
c
1
b
2
a
2
r
2
b
1
a
1
r
1
H
av
Ar
A
Ar'
T'
Br
B
O
Br'
B'
Qr
Q
Qr'
A'
Q'
Or T
P
L2
L1
Figure 19. Filamentary loops of two loops with nite conductor
radii and orthogonal streamlines of the electromagnetic vectors,
produced from transmitting loop L
1
.
conductor and outside of loop L
2
, cannot induce a current
through the conductor along the lamentary loop Ar, Ar
0
,
of L
2
. The equivalent lamentary loop radii a
1
, a
2
and ef-
fective circular surface radii b
1
, b
2
can directly be seen
from Fig. 19.
The equivalent thin current lament radius a
1
of the
transmitting loop L
1
:
a
1
r
2
1
c
2
1
_
12a
The equivalent thin current lament radius a
2
of the re-
ceiving loop L
2
:
a
2
r
2
2
c
2
2
_
12b
The radius b
1
of the effective receiving circular area of the
loop transmitting L
1
:
b
1
r
1
c
1
12c
The radius b
2
of the effective receiving circular area of the
receiving loop L
2
:
b
2
r
2
c
2
12d
8.3. Impedance of a Circular Loop
The impedance of a loop can be dened at chosen termi-
nals Q, D, as ZV/I
1
(Fig. 17). Using Maxwells equation
with the Faradays law curl E joF
m
, we can write the
line integrals of the electric intensity E along the loop
conductor through its cross section, along the path joining
points D,Q, and the load impedance Z
L
between the ter-
minals Q,A:
_
AEFD
E
s
ds
_
DQ
E
s
ds
_
QA
E
s
ds joF
m
13a
Here, F
m
is the magnetic ux. The impressed emf Vacting
along the path joining points D and Q is equal and oppo-
site to the second term of Eq. (13a):
V
_
DQ
E
s
ds 13b
The impedance of the loop at the terminals D,Q can be
written from Eqs. (13) dividing with I
1
as
Z
V
I
1
_
AEFD
E
s
ds
I
1
_
QA
E
s
ds
I
1
joF
m
I
1
Z
i
Z
L
Z
e
14
Z
i
indicates the internal impedance of the loop conductor.
Because of the skin effect, the internal impedance at high
frequencies is not resistive. Z
L
is a known load or a source
impedance on Fig. 17. Z
e
is the external impedance of the
loop:
Z
e
jo
F
m
I
1
jo
m
0
H
av
S
I
1
15a
We can consider that the loop consists of two coaxial and
coplanar lamentary loops (i.e., separation distance d
0). The radii a
1
and b
1
are dened in Eqs. (12). The aver-
age current I
av
ows through the lamentary loop with
the radius a
1
and generates an average magnetic eld
strength H
av
on the effective circular surface S
1
pb
2
1
of
the lamentary loop with the radius b
1
. From the Eqs. (9)
and (11) we can rewrite Eq. (15a), for the loop L
1
:
Z
e
j
tanbpa
1
bpa
1
m
0
oa
1
b
1
_
p
0
e
jbR
0
j
R
0
j
cosj dj
15b
R
0
j
a
2
1
b
2
1
2a
1
b
1
cos
_
j 15c
The real and imaginary parts of Z
e
are the radiation re-
sistance and the external inductance of loops, respectively:
ReZ
e

tanbpa
1
bpa
1
m
0
oa
1
b
1
_
p
0
sinbR
0
j
R
0
j
cosj dj
15d
ImZ
e

tanbpa
1
bpa
1
m
0
oa
1
b
1
_
p
0
cosbR
0
j
R
0
j
cosj dj
15e
From Eq. (15e) we obtain the external self-inductance:
L
e
tanbpa
1
bpa
1
m
0
a
1
b
1
_
p
0
cosbR
0
j
R
0
j
cosj dj
15f
Equations (15) include the effect of current distribution on
the loop with nite conductor radii.
8.4. Mutual Impedance between Two Circular Loops
The mutual impedance Z
12
between two loops is dened as
Z
12
V
2
I
1
Z
2
I
2
I
1
16
The impedance of Z
2
in Eq. (16) can be dened in the same
way as Eq. (14):
Z
2
V
2
I
2
Z
2i
Z
L
Z
2e
17
here Z
2i
is the internal impedance, Z
L
is the load imped-
ance, and Z
2e
is the external impedance of the second
loop L
2
.
The current ratio I
2
to I
1
in Eq. (16) can be calculated
from Eqs. (9),(11), and (12). The current I
1
of the transmit
loop with separation distance d:
I
1
H
av
pb
2
tanbpra
1
bpa
1
a
1
_
p
0
e
jbR
d
j
R
d
j
cosj dj
18a
R
d
j
d
2
a
2
1
b
2
2
2a
1
b
2
cosj
_
18b
and the current I
2
of the receive loop for the same H
av
(here d0) is
I
2
H
av
pb
2
tanbpa
2
bpa
2
a
2
_
p
0
e
jbR
0
j
R
0
j
cosj dj
18c
R
0
j
a
2
2
b
2
2
2a
2
b
2
cosj
_
18d
The general mutual impedance between two loops from
Eqs. (16) and (17) is
Z
12
Z
2i
Z
L
Z
2e
I
2
I
1
Z
12i
Z
12L
Z
12e
19a
here Z
12i
is the mutual internal impedance, Z
12L
denotes
the mutual load impedance, and Z
12e
is the external mu-
tual impedance.
Arranging Eq. (15b)b for Z
2e
and the current ratio I
2
/I
1
from Eqs. (18) external mutual impedance yield
Z
12e
j
tanbpa
1
bpa
1
m
0
oa
1
b
2
_
p
0
e
jbR
d
j
R
d
j
cosj dj
19b
The real part of Z
12e
may be described as mutual radiation
resistance between two loops.
The imaginary part of Z
12e
divided by o gives the mu-
tual inductance
M
12e
tanbpa
1
bpa
1
m
0
a
1
b
2
_
p
0
cosbR
d
j
R
d
j
cosj dj
19c
Equations (19b) and (19c) include the effect of current dis-
tribution on the loop with nite conductor radii.
9. DETERMINATION OF THE ANTENNA FACTOR
The antenna factor K is dened as a proportionality con-
stant with necessary conversion of units. K is the ratio of
the average magnetic eld strength bounded by the loop to
the measured output voltage V
L
on the input impedance
R
L
of the measuring receiver. For evaluation of the anten-
na factor there are two methods. The rst is by calculation
of the loop impedances, and the second is with the well-
dened standard magnetic eld calibration, which will
also be needed for the verication of calculated antenna
factors [24].
9.1. Determination of the Antenna Factor by Computing
from the Loop Impedances
If a measurement loop (e.g., L
2
) has a simple geometric
shape and a simple connection to a voltage measuring de-
vice with a known load R
L
, we can determine the antenna
factor by calculation. In the case of unloaded loop from
Fig. 17 the open-circuit voltage is
V
0
jom
0
H
av
S
2
20a
For the case of loaded loop the current is
I
V
0
Z

V
0
R
L
Z
i
Z
e
20b
The antenna factor from Eq. (9a) can be written with V
L
Z
L
I and Eqs. (20) as
K
H
1
jom
0
S
2
_
1
Z
e
R
L
Z
i
R
L
_
in
A
m
1
V
21
The effective loop area is S
2
pb
2
2
. The external loop im-
pedance Z
e
can be calculated with Eqs. (15).
9.2. Standard Magnetic Field Method
In the calibration setup in Fig. 20 we measure the voltages
with standard laboratory measuring instrumentation
with the 50 O impedance. The device to be calibrated con-
sists at least of a loop and a cable with an output connec-
tor. Such a measuring loop can also include a passive or
active network between the terminals C,D and a coaxial
shield on the circular loop conductor against unwanted
electric elds, depending on its development and construc-
tion. The impedance Z
L
at the terminals C,D is not
accurately measurable. Such a complex loop must be cal-
ibrated with the standard magnetic eld method. The an-
tenna factor in Eqs. (1) can be dened by measuring of the
voltage V
L
and the uncertainties between loop terminals
C,D and measuring receiver are fully calibrated. The at-
tenuation ratio a of the voltages V
2
and V
L
can be mea-
sured for each frequency:
a
V
2
V
L
22
Using Eqs. (22),(1),(11), and (12), with V
2
I
1
R
2
, and V
0
constant, Eq. (9a) can be rewritten:
K
H
a
1
R
2
tanbpa
1
bpa
1
a
1
pb
2
_
p
0
e
jbR
d
j
R
d
j
cosj dj
23
R
d
is dened by Eq. (18b)b. Equation (23) can also be ex-
pressed logarithmically
k
H
20 logK
H
in dB
A
m
1
V
_ _
Equation (23) reduces the calibration of the loop to an
accurate measurement of attenuation a for each frequen-
cy. The other terms of Eq. (23) can be calculated depending
on the geometric conguration of the calibration setup at
the working frequency band of the measuring loop. The
calibration uncertainties are also calculable with the giv-
en expressions. The uncertainty of the separation distance
d between two loops must be taken into consideration as
well. At a separation distance dor
1
the change of the
magnetic eld is high.
For a calibration setup the separation distance d can be
dened as small as possible. However, the effect of the
mutual impedance must be taken into account in the cal-
ibration process, and a condition to dene the separation
distance d must be given (Fig. 20). If the second loop is
open-circuited, that is the current I
2
0, the current I
1
is
dened only from the impedances of the transmitting loop.
In the case of a short-circuited second loop, I
2
is maximum
and the value of I
1
will change depending on the supply
circuit and loading of the transmitting loop. A current ra-
tio q between these two cases can be dened as the con-
dition of the separation distance d between the two loops.
It is assumed that the generator voltage V
0
is constant.
The measuring loop L
2
is terminated by Z
L
. For Z
L
0 and
V
CD
0, one obtains the current I
1
in the transmitting
loop as
I
1Z
L
0
V
0
R
1
R
2
Z
AB
Z
2
12
Z
CD
24a
and for Z
L
N, that is, I
2
0
I
1Z
L
1
V
0
R
1
R
2
Z
AB
24b
The ratio of Eq. (24a) to Eq. (24b) is
q
I
1Z
L
0
I
1Z
L
1
R
1
R
2
Z
AB
R
1
R
2
Z
AB
1
Z
2
12
Z
AB
Z
CD
_ _
25a
here with the coupling factor k Z
12
=
Z
AB
Z
CD
p
between
two loops:
q
R
1
R
2
Z
AB
R
1
R
2
Z
AB
1 k
2
25b
where R
1
R
2
50 O, Z
AB
, Z
CD
, and Z
12
can be calculated
from Eqs. (15) and (19). For greater accuracy one must try
to keep the ratio q close to unity (e.g., q1.001).
The inuence of the loading of the second loop on the
transmitting loop can also be found experimentally. The
change of the voltage V
2
at R
2
in Fig. 20 must be consid-
erably small (e.g., o0.05dB), while putting a short-cir-
cuited measuring loop at the chosen separation distance.
With the determining of K
H
or k
H
the loop can com-
pletely be calibrated up to its 50 O output. A network an-
alyzer is usually used for the attenuation measurement
Measuring
receiver Network
Generator
Terminator
H
av
Z
L
V
3
V
L
V
1
V
0
r
1
I
2
d
I
1
I
1
I
1
r
2
V
2
D
C
B
A
Q
L2
L1
R
i
R
2
R
1
Cable
Figure 20. Calibration setup for circular loop
antennas.
instead of a discrete measurement at each frequency with
signal generator and measuring receiver. A network
analyzer can normalize the frequency characteristic of
the transmit loop and gives a quick overview on measured
attenuation for the frequency band.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. CISPR 16 Specication for radio disturbance and immunity
measuring apparatus and methodsPart 1: Radio distur-
bance and immunity measuring apparatus (8.1993); Part 2:
Methods of measurement of disturbances and immunity
(11.1996).
2. CISPR 11/2nd edition 1990-09 and EN 55011:07.1992: Limits
and methods of measurement of electromagnetic disturbance
characteristics of industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) ra-
dio-frequency equipment.
3. IRPA Guidelines on Protection against Non-Ionizing Radia-
tion, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, 1991.
4. ENV 50166Part 1:1995Human Exposure to electromagnet-
ic eldsLow-frequency (0Hz to 10kHz) and Part 2:1995
Human exposure to electromagnetic eldsHigh frequency
(10kHz to 300GHz).
5. VDE 0848Part 4 A2:Draft 1992Safety in electromagnetic
elds. Limits for the protection of persons in the frequency
range from 0 to 30kHz and Part 2: Draft 1991Safety in
electromagnetic elds. Protection of persons in the frequency
range from 30kHz to 300GHz.
6. IEEE standard C95.1-1991: IEEE Standard for Safety Levels
with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electro-
magnetic Fields, 3kHz to 300GHz.
7. MIL-STD-461D, Jan. 11, 1993: Requirements for the Control
of Electromagnetic Interference Emissions and Susceptibility,
MIL-STD-462D, Jan. 11, 1993: Measurement of Electromag-
netic Interference Characteristics, DoD, USA.
8. VG 95373Part 22, Cologne, Germany: Beuth Verlag, 1990.
9. J. R. Bergervoet and H. van Veen, A large loop antenna for
magnetic eld measurements, Proc. Int. Symp. EMC, Zu rich,
1989, pp. 2934.
10. CISPR 15/5th edition 1996-03 and EN 55015:12.1993: Limits
and methods of measurement of radio disturbance character-
istics of electrical lighting and similar equipment.
11. Draft revision of IEC 945 (IEC 80/124/FDIS): Maritime nav-
igation and radiocommunication equipment and system
General requirements, methods of testing and required test
results; identical requirements are given in Draft prETS 300
828/02.1997: EMC for radiotelephone transmitters and re-
ceivers for the maritime mobile service operating in the VHF
bands, and Draft prETS 300 829:02.1997:EMC for Maritime
mobile earth stations (MMES) operating in the 1,5/1,6GHz
bands; providing Low Bit Rate Data Communication
(LBRDC) for the global distress and safety system (GMDSS).
12. U.S. FCC Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 47Part 18. Edi-
tion Oct. 1, 1996.
13. J. E. Lenz, A review of magnetic sensors, Proc. IEEE
78(6):973989 (1990).
14. L. Rohde and F. Spies, Direkt zeigende Feldsta rkemesser (Di-
rect indicating eld-strength meters), Z. Technische Physik
10(11):439444 (1938).
15. Datasheet edition 9.72 of Rohde & Schwarz Field-strength
Meter HFH (0.1 to 30MHz).
16. K. Danzeisen, Patentschrift DE 27 48 076 C2, 26.10.1977,
Rohde & Schwarz GmbH & Co. KG, POB 801469, D-81614
Mu nchen.
17. F. Demmel and A. Klein, Messung magnetischer Felder mit
extrem hoher Dynamik im Bereich 100Hz bis 30MHz (Mea-
surement of magnetic elds with an extremely high dynamic
range in the frequency range 100Hz to 30MHz), Proc. EMV
94, Karlsruhe, 1994, pp. 815824.
18. CLC/TC111(Sec)61: Sept.1995: Definitions and Methods of
Measurement of Low Frequency Magnetic and Electric Fields
with Particular Regard to Exposure of Human Beings (Draft
2: August 1995).
19. DKE 764/35-94: Entwurf DIN VDE 0848 Teil 1, Sicherheit in
elektrischen, magnetischen und elekromagnetischen Feldern;
Mess- und Berechnungsverfahren (Draft DIN VDE 0848 part
1 Safety in electric, magnetic and electromagnetic elds; mea-
surement and calculation methods).
20. Recommendation ITU-R SM 378-5, Field-Strength Measure-
ments at Monitoring Stations, SM Series Volume, ITU, Gene-
va 1994.
21. Spectrum Monitoring Handbook, ITU-R, Geneva 1995.
22. J. J. Goedbloed, Magnetic eld measurements in the frequen-
cy range 9kHz to 30MHz; EMC91, ERA Conference, Hea-
throw, UK, Feb. 1991.
23. J. Kaiser et al., Feldsta rkeumrechnung von 30m auf ku rzere
Messentfernungen (Conversion of eld strength from 30m to
shorter distances), 110:820825 (1989).
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
ROBERT B. VAN DOVER
Bell Labs, Lucent Technologies
1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Magnetic materials have been known since ancient
timesfor example, in 380 B.C.E. Plato wrote [1] of the
stone which Euripides calls a magnet, which we infer
was Fe
3
O
4
, now known as magnetite. The scientific quality
of magnetism studies abruptly and dramatically jumped
with the publication in 1600 by Gilbert of the classic text
De Magnete [2]. Quantitative measurements of magnetic
materials were enabled by the 1820 discovery by Oersted
that an electric current creates a magnetic eld. In 1846
Faraday made systematic studies of the attraction and re-
pulsion of materials in a gradient eld and classied ma-
terials as diamagnetic if they are repelled by a region of
increased ux density and paramagnetic if they are at-
tracted. To this we add ferromagnetic (strongly magnetic,
like iron) to form the set of three basic classes of magnetic
response.
Since the early part of the twentieth century, magnetic
materials have been the subject of deep and broad re-
search and development because of their economic and
scientific importance, and much of our knowledge is ma-
ture. Nevertheless, startling discoveries continue to be
made, such as the discovery of NdFeB permanent mag-
nets and the giant magneto-resistance effect in thin-lm
multilayers.
2412 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
2. MAGNETIC FIELDS AND THE MAGNETIC RESPONSE
OF MATERIALS
The magnetic properties of matter may be viewed as a re-
sponse to an applied stimulus, namely, the magnetic eld
strength H. The macroscopic response of a material is
given by its magnetization M, and the overall eld is the
sum of the two, called the magnetic induction B. In a vac-
uum the magnetization is strictly zero. For this article we
adopt SI units, so we have Bm
0
H in a vacuum, where B
is measured in tesla (Wb/m
2
), H is measured in amperes
per meter, and by definition m
0
4p 10
7
H=m
2
. The
magnetic response adds directly to the applied eld, giv-
ing Bm
0
HM.
The issue of units in magnetism is perennially vexing.
In the past, cgs (Gaussian) units have been commonly
used by scientists working with magnetic materials. In
that system, B is measured in gauss, H in oersteds, and M
in emu/cm
3
, where emu is short for the uninformative
term electromagnetic unit. The constitutive relation in
Gaussian units is BH4pM. Important conversion fac-
tors to keep in mind are 10
4
Ga1 Tand 12.5 Oe 1 kA/m.
A denitive discussion of units and dimensions is given in
the Appendix of Jacksons Classical Electrodynamics [3].
3. TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS: TAXONOMY
3.1. Basic Families
Two of the basic families of magnetic materials involve a
highly linear response (i.e., MwH, where w is dened as
the magnetic susceptibility). The main magnetic response
of all materials is due to the magnetic moment of individ-
ual electrons, a property directly connected to their spin.
The moment of a single electron is 1 Bohr magneton, m
B
1.165 10
29
Wbm. Due to the Pauli principle, in many
cases the electrons in an atom are precisely paired with
oppositely directed spins, leading to an overall cancella-
tion. Nevertheless, a magnetic response can be discerned
in all materials, as observed by Faraday.
3.2. Diamagnetism
Diamagnets have a negative value for w, that is, the in-
duced moment is opposite to the applied eld. The sus-
ceptibility is temperature independent and typically small
(see Fig. 1). Diamagnetism is due to the effect of a mag-
netic eld on orbital motion of paired electrons about the
nucleus (supercially comparable to Lenz law). The dia-
magnetic susceptibility of most materials is very smallin
the vicinity of 1 10
5
. A tabulation of diamagnetic
susceptibilities of various atoms, ions, and molecules is
given by Carlin [4].
A large negative magnetic susceptibility is character-
istic of only one class of materials (namely, superconduc-
tors). A type I superconductor in the Meissner state
exhibits complete exclusion of magnetic ux from the in-
terior of the sample, M H, or B0. Superconductors
can also exhibit partial ux penetration, 0oBom
0
H. In
both cases the spectacular observation of stable levitation
is possible, something that cannot be achieved using only
materials with w40 (as prove by Earnshaws theorem).
Note that stable levitation is possible even for bodies that
are only weakly diamagnetic given a sufciently large
magnetic eld gradient [5].
3.3. Paramagnetism
Paramagnets have a positive value for w, that is, the in-
duced moment is in the same direction as the applied eld.
Paramagnetism is due chiefly to the presence of unpaired
electronseither an overall odd number of electrons or an
unlled inner shell. Nuclei can also show paramagnetism,
although typically of an extremely small magnitude. The
electron gas of a metal is also usually slightly paramag-
netic, though exchange coupling can sometimes lead to
ordering (e.g., ferromagnetism). Independent unpaired
electrons give each atom or molecule a small permanent
dipole moment, which tends to be aligned by an external
magnetic eld. Langevin showed that thermal energy dis-
rupts this alignment, leading to a susceptibility
w Nm
2
=3k
B
T, where N is the density of dipoles, m is
the moment of each dipole, k
B
is the Boltzmann constant,
and T is the absolute temperature. Curie and Weiss found
that the temperature in this formula should be replaced
by T-(TT
c
) for materials with an ordering temperature
T
c
(the Curie temperature). The paramagnetic suscepti-
bility of a material can give important insights into its
chemistry and physics, but it is an effect of limited engi-
neering significance at present.
3.4. Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is the spontaneous magnetic ordering of
the magnetic moments of a material in the absence of an
applied magnetic eld. Nearly all technologically impor-
tant magnetic materials exhibit some form of ferromag-
netism. In such materials, the magnetic moments of
electrons couple together, so that they respond collective-
ly. In this manner it is possible for all magnetic moments
in an entire sample to point in the same direction, poten-
tially giving a very strong effect. The details of how the
Paramagnet
0
0
Ferromagnet
Antiferromagnet
Diamagnet
T
Figure 1. Schematic temperature dependence of the susceptibil-

ity of a diamagnet, paramagnet, ferromagnet, and antiferromag-
net.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2413
individual moments couple with each other can be under-
stood in terms of quantum mechanics. There are three
types of exchange interaction generally found:
*
The rst is direct exchange, in which an unpaired
electron on one atom interacts with other unpaired
electrons on atoms immediately adjacent via the Cou-
lomb interaction. This is the strong mechanism that
dominates in most metallic magnetic materials, such
as Fe, Ni, Co, and their alloys. It results in a positive
exchange energy, so the spins on adjacent atoms tend
to align parallel.
*
The second is indirect exchange, or superexchange, in
which the moment of an unpaired electron on one
atom polarizes the (paired) electron cloud of a second
atom, which in turn interacts with the unpaired elec-
tron on a third atom. This is the mechanism that
dominates in most oxide materials, such as ferrites.
For example, in Fe
3
O
4
the Fe ions (with unpaired
electrons) interact through O ions (which have only
paired electrons). Superexchange creates a negative
exchange energy.
*
Finally, there is the possibility of interaction between
electrons that are not localized but can move freely as
in a metal. This interaction, known as the RKKY in-
teraction after its discoverers (Ruderman, Kittel,
Kasuya, and Yoshida), is usually weaker than direct
exchange. It plays an important role in the behavior
known as giant magnetoresistance and can result
in either a positive or negative exchange energy.
The main properties that characterize ferromagnetic ma-
terials are the Curie temperature T
c
, the saturation mag-
netization M
s
, the magnetic anisotrophy energy K, and the
coercive eld H
c
(see Fig. 2). The rst two are intrinsic to a
material. The third has both intrinsic and extrinsic fac-
tors. The last is extrinsic and depends on the form (mi-
crostructure, overall shape, etc.) of the material and will
be discussed later.
*
The exchange interaction that leads to ferromagne-
tism can be disrupted by thermal energy. At temper-
atures above T
c
, the disruption is so great that the
ferromagnetism ceases, and the material exhibits
only paramagnetism. Thus T
c
measures the magni-
tude of the exchange coupling energy. For example,
the T
c
of Fe is 7701C while for Co, T
c
11151C, and for
Ni, T
c
3541C. The ferromagnetic transition is a sec-
ond-order phase transition, which means that the
order parameter (magnetization) increases continu-
ously fromzero as the temperature is lowered belowT
c
.
*
The saturation magnetization is the macroscopic
magnetic moment of all of the spins averaged over
the volume of the sample. Thus, in a material with
many unpaired electrons per atom, M
s
will be large
(e.g., Fe with m
0
M
s
2.16 T at room temperature).
Conversely, M
s
will be much smaller in materials
that also contain nonmagnetic atoms or ions (e.g.,
Fe
3
O
4
with m
0
M
s
0.60T at room temperature).
*
The electron spins couple weakly to their orbital mo-
tion in a process known as spinorbit coupling, a rel-
ativistic effect. As a result, the energy of the system
depends on the orientation of the spins (i.e., the mag-
netization) with respect to the orbitals of the atoms
(i.e., the orientation of the sample). This results in an
intrinsic coupling of the magnetization to the crystal
lattice. It leads to magnetic anisotropythat is, the
energy of the system depends on the orientation of
the magnetization with respect to the sample. The
direction along which the magnetic moment tends to
lie is known as the easy axis. The magnitude of the
anisotropy may be large, as in SmCo
5
permanent
magnets that strongly resist demagnetization with
KB10
7
J/m
3
, or it may be quite small, as in the high-
permeability materials Ni
0.8
Fe
0.2
(Permalloy) or a
Fe
0.80
P
0.13
C
0.07
(an amorphous alloy).
*
Another source of anisotropy can arise from the
shape of the specimen, or from the shape of individ-
ual grains within the specimen. This is a local mag-
netostatic effect, rather than an intrinsic effect, and is
called shape anisotropy (see Fig. 3). It is an extremely
Easy axis of magnetization
Hard axis of magnetization
Figure 3. Shape anisotropy quantitatively describes the obser-
vation that needles and plates are most easily magnetized along a
long dimension.
0
0 T
M
M
s
T
c
Figure 2. Schematic temperature dependence of the saturation
magnetization M
s
for a ferromagnet.
important factor in any real application. Two ex-
tremes are illustrative. A long thin needle (i.e., an
acicular particle) can be readily magnetized along its
long axis but will require a large eld to force the
magnetization to be across a short axis. The magni-
tude of eld required is H
a
M
s
/2 (i.e., H
a
8.5
10
5
A/m for the case of an Fe needle). A at plate, on
the other hand, will require twice that eld, H
a
M
s
,
to magnetize it parallel to the normal.
*
A third source of anisotropy is due to the magneto-
striction of magnetic materials, coupled with stresses
in the material. Magnetostriction is the change in di-
mensions of a sample when the magnetization is
aligned along various crystallographic directions; it
occurs as a response that minimizes the magneto-
crystalline energy. Conversely, when a sample is
strained along some crystallographic direction, this
contributes to the magnetic anisotropy. This is called
stress anisotropy. It can be an important effect in low-
anisotropy materials that are highly strained, such
as almost all thin lms.
*
The various magnetic anisotropies that may exist in a
material all act simultaneously. The best way to an-
alyze their cumulative effect is in terms of the an-
isotropy energy, which is the sum of all of the
energies arising from individual anisotropies. The
details of this analysis can be complex; see Bozorth
or Brailsford, listed in the Further Reading list, for
examples and guidance.
Useful magnetic materials almost inevitably consist
mostly of Fe, Co, or Ni or a combination of these three el-
ements, because these are the elements that are ferro-
magnetic at room temperature and above. A great variety
of other elements may be added to form alloys or com-
pounds with specific useful properties, but inevitably a
large fraction of Fe, Co, or Ni will be present. When a
nonmagnetic metal is alloyed with these elements, M
s
and
T
c
generally decrease rapidly because of dilution. For ex-
ample, Fig. 4a (Bozorth, pp. 308309) shows the effect of
alloying Ni with Cu (which together form a continuous
solid solution), showing the monotonic decrease in M
s
with
increasing Cu content. Other effects may occur, such as
bandstructure effects or the formation of compounds,
which will alter the trends with alloying (e.g., formation
of Fe
3
Al, as shown schematically in Fig. 4b).
Alloying with rare-earth metals is often used in cases
where a high intrinsic anisotropy is desired, such as in
permanent magnets. The lanthanide rare-earth metals
are all highly magnetic because of unpaired electrons in
the 4f-shell (inner) orbitals. The T
c
of these materials is
below room temperature because the exchange interaction
between inner orbitals of adjacent atoms is small, but the
intrinsic anisotropy is generally large because the spin
orbit interaction is largest in atoms with high atomic
number (and therefore highly relativistic orbitals). Add-
ing a small amount of a rare earth can dramatically in-
crease the magnetocrystalline anisotropy of an Fe-, Co-,
or Ni-based compound, often with only a modest decrease
in T
c
and M
s
. The modern rare earth permanent
magnetic materials use this effect, as in SmCo
5
and
Nd
2
Fe
14
B.
3.5. Domains and MH Loops
While positive exchange coupling tends to align all of the
spins in the same direction, real materials generally ex-
hibit this uniformly oriented state only if they are very
small (o100nm). Larger samples demagnetize by
breaking up into magnetic domains. In each domain the
local magnetic moments are uniformly aligned, usually
along an easy axis. The directions of magnetization of the
various domains can balance such that the overall mag-
netization is zero and the magnetostatic energy is small.
When an external eld is applied along an easy axis, do-
mains aligned with the eld tend to grow, while those an-
tialigned tend to shrink. At high enough eld the sample
will be forced into single-domain state, and the saturation
magnetization will be observed. The formation of domains
implies the presence of domain wallsboundaries be-
tween adjacent domainsthat have increased exchange
and anisotropy energies due to misalignment of neighbor-
ing spins. The density and orientation of domains in a
sample is determined partly by energy balance between
the domain wall and magnetostatic terms, but is also
strongly affected by nonequilibrium considerations such
as domain wall nucleation and pinning. In general, the
growth and shrinking of domains (i.e., the motion of do-
main walls) dissipates energy, so the MH curve is
hysteretic, as shown schematically in Fig. 5.
M
s
M
s
M
s
T
c
T
c
0
0
0 Fe
3
Al
0
40
%Cu
40
%Al
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. (a) Saturation magnetization and T
c
for FeCu alloys,
normalized to the values for pure Fe (the monotonic decrease is
typical of systems that form a continuous solid solution); (b) sat-
uration magnetization of FeAl compositions, normalized to the
value for pure Fe. The anomalous behavior near the composition
Fe
3
Al (25% Al) is due to the formation of the Fe
3
Al phase.
This hysteretic, sigmoidally shaped MH curve is very
typical of ferromagnetic materials. Four important param-
eters are immediately evident from examination of the
MH curve:
1. The limiting magnetization is just M
s
, the
single most important measure of a ferromagnetic
material.
2. The slope of the MH curve at M0 is the small-
signal permeability m(0), which measures the re-
sponsiveness of the magnetic material to an exter-
nal eld when it is close to its demagnetized state.
This parameter is particularly important for soft
magnetic materials, which use the magnetic mate-
rial to obtain a ux multiplication by the factor m(0).
This parameter is determined partly by the magnet-
ic anisotropy that is characteristic of the material
but is also affected by factors that impede domain-
wall motion, such as physical grain structure, mi-
croscopic inclusions, dislocations, or magnitude of
the magnetocrystalline anisotropy.
3. The magnetization observed at zero eld (after the
sample has been fully magnetized) is called the re-
manence, M
r
. This is an important parameter for
permanent magnets, as it measures the magnitude
of M available when the material is isolated. Note
that the squareness ratio, M
r
/M
s
, is dominated by
extrinsic aspects of the material, such as grain
structure and defect, along with underlying an-
isotropies including the shape of the specimen.
4. The eld required to reduce the external magneti-
zation to zero (again, dened only after the sample
has rst been fully magnetized) is called the intrin-
sic coercivity or coercive eld H
c
. At this eld, the
sample is in a multidomain state and the magneti-
zations from all of the various domains exactly can-
cel out. The coercive eld is an important property
for permanent magnets, as it measures the ability of
a material to withstand the action of an external
magnetic eld, whether applied or self-generated. It
is also determined mainly by extrinsic aspects of the
material such as grain structure.
The interpretation of MH loops can often involve sub-
tle aspects of the loop, including directional properties, the
approach to saturation, possible nonsigmoidal curving,
discrete jumps (known as Barkhausen jumps), and so
on. These may reect coherent rotation of spins in a do-
main when the external eld is not aligned with an easy
axis or may be due to subtleties of domain wall motion.
Development of superior magnetic materials often involves
intensive research into these issues, but usually the de-
signers of devices need only focus on a few properties.
3.6. Negative Exchange Interaction
The exchange interaction, as mentioned previously, need
not be positive, inducing alignment of adjacent spins.
When it is negative, adjacent spins will tend to align an-
tiparallel. This can lead to a variety of behaviors depend-
ing on the structure of the material.
3.7. Antiferromagnetism
The simplest conguration that can be obtained with a
negative exchange energy is antiferromagnetism, in which
the spins on adjacent sites in a unit cell cancel to give no
net magnetic moment. A simple example is NiO, which
forms in the rock salt (NaCl) structure (see Fig. 6). The
ordering temperature for antiferromagnetic materials is
called the Neel temperature, T
N
, after the discoverer of
antiferromagnetism, and is analogous to the Curie tem-
perature of a ferromagnet. Above T
N
2501C, NiO is of
course, paramagnetic. In the antiferromagnetic state the
susceptibility is not negative, as in the case of a diamagnet
(which has no permanent dipoles) but is positive, small,
and depends on the direction of the external eld due to
intrinsic magnetocrystalline anisotropy. The details of spin
congurations and other properties of antiferromagnets
[010] [111]
[101]
Figure 6. Antiferromagnetic structure of NiO, showing Ni atoms

in the 1 0 1 plane. The spins are aligned along 1 1 1 directions as
shown. The magnetic unit cell is twice the length of the crystal-
lographic unit cell.
M
H
H
c
M
r
M
s
j(0)
Figure 5. Schematic MH curve, showing saturation magneti-
zation M
s
, remanent magnetization M
r
, coercive force H
c
, and ini-
tial permeability m(0) (dened for an initially demagnetized
sample, i.e., with H0 and M0).
can be very complicated. Antiferromagnetism is difcult to
detect by conventional magnetic measurements. Neutron
scattering measurements are typically required to conrm
the existence of antiferromagnetism.
Antiferromagnetic materials have been known and un-
derstood since the work of Neel beginning in 1932, but
there are presently no important applications of bulk an-
tiferromagnetic materials. Thin lms (B1100nm thick)
of antiferromagnetic materials now play an important role
in state-of-the art magnetic recording, specifically in mag-
netoresistive read heads. The antiferromagnetic thin lms
are used to magnetically bias the magnetoresistive sensor
using a phenomenon called exchange anisotrophy: the
surface interaction between a ferromagnetic and antifer-
romagnetic material in intimate contact (see Fig. 7.). Since
this is an interfacial phenomenon, its magnitude is only
significant when the surface/volume ratio is high, as in a
very thin lm.
3.8. Ferrimagnetism
In a compound with two magnetic sublattices and antifer-
romagnetic coupling, the magnetic moments of each sub-
lattice will generally not cancel exactly. Then the material
will exhibit an overall magnetization that in many regards
will appear exactly like that of a ferromagnet, with a
hysteretic MH loop, a coercivity, and a remanence. Such
materials are called ferrimagnets, because the prototypi-
cal examples are ferrites. Some properties, such as the
temperature dependence of the magnetization, can be rad-
ically different from those of ferromagnets. For example,
the different temperature dependencies of the magnetiza-
tion on two sublattices can sometimes lead to exact can-
cellation of the net magnetization at a particular
temperature, called the compensation temperature T
comp
(often denoted T
c
, which leads to confusion with the Curie
temperature). At that temperature the material behaves
as if it were an antiferromagnet.
While ferrimagnets behave in many ways like ferro-
magnets, the highest saturation ux density in ferrimag-
nets is typically only about 0.6 T, and they cost
significantly more than iron or silicon iron. Their crucial
advantage is that they are usually good insulators and
therefore are useful at high frequencies due to low eddy-
current losses. Three classes of ferromagnetic materials
are predominant in applications:
*
Garnets have a generic formula of R
3
Fe
5
O
12
, where R
represents a lanthanoid (Sc, Y, or lanthanide rare
earth). These compounds have a T
c
around 2751C and
a rather low saturation ux density at room temper-
ature, B
s
0.18 T. They have proven useful for bubble
memories because high-quality single-crystal garnets
can be prepared, and they continue to be used for
UHF applications because they have particularly low
losses in that frequency regime.
*
Spinel ferrites are an especially large class of mate-
rials with a wide range of properties. The generic for-
mula unit is AB
2
O
4
, where A is a divalent ion and B is
a trivalent ion, usually Fe
3
. Most of the useful
spinel ferrites are magnetically soft (that is, they
have a low anisotropy energy and a high permeabil-
ity). The prototypical spinel ferrite is Fe
3
O
4
, but Zn-
substituted MnFe
2
O
4
and NiFe
2
O
4
are the soft fer-
rites used in most applications. Another extremely
important ferrite is commonly used as a magnetic re-
cording mediumnamely, gFe
2
O
3
, which is a mod-
ied spinel in which one in nine Fe sites is
systematically vacant.
*
Hexagonal ferrites are a much smaller class of ma-
terials, but this class includes the important ceramic
permanent magnet materials. A typical formula unit
for a hard hexagonal ferrite is BaFe
9
O
12
. These ma-
terials have a platelet-type growth habit with a very
high uniaxial anisotropy and an easy axis normal to
the platelet. This makes it difcult for the magneti-
zation of a platelet to change, which accounts for the
hard magnetic properties. The fact that these mate-
rials are insulating is often not an important issue
since they are used to create a dc magnetic eld.
When a magnetic dipole is aligned (e.g., by intrinsic
anisotropy) along an axis and a radiofrequency (RF) eld
is applied perpendicular to that axis, the dipole does not
respond simply by oscillating in the direction of the RF
eld, but it precesses around its axis in accordance with
classical mechanics. The precession frequency is common-
ly expressed as ogH
an
, where g is the gyromagnetic con-
stant [g 35 kHz/(A/m) for most materials] and H
an
is the
anisotropy eld. If the RF eld is at exactly this frequency,
the dipole can readily absorb energy from the eld
(and convert it into heat via coupling to the lattice). This
Ferromagnetic
layer
Antiferromagnetic
layer
Loop offset
in H
One stable state
at H = 0
H
M
Figure 7. Schematic illustration of exchange
anisotropy arising from interface coupling be-
tween an antiferromagnetic and ferromagnet-
ic material. The schematic MH loop indicates
that the loop is offset in H and that with no
external eld there is only one stable state
(namely, the saturated state). That is, at H0
there can be no domain structure.
phenomenon is known as ferromagnetic resonance (FMR),
although it is most important in insulating ferrimagnets
where eddy currents do not already dominate the losses.
Above the FMR frequency the magnetic material has a
nonmagnetic response.
At very high frequencies the response of ferrimagnets is
not dominated by domain-wall motion, which is sluggish,
but by coherent rotation of the spins in the sample. Then
the permeability is given simply by m
c
B
s
/H
an
, so o
FMR
m
c
gB
s
. This equation, known as Snoeks law, says that for
a given material, a higher FMR frequency can only be ob-
tained at the cost of a correspondingly smaller permeabil-
ity. It is a basic limitation to the use of ferromagnetic
materials at frequencies above about 10 MHz. Other is-
sues, such as domain-wall resonances, may reduce the
maximum frequency even further.
3.9. Metamagnetism
If a large enough magnetic eld is applied to an antifer-
romagnet along an easy axis, the spins that are anti-
aligned with the eld will suddenly ip their orientation to
achieve a lower energy state; that is, for a sufciently high
magnetic eld, H, the magnetostatic energy m H (where
m is the dipole moment of an individual atom) will inev-
itably outweigh the exchange energy. In some antiferro-
magnetic materials this ipping can be observed with
achievable magnetic elds; it is then called metamagne-
tism. Note that in principle all antiferromagnets will ex-
hibit this behavior at a high enough eldthe distinction
is only in whether the required eld can be produced in
the laboratory.
Antiferromagnets with a relatively low anisotropy en-
ergy can exhibit an intermediate state between the anti-
ferromagnetic and metamagnetic states as the eld is
increased. In this case, application of the eld along the
easy axis will cause the spins to reorient perpendicular to
the magnetic eld, and still in an approximately antifer-
romagnetic conguration, as shown schematically in
Fig. 8. This transition is called spin opping.
Neither metamagnetism nor the spin-op transition
are of practical significance in bulk applications of mag-
netism. However, the metamagnetic transition is an
essential feature of the phenomenon of giant magnetore-
sistance (GMR), which is observed in metallic thin-lm
ferromagnet/paramagnet multilayers (vide infra).
3.10. Spin Glass State
When a magnetic material has structural disorder, it is
sometimes not possible for the exchange interaction
among various neighbors to be satised, and no long-
range orientational order (either ferromagnetic or antifer-
romagnetic) can be achieved. At low enough temperature
such a frustrated material will achieve a quasiordered
conguration in which the spins are static but aligned in
random directions. This is the spin glass state. In a given
sample, the magnetic properties are found to be history
dependent: For example, the saturation magnetization de-
pends on whether the sample was cooled in a magnetic
eld or in zero eld. So-called spin glass materials should
not be confused with the metallic glasses discussed later.
The nature of the spin glass state has been a productive
area of study for physicists for many years, but the phe-
nomenon has no current engineering significance [6].
A related concept is that of geometric frustration,
which occurs in materials that have triangular site coor-
dination and that therefore are frustrated even in a per-
fectly ordered material. These materials are presently
being explored intensively by physicists, but also have
no current engineering significance [7].
3.11. Double-Exchange Materials
Along with the exchange mechanisms listed previously,
there is a fourth mechanism, double exchange, that is rel-
evant only to a small class of materials. The prototype
material is (La,Ca)MnO
3
, a perovskite oxide, in which the
Ca substituted for La acts as an electron donor. Electrons
hopping from one Mn atom to another do not change their
spin orientation during the hop, so the Mn atoms orient
ferromagnetically. The most interesting property of these
materials is observed in the paramagnetic statein zero
eld the Mn spins are randomly oriented, inhabiting elec-
tron hopping and yielding a high resistivity. When the Mn
spins are partially aligned by applying a large magnetic
eld, the hopping probability is enhanced, and the resist-
ivity decreases dramatically. At an optimum temperature
(near T
c
), a resistivity decrease by a factor of 10
5
to 10
6
has
been observed at a eld of 4 MA/m, a result that has led
the effect to be known as colossal magnetoresistance
(CMR). The effect is colossal at low temperatures and for
only a small temperature range, and it requires very large
elds to be applied, so it has not proven useful for engi-
neering applications at present.
3.12. Superparamagnetism
In small single-domain particles of ferromagnetic materi-
al, the magnetization tends to align along the easy axis,
and the energy barrier required to move the magnetiza-
tion is on the order of KV, where K is the anisotropy energy
density and V is the volume of the particle. For the simple
case of uniaxial anisotropy, DEKV. If the thermal energy
k
B
T is greater than this energy, then uctuations in the
Direction of applied field:
Ground state Spin-flop
transition
Metamagnetic
transition
H = 0 H = high H = moderate
K = low
Figure 8. The spin-op transition and metamagnetic transition
in antiferromagnetic materials. The spin-op transition occurs
only in materials with relatively low magnetic anisotropy energy
K, binding the spins to the easy axis (in the case, the horizontal
axis).
orientation of the magnetization will lead to zero sponta-
neous magnetization and a response to an applied eld
that is analogous to the local moments of a normal para-
magnetic material. The effect is seen, for example, in Co
particles smaller than about 7.5 nm. The moment of a Co
sphere of diameter 7.5nm is roughly 20,000 times larger
than the moment of single Co atom, so the effect is called
superparamagnetism. While superparamagnetism is not
technologically useful itself, it does represent an impor-
tant limitation to the particle size of future magnetic re-
cording media, and is therefore being intensively
investigated.
3.13. Thin Films
Thin lms of magnetic materials behave exactly like bulk
magnetic materials in most respects, albeit in profoundly
different regimes for some parameters. For example, thin
lms have a demagnetization factor normal to the lm and
essentially zero demagnetization factor in the plane of the
lm. Thus it is generally very hard to magnetize a thin
lm normal to the plane but fairly easy to move the mag-
netization in the plane. A simple consideration such as
this can have wide-ranging implications, from an in-
creased FMR frequency to gross effects on the structure
of domain walls (i.e., the transition from conventional
Bloch walls to Neel walls as the lm thickness is de-
creased below about 100nm). Thin lms also tend to have
stresses that are extremely high compared to stresses in
bulk materials500 MPa values are not uncommon.
These stresses couple to the magnetostriction of the ma-
terial to create a stress anisotropy that can strongly in-
uence the magnetic behavior.
Thin lms are used in a wide variety of applications,
the most important of which are as media in hard disks
and magnetooptic disks, miniature electromagnets in
hard-disk write heads, and magnetoresistive sensors in
hard-disk read heads.
Thin lms inherently possess a unique direction, the
growth direction. This is usually the normal, although it
can be oblique if the incident atomic ux used to grow the
lm arrives from an oblique angle. For some materials the
growth direction directly leads to a large intrinsic uniaxial
anisotropy. For example, in amorphous TbFe one might
expect that there would be no anisotropy at all. Instead,
lms grown with the incident Tb and Fe atoms arriving
essentially perpendicular to the substrate exhibit a large
intrinsic uniaxial anisotropy oriented along the normal,
and with a sense that leads to a perpendicular easy axis.
The anisotropy is sufcient to overcome demagnetization,
so domains form in which the magnetization is oriented
perpendicular to the lm. Such materials are used in
magnetooptic recording (vide infra) [8].
Some behaviors seen in thin lms are either absent or
not commonly observed in bulk magnetic materials. An
important example is the phenomenon of so-called giant
magnetoresistance in thin-lm multilayers. These multi-
layers are typically formed by sequentially depositing
metallic ferromagnetic and paramagnetic layers, each
B13 nm thick, using sputtering or evaporation in
a high-vacuum chamber. Between two and a hundred
layers might be built up in this way. The ferromagnetic
layers couple with each other by the RKKY interaction
through the paramagnetic metal, so, depending on the
thickness of the paramagnetic layer, the interlayer cou-
pling may be antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic. For ex-
ample, a lm consisting of 100 repeats of 1.0-nm-thick Co
adjacent to 0.6nm-thick Cu exhibits an antiferromagnet-
ic state at zero eld; even though each Co layer is indi-
vidually ferromagnetic, alternate layers have oppositely
directed magnetizations. When a moderate eld H is ap-
plied, the magnetizations of all of the layers align with the
external eld, producing a metamagnetic transition.
Baibich et al. [9] discovered the most interesting aspect
of the metamagnetic transition in metallic multilayers:
the effect it has on the resistivity of the sample. The
aligned state has a greatly reduced resistivity compared
to the antialigned state. The magnetoresistance ratio [R(H
0)R(HH
s
)]/R(HH
s
) can be as high as B100% de-
pending on the choice of materials. This is far greater than
the highest normal magnetoresistance observed in any
material at room temperature; hence the name giant mag-
netoresistance. It is attributed to spin-dependent scatter-
ing of electrons, which is enhanced when magnetizations
of adjacent layers are antialigned. This effect is crucial for
the highest-performance magnetic disk read heads being
currently designed (vide infra) [10].
4. MAGNETIC MATERIALS USED IN APPLICATIONS
Useful magnetic materials are often divided into three
categories:
*
Soft magnets, in which the magnetization is readily
changed with an external eld, thereby providing a
ux-multiplying effect
*
Hard magnets (permanent magnets), which have
high coercive elds and therefore resist demagneti-
zation by stray elds including their own
*
Magnet recording media, which combine aspects of
softness and hardness
4.1. Soft Magnetic Materials
Soft magnetic materials are used in applications such as
transformers and inductors. An obvious example would be
the iron, known as electrical steel, used in transformers
for inexpensive power supplies. At frequencies above
about 10 kHz, eddy currents limit the use of metallic mag-
netic materials, so high-resistivity ferrites such as (Mn,
Zn)Fe
2
O
4
are used.
4.1.1. Permeability. An important property of soft mag-
netic materials is their relative permeability, nominally
dened by m
r
B/m
0
H. Actually, since the B(H) curve is
neither linear nor single-valued, a large number of useful
permeability parameters can be dened, such as the ini-
tial permeability, the maximum permeability, and the an-
hysteretic permeability. For simplicity, we will consider
only the initial small-signal permeability, dened as
m0 @B=@H
H0
. Values from m(0) 10 (high-frequency
ferrites) to m(0) 10,000 (low-frequency inductors) are
typically encountered in applications.
4.1.2. Power Devices. Probably the main use of mag-
netic materials at present, on a weight basis, is in power
transformers. These can range from huge transformers
used in substations, to miniature transformers used to
convert line voltage to a level suitable for small consumer
devices, to small ferrite transformers used in switching
power supplies.
Low-frequency power applications almost inevitably
employ low Si percentage FeSi alloys known as silicon
iron or electrical steel. This is because Fe is by far the
cheapest magnetic material available. The coercive eld of
pure Fe is typically about 80 A/m. The addition of a small
amount of Si to Fe lowers the anisotropy, resulting in low-
er losses and a coercive force of about 40 A/m. It also sub-
stantially increases the resistivity, which decreases eddy
currents. Eddy currents in transformers are usually fur-
ther reduced by lamination (i.e., using a stack of FeSi
plates, each electrically insulated by a coating layer, rath-
er than a single thick piece). The laminations are ar-
ranged so that eddy currents are interrupted by the
presence of the insulator and forced to circulate only with-
in each lamination (i.e., so that any AC magnetic ux is
perpendicular to the normal). Properly designed, the
thickness of each plate should be smaller than a skin
depth d, given by d (2r/om)
1/2
, where r is resistivity, o is
the angular frequency of the AC magnetic eld, and m is
the permeability. Note that the permeability can also be
frequency-dependent.
Improved varieties of silicon iron are prepared using
specific sequences of forging (rolling) and annealing to ob-
tain a grain-oriented microstructure. In such materials
the crystallographic orientation of individual grains is
forced to be aligned over the entire piece. The advantage
is that materials with lower losses are obtained, although
the material is also somewhat more expensive. At present,
most power transformers utilize grain-oriented silicon
iron.
The highest-performance materials for low-frequency
transformer applications are the metallic glasses, amor-
phous alloys of Fe and Co with one or more metalloid ad-
ditions (usually B, C, Si, and P). These materials can have
losses that are 10 times smaller than silicon iron and co-
ercive elds below 0.5A/m. But the saturation ux density
is generally B1.5T, and the materials are substantially
more expensive than silicon iron. These negative aspects
of metallic glasses have precluded their widespread use.
Power supplies with low weight and volume are highly
desirable for some electronic applications, and this can be
achieved with the design called switching power sup-
plies. An additional benet is circuit versatility and ex-
ibility, while the main tradeoffs are increased cost and
design complexity. A switching power supply uses power
electronics [typically metal oxide semiconductor eld-ef-
fect transistors (MOSFETs)] to chop and rectify power at
high frequency, a power transformer or inductor to change
the voltage, and control electronics to synchronize and
control the system. The frequencies used range from about
50 kHz to a present upper limit of 1 MHz.
At these frequencies, metallic ferromagnets cannot be
used as the desirable lamination thickness would be pro-
hibitively small. Fortunately at such high frequencies, the
energy that must be stored in the transformer or inductor
is correspondingly small for a given power capacity (EBP/
o, where E is the maximum stored energy, P is the max-
imum power, and o is the angular frequency). Therefore,
the cost of the magnetic part need not dominate, especially
considering the cost of the electronics involved, so the use
of relatively expensive but very high resistivity ferrites is
feasible. In most cases an (Mn,Zn)Fe
2
O
4
spinel ferrite is
chosen as a compromise between saturation ux density,
losses, resistivity, and cost. At the highest frequencies,
(Ni,Zn)Fe
2
O
4
may prove useful, as it has a higher resist-
ivity and therefore is less susceptible to eddy-current
losses.
Motors and generators inevitably employ iron or silicon
iron to act as a ux concentrator. The armature and stator
are commonly constructed of grain-oriented silicon iron,
although small motors often employ nonoriented silicon
iron or metallic glass materials. As in transformers, the
ferromagnetic parts must be laminated to reduce eddy-
current losses.
4.1.3. Inductors. Small-signal transformers and induc-
tors are used in a variety of circuit applications, as in im-
pedance-matching and isolation transformers, antennas,
and chokes. Signal-level devices do not have to carry sub-
stantial power, so they can be small and the cost of mate-
rials can easily be outweighed by performance
considerations. Thus a wider variety of magnetic materi-
als is used in these devices.
At audiofrequencies and below, transformers and in-
ductors were once commonly used for signal applications.
For example, long-distance analog telephone circuits were
balanced by the periodic addition of loading coilsinduc-
tors designed to match the large distributed capacitance of
phonelines. A common choice for the magnetic core in
those coils was Permalloy (Ni
80
Fe
20
) or a related alloy, and
the cores were formed by rolling a long tape into a toroidal
core. However, in modern telecommunication systems the
analog signals are quickly converted to digital signals at
the central exchange and then transmitted by the ber-
optic, satellite, or microwave relay. The need for loading
coils is minimal. Similarly, the function of audiofrequency
impedance-matching transformers and other inductive
electronic components has largely been displaced by
more elaborate but much cheaper integrated circuit de-
signs. Low-frequency magnetics are used in modem isola-
tion transformers to provide DC electrical isolation with
audio coupling; these are made with either laminated me-
tallic or solid ferrite cores.
At RF frequencies (50 kHz50 MHz) magnetic cores are
widely used; for example, in antennas, RF transformers,
chokes, and resonant circuits. The usual choices for mag-
netic cores are the spinels (Mn,Zn)Fe
2
O
4
(up to about
1 MHz) and (Ni,Zn)Fe
2
O
4
(up to about 1050 MHz). The
manganese zinc ferrites are cheaper but have a resistivity
typically less than 1000 O cm. Eddy current losses limit
their usefulness at high frequencies. The initial perme-
ability is roughly 10003000. Nickel zinc ferrites can have
resistivities as high as 10
5
O cm and initial permeabilities
on the order of 1000. Their upper frequency limit is dic-
tated by the need to avoid FMR losses. Material designed
for operation above about 10 MHz typically is prepared
with moderate porosity to inhibit domain-wall motion and
losses associated with domain-wall resonance. The perme-
ability mechanism then is limited to that of coherent ro-
tation of the spins, which implies a much smaller value
(m
c
BM
s
/H
k
B10100).
Above about 50 MHz, magnetic materials are not com-
monly used in transformers and inductors, as Snoeks law
demands that the permeability be uselessly small in order
for the FMR frequency to be sufciently greater than the
frequency of operation. Snoeks law can be circumvented
by the use of materials with a large biaxial anisotropy
(e.g., the hexagonal magentoplumbite-type ferrites) or by
using thin lms with a high saturation magnetization. At
present, however, those approaches are not commercially
important.
4.1.4. Write Heads. An important application of soft
magnetic materials is in the recording heads used in
tape and disk systems. Write heads essentially consist of
an electromagnet with a toroidal magnetic core and a very
small airgap (B100nm to 300nm). The ux that extends
from the airgap, called the fringing eld, is used to mag-
netize the magnetic medium passing nearby (see Fig. 9).
In tape and oppy-disk systems the magnetic medium is
in actual contact with the head, while in hard-disk sys-
tems the head ies aerodynamically over the spinning
medium at a height of 2575 nm. The maximum magnetic
eld available for magnetizing the medium is proportional
to the saturation magnetization of the head material.
Originally the magnetic recording heads were made
from laminated metal alloys, such as Permalloy or Sen-
dust (an alloy of Fe, Si, and Al notable for being magnet-
ically soft and physically very hard), but as recording
densities and frequencies increased, an inevitable move
was made to ferrite materials. Ferrite heads are made
from cast pieces that are carefully polished to form a pre-
cise airgap and then are assembled with the driving coil.
As recording densities have increased, media with higher
coercivities are necessary, so head materials with high
saturation magnetization are needed. Unfortunately this
is where the ferrites are most decient, with maximum
B
s
B0.6T. One approach to obtain improved performance
is to add a thin lm of relatively high B
s
material (such as
Permalloy, B
s
0.91.1 T) on the inside edge of the gap of
each piece. The thin lm acts as a ux concentrator and
increases the fringing eld significantly. This approach is
called the metal-in-gap (MIG) design.
The highest-performance recording heads are con-
structed using thin lms and photolithography. They
have the advantage of great precision in layout, leading
to extremely narrow pole tips, precise gap widths, and
precise placement of the driving coils. Permalloy and re-
lated alloys are most commonly used at present, but soft
amorphous alloys such as Co
0.85
Nb
0.08
Zr
0.7
offer signi-
cant improvements with B
s
B50% greater than Permalloy.
The resistivity of the amorphous alloys is in the range
rB100mO cm, about vefold higher than Permalloy,
which reduces eddy-current losses, allowing recording at
higher frequencies. Further advantage can be obtained by
using the recently developed nanocrystalline (grain size
B15 nm) alloys such as Fe
0.92
Ta
0.05
N
0.03
, which have ex-
tremely high B
s
B2.0T and also have resistivities in the
range of 100150mO cm. These materials are being vig-
orously developed for future generations of high-perfor-
mance recording, especially hard-disk drives.
4.1.5. Read Heads. The same magnetic structure that
is used for magnetic recording can also be used for reading
the recorded signal. The passage of recorded domains
across the gap of the recording head will induce a small
voltage on the driving coil, which is amplied and pro-
cessed. Indeed, this inductive read head is the simplest
and cheapest approach to magnetic recording. However,
the signal level is very low and limits the performance of
hard-disk drives. The present generation of hard disk
drives uses a separate magnetic structure (incorporated
in a single read/write head) for reading the recorded mag-
netic signal. The sensor in this device is a magnetoresis-
tive thin lm made of Permalloy and biased with a DC
current. External ux from the recording medium couples
to the Permalloy lm, rotating the magnetization with re-
spect to the xed direction of the DC current. This changes
the resistance of the Permalloy [the so-called conventional
or anisotropic magnetoresistance effect (AMR)] and there-
fore the voltage developed across the device. The AMR ef-
fect is relatively small, about 5%, but is sufcient to
deliver signal superior to that of an inductive head.
Superior performance can be obtained by incorporating
materials that exhibit giant magnetoresistance. These can
have responses that are about 10-fold higher than AMR
materials. So-called spin valves employ the same physical
principle as GMR (namely, spin-dependent scattering) in a
more highly controlled and responsive magnetic structure.
The higher signal output of spin valve read heads, in
Signal
Direction of tape or disk motion
Figure 9. Schematic of a magnetic recording head. Recording is
accomplished using the magnetic fringing eld (i.e., the eld that
leaks from the gap).
conjunction with careful redesign of the entire magnetic
recording system (including media, head structure, elec-
tronics, signal processing, etc.), can lead to substantial in-
crease in recording density.
4.1.6. Shields. Soft magnetic materials are also used to
make magnetic shields, typically used to protect electronic
components from magnetic interference or to contain the
external eld around a component that generates mag-
netic ux. An example of the former are shields for cath-
ode-ray tubes, such as computer monitors, while an
example of the latter are shields for speakers, such as
multimedia speakers intended for placement close to a
(unshielded) monitor. These shields are usually formed
from Permalloy and related alloys. Often Mumetal is
specied for these applicationsthis originally designated
a particular FeNiCu alloy but it is now used generically
to refer to many high-permeability alloys. Note that RF
shields (unlike DC magnetic shields) rely on eddy current
screening and use high-conductivity paramagnetic metals
such as Cu.
A related application is the use of materials that absorb
RF energy. These are typically lossy ferrites and are used
in the form of beads threaded on wires, where it is desired
to suppress high-frequency signals. Manganesezinc fer-
rites are generally used for this purpose, although nickel
zinc is used to obtain the highest cutoff frequencies. Lossy
ferrites can also be used as an antiradar coating on mil-
itary aircraft.
4.2. Hard (Permanent) Magnets
Permanent magnets are used in a wide variety of appli-
cations where a static magnetic eld is desired. The dom-
inant uses are in speakers and DC motors and as holding
magnets. The eld available from a given permanent mag-
net depends on the physical conguration but is limited to
B
s
, the saturation ux density in the optimum case. Spe-
cifically, for a toroidal part with a small airgap (see
Fig. 10), the ux density in the gap will be B
s
. For Fe
this is B
s
2.15T, while for Fe
0.6
Co
0.4
it is B
s
2.43 T [11,
p. 190], the highest value for any known bulk material. In
less optimum geometries, the available ux density can be
greatly reduced, as determined by magnetostatics. For ar-
bitrary-shaped parts, the usual approach is to employ -
nite-element numerical calculations to infer the ux
distribution.
In general, where the design gure of merit is the ux
available per unit volume of magnetic material, the cor-
responding gure of merit for the magnetic material is the
energy product (BH)
max
[i.e., the largest value measured
at any point in the second quadrant (positive B, negative
H) of the BH curve]. This is only a crude way to evaluate
the usefulness of a material; nevertheless it is indicative
and is commonly quoted by permanent magnet manufac-
turers. Four main types of permanent magnet materials
are commonly used:
*
Alnico, a class of FeAlNiCoCu alloys. The prop-
erties of this material are entirely dependent on com-
plex metallurgical processing and microstructural
control. Commonly used Alinco materials have
(BH)
max
50 10
3
J/m
3
.
*
Barium ferrite, typically BaO (Fe
2
O
3
)
6
, is the stan-
dard ceramic magnetic material. The typical value
(BH)
max
25 10
3
J/m
3
is smaller than that of Alni-
co, but the material is both lower density and cheaper
to produce than Alnico and has almost entirely re-
placed Alnico in highly cost-sensitive applications.
The high value of (BH)
max
in this and the following
materials is due to the very high intrinsic anisotropy.
*
SmCo is the standard high-performance rare earth
permanent magnet, with (BH)
max
16010
3
J/m
3
.
The major disadvantage of this material is its cost.
*
NdFeB, a more recent material, has an even higher
value for (BH)
max
32010
3
J/m
3
than SmCo, and
it value is less expensive. The major disadvantage of
this material in some applications is that the T
c
is
somewhat low, T
c
B1501C.
Loudspeakers have long been a dominant application
for permanent magnetic materials. The permanent mag-
net is used to establish a magnetic eld in an annular re-
gion in which the voice coil is mounted. When a current is
driven through the voice coil, an axial force is produced, in
accordance with the Lorentz relation, Fev B, where F
is the force on an electron, e is the charge on an electron,
and v is the velocity of the electron. Motion of the voice coil
is coupled to a speaker cone to move the air efciently and
thereby produce sound waves.
The energy product of a magnetic material is a good
gure of merit for speaker applications, since for a given
design, a higher-energy product will result in a higher ux
density in the annular gap. Most loudspeakers are low-
priced components, so the cost of the magnetic material is
the other key factor. For this reason, barium ferrite is the
dominant material used. In some applications, such as
high-performance earphones, the amount of magnetic ma-
terial is small so materials cost is less critical. In the past,
SmCo magnets have been used for these applications,
though NdFeB magnets are now clearly the best overall
choice.
Yoke
Air gap
Permanent
magnet
Figure 10. Airgap in magnetic circuits. The gray regions repre-
sent permanent magnet material, with the direction of magneti-
zation shown. The hatched region represents soft magnetic
material, which is used to complete the magnetic circuit.
The materials used for permanent magnets inevitably
cost more than silicon iron, so large motors and generators
always use soft magnetic materials wound with coils to
create the required magnetic eld. In small motors, the
economics are dominated by the cost of fabrication; the
small coils and ne tolerances needed for electromagnet
motors outweigh the added cost of permanent magnetic
materials. Avast number of small DC motors are produced
for a very wide range of applications, from clock motors to
the dozens of motors in modern automobiles used to drive
windows, locks, seats, windshield wipers, and so on.
An economically important use of permanent magnets
is in the low-tech application of holding magnets. These
range from decorative magnets for holding notes to a re-
frigerator door to functional magnets for holding and seal-
ing the refrigerator door shut to strong magnetic chucks
for holding ferrous materials for machine-forming opera-
tions. In almost all cases cost is paramount, and barium
ferrite is used. For some applications the ferrite powder is
mixed with a polymer precursor, formed into a tape, and
polymerized to form a exible magnet, albeit with reduced
net ux density and therefore reduced holding power.
4.3. Magnetic Recording MediaIntermediate between Soft
and Hard
Magnetic recording is a huge business, dominated by the
hard disks and oppy disks pervasive in personal comput-
ers and by tape recordingaudio, video, instrumentation,
digital data storage, and so on. The media used in record-
ing are magnetic materials that must have a relatively
high coercive force so that they do not spontaneously de-
magnetize and lose information. But the coercive force
cannot be much greater than about 100 kA/m because the
leakage ux from the recording head is limited and must
nevertheless be sufcient to saturate the medium.
The standard material used in tape and oppy-disk
media is gamma iron oxide, gFe
2
O
3
. It is moderately ex-
pensive to prepare (compared to conventional ferrites) be-
cause extremely reproducible and controllable properties
are required. Acicular (needle-shaped) particles B50 nm
in diameter are prepared in order to obtain good recording
characteristics. The coercivity of most tapes is about 20
30 kA/m. More recent high-performance formulations use
cobalt-modied g-Fe
2
O
3
, which has a thin cobalt-rich re-
gion on the surface of the particles. This material has an
increased coercivity of about 50 kA/m and is routinely
used for videotape. In the past, CrO
2
was used as a
high-performance medium because it has a higher M
s
than g-Fe
2
O
3
and can be prepared with a coercivity as
high as 80 kA/m. However, it has a low T
c
(only 1301C) and
is relatively expensive, so it has been displaced by cobalt-
modied g-Fe
2
O
3
.
Hard disks used in digital recording are aluminum
platters coated with paramagnetic NiP or Cr and then
a recording medium such as CoCr. An extremely thin
layer of C is usually then deposited along with an even
smaller amount of lubricating uid, in order to avoid cat-
astrophic head contact with the medium (head crashes).
The coercivity of hard-disk media is in the range
60100 kA/m, and the saturation magnetization is about
1000 kA/m.
For many years it was expected that magnetic bubble
memory might nd a role for data storage in computers.
However, bubble memory is slow and expensive compared
to hard disks and semiconductor random-access memory
(RAM). Its only advantages are that it is mechanically
more robust than a hard-disk system, and it is more ra-
diation resistant than semiconductor RAM. Therefore, the
only present use for bubble memory is in certain military
applications.
Bubble memories store data in cylindrical domains,
perpendicular to the surface, that are generated in liq-
uid-phase epitaxy (LPE) grown garnet lms. The lms are
designed to have a large uniaxial anisotropy perpendicu-
lar to the lm plane and are chosen to meet a number of
other criteria. The bubbles are moved around using a
rotating external magnetic eld created by a miniature
electromagnet, and they are detected using a magnetore-
sistance bridge.
Finally, there is magnetooptic recording. In this scheme
data are stored on a plastic disk coated with an amorphous
metallic thin lm such as Tb
0.2
Fe
0.8
or similar composi-
tions doped with Dy and Co. They have a large uniaxial
anisotropy, with an easy axis perpendicular to the plane of
the lm, so as with the garnet lms designed for magnetic
bubble applications, cylindrical domains are stable. Data
are written by focusing a laser on the desired spot, which
heats the lms above its T
c
, B1001501C. If the lm is
exposed to a moderate magnetic eld while it cools, the
heated region will magnetize in the direction of the ap-
plied eld. Thus alternating regions of, say, north-up and
south-up can be written. The data are read with the same
laser at lower power to avoid heating, using a polarizer to
detect Faraday rotation (i.e., rotation of the polarization of
light when it interacts with a magnetic material). This ef-
fect is known as Kerr rotation when it occurs on reection
from a metallic magnetic surface. The Kerr rotation in a
magnetic material is in the opposite sense for regions
magnetized north-up versus south-up. The maximum
Kerr rotation in TbFe lms is rather small, B0.21, which
gives a low signal/noise ratio and correspondingly low
data rate.
The data density in magnetooptic recording is compa-
rable to that of a conventional CD-ROM but has the great
advantage of being endlessly rewriteable. Magnetooptic
drives are slower for writing data and more expensive
than conventional hard drives, but they confer the advan-
tage of cheap removable media and good archiveability
and have found a small but significant market niche.
4.4. Miscellaneous
Along with the three conventional classes of applications
for magnetic materials, there are a wide variety of spe-
cialized applications, too numerous to list exhaustively.
4.4.1. Nonreciprocal Materials. Some of the most inter-
esting magnetic devices are based on the nonreciprocal
propagation of UHF signals in insulating magnetic
materials. The behavior is formally identical to the small
optical Faraday rotation observed in some nonferromag-
netic materials, but the effect in ferrites can be very large
and is commonly used in microwave applications (e.g., in
isolators and circulators).
The nonreciprocal phenomena are due to interaction of
the incident radiation with the precessing electron spin(-
see Magnetic resonance). A particularly straightforward
case arises when the incident microwaves are circularly
polarized with a propagation vector parallel to the easy
axis of the magnetic material and at a frequency equal to
the natural precession frequency of the electron spins.
Then, if the sense of the circular polarization is the same
as that of the electron spin precession, energy is readily
transferred to the spins and dissipated as loss. If the sense
is opposite (corresponding to propagation in the opposite
direction), then there is little interaction and the loss is
minimized. It is easy to imagine an isolator based on the
directionality of this phenomenon, although the practical
design of this and other nonreciprocal microwave devices
can be very complex. In general, a moderately large ex-
ternal biasing magnet is required to set the FMR frequen-
cy equal to the operating frequency (a larger eld is
required for a higher operating frequency).
Three classes of materials dominate the magnetic ma-
terials used for microwave applicationsthe gure of
merit for microwave devices is usually proportional to
1/DH, where DH is the FMR linewidth:
1. The garnet structure ferrites exhibit the highest
performance available because they have the lowest
FMR linewidths. A typical value for polycrystalline
ceramic yttrium iron garnet (YIG) is DH4000 A/m.
Single crystals with linewidths as low as 40A/m
have been reported. Single crystals are relatively
expensive but are usually the bets choice at low fre-
quencies.
2. The spinel ferrites are useful in a number of cases.
Nickel zinc ferrite is particularly useful at high pow-
ers because it has a higher T
c
than garnets, and it is
often used in the range above 10 GHz. Manganese
magnesium ferrites are used in the range of 5
10 GHz because their lower saturation magnetiza-
tion allows biasing at lower eld.
3. The Z-type hexagonal ferrites have a hard axis nor-
mal to the basal plane, so the need for external bi-
asing is reduced. They require expensive processing
to produce oriented, high-quality ceramics. They are
most useful for mm-wave applications.
In general, the key issues in developing materials for
microwave applications are related to processing and mi-
cro-structure control rather than exploring new composi-
tions. Small grain size is important to minimize losses
form domain-wall resonance, to maximize the resistivity,
and to make stronger materials that resist the thermal
stresses caused by high-power operation. Obtaining a high
density is always important, but densication usually is
accompanied by grain growth. The art of designing or
choosing a microwave magnetic material is in balancing
these conicting requirements.
4.4.2. Ferrouids. Ferrouids are liquid suspensions of
magnetic particles coated to avoid agglomeration. Typi-
cally the liquid is a hydrocarbon or silicon, and the mag-
netic particles are ferrites, but a wide range of
combinations is possible. The behavior of ferrouids is
unique and scientifically interesting, and ferrouids are
commercially used for such diverse applications as gas-
tight seals for rotary shafts, heat transfer agents for loud-
speaker voice coils, and damping systems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Plato, in The Dialogs of Plato, transl. B. Jowett, Great Books
of the Western World, Vol. 7, Benton, Chicago, 1952, p. 144.
2. W. Gilbert, De Magnete, transl. P. F. Mottelay, Dover, Mineola,
NY, 1958.
3. J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley, New York;
1962.
4. R. L. Carlin, Magnetochemistry, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
1986, p. 3.
5. E. H. Brandt, Science 243:349355 (1989); Physics World
10(4):2324 (1997).
6. K. Binder and A. P. Young, Spin glasses: Experimental facts,
theoretical concepts, and open questions, Rev. Mod. Phys.
58:801976 (1986).
7. A. P. Ramirez, Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci. 24:453480 (1994).
8. R. B. van Dover et al., Intrinsic anisotropy of TbFe lms
prepared by magnetron co-sputtering, J. Appl. Phys. 57:3897
3899 (1985).
9. M. N. Baibich et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 61:24722475 (1988).
10. S. S. P. Parkin, Giant magnetoresistance in magnetic nano-
structures, Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci. 25:357388 (1995).
11. R. M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, Van Nostrand, New York,
1951.
FURTHER READING
R. M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, Van Nostrand, New York, 1951.
F. N. Bradley, Materials for Magnetic Functions, Hayden, New
York, 1971.
F. Brailsford, Physical Principles of Magnetism, Van Nostrand,
New York, 1966.
P. Campbell, Permanent Magnetic Materials and Their Applica-
tions, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 1994.
C. W. Chen, Soft Magnetic Materials, North Holland, Amsterdam,
1977; reprinted by Dover, New York, 1986.
S. Chikazumi and S. H. Charap, Physics of Magnetism, Krieger,
Malabar, FL, 1964.
B. D. Cullity, Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, MA, 1972.
D. Jiles, Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Chapman & Hall,
London, 1991.
M. M. Schieber, Experimental Magnetochemistry, Wiley, New
York, 1967.
J. Smit, H. P. J. Wijn, Ferrites, Wiley, New York, 1959.
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
HOTON HOW
Hotech, Inc.
Belmont, Massachusetts
In this article we discuss the following topics on magnetic
microwave devices: ferrite junction devices, lumped-ele-
ment circulators, nonreciprocal resonators, YIG lm de-
vices, MSW devices, magnetooptic devices, absorbing/
antireection layers, and nonlinear responses. The article
is organized as follows: Section 1 presents a general the-
oretical background underlying the physics for the oper-
ation of ferrite components in microwave devices.
Discussions include derivation of the Polder permeability
tensor, the effective elds associated with electron spin
motion, the general dispersion spectrum and plane-wave
solutions for electromagnetic waves propagating in a bulk
magnetic medium, magnetostatic waves (MSWs) admitted
by the geometry of a yttrium iron garnet (YIG) lm, and
the nonlinear instabilities for spin waves occurring at high
power, including their routes leading to chaos. Section 2
introduces ferrite junction devices, including circulators
and isolators. Broadband operation, size reduction, power-
handling issues, and other novel applications are dis-
cussed in this section. Section 3 delineates the operation
of lumped-element circulators in which interport imped-
ances are portrayed. Section 4 denes the effective eld
associated with a magnetic easy plane from an operation
perspective. Section 5 gives an example that ferrite non-
reciprocal resonator can be used as a phase shifter whose
operation is independent of the derived phase shift angles.
Section 6 describes YIG lm devices incorporating mag-
netostatic waves (MSWs), including delay lines, lters, di-
rectional couplers, and resonators. Section 7 depicts
nonlinear magnetic devices of frequency-selective power
limiters, signal-to-noise enhancers, amplitude correctors,
and ferrimagnetic echoing devices. Section 8 introduces
magnetic solitons, including Bloch domain wall solitions
and Microwave magnetic envelope solitons. Section 9 dis-
cusses magnetooptic Kerr and Faraday effects, and the
operation of magnetooptic Bragg diffraction devices. Fi-
nally, design of microwave absorbing layers and antire-
ection layers is briefly mentioned in Section 10.
1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
This section provides a theoretical background underlying
the physics that allows for the operation of a magnetic
microwave device. A magnetic microwave device generally
requires the use of an insulating magnetic ferrite material
so that magnetization or spin motion is coupled to Max-
well equations without inducing much eddy-current loss
at high frequencies. Also, in order to eliminate domain
wall motion, single-domain operation is demanded at RF
frequencies, and the ferrite material needs to be magne-
tized to saturation using an external DC magnetic eld.
Alternatively, effective elds arising from either the crys-
talline or shape anisotropy of the ferrite material may be
used to fulll the bias requirement of the magnetic device.
Thus, under small-signal approximations the electromag-
netic property of the ferrite is described by a tensor per-
meability whose nonzero off-diagonal elements permit
noble applications of nonreciprocal devices, for example.
Most importantly, the permeability tensor can be varied
by adjusting the bias eld strength, resulting in tunability
of the microwave device over frequencies.
A magnetic microwave device is normally operational
in the frequency range from 0.1 to 40 GHz or higher, and
its performance can be interpreted in terms of the spin/
magnetization motion of the ferrite material where cou-
pling to optical/photon modes, elastic/phonon modes, or
exchange/magnon modes may be utilized. Depending on
the regime of applications, a microwave magnetic device
may be distinguished either as a retarded-wave device or a
magnetostatic-wave device. The rst class of devices in-
cludes circulators, isolators, lters, phase shifters, patch
antennas, and so on, whose operation requires the mag-
netization vector to be coupled with the full set of Maxwell
equations. The second class consists of mainly high-qual-
ity single-crystal YIG lm devices where the propagation
of magnetization waves involves a wavelength comparable
to the lm thickness. As such, the displacement currents
can be omitted in Maxwell equations. This renders the so-
called magnetostatic approximation, which implies that
the resultant RF magnetic eld can be derived from a sca-
lar potential. Important magnetostatic devices include de-
lay lines, lters, resonators, echo lines, and other
nonlinear devices, whose operation complements their
low-frequency counterparts below 2GHz involving surface
acoustic wave (SAW) devices.
In the following subsections we rst derive the coupling
between the magnetization eld and the other electro-
magnetic elds, giving rise to a Polder permeability tensor
for the ferrite material under small-signal approxima-
tions. Effective elds are then introduced in the equation
of motion allowing for coupling of the magnetization eld
with the other physical elds required for transducer ap-
plications. On the basis of the frequencywavenumber
dispersion diagram, the propagation of magnetization
waves can be divided into three zones into which magnet-
ic microwave devices are conventionally dened at several
regimes. Plane-wave solutions are given describing the
propagation of electromagnetic waves in ferrites in the
retarded zone. Magnetostatic waves are then discussed,
whose dispersion diagrams are described in terms of the
bias eld conguration relative to the YIG lm device ge-
ometry. Finally, spin-wave instability is briefly mentioned,
delineating the high power threshold that a ferrite device
can operate before a cascading energy transfer occurs be-
tween the input RF power and the parametric excitation
of spin waves.
1.1. Polder Permeability Tensor
In a source-free medium Maxwell equations take the form
=hjoee; =e job
=
.
b0; =
.
e 0 1
MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES 2425
where e and h are the RF electric and magnetic elds and
b is the RF magnetic induction eld. In Eq. (1) e denotes
the permittivity and the time dependence of the RF quan-
tities is assumed to be exp(jot). For a linear isotropic me-
dium, one may dene a constant m, the permeability, so
that b and h are linearly proportional to each other:
bmh 2
This equation holds true if the medium is diamagnetic
(mom
0
) or paramagnetic (m4m
0
). Here m
0
denotes the per-
meability of vacuum. For a ferromagnetic or a ferrimag-
netic medium the relationship between b and h is neither
linear nor isotropic. However, under small-signal approx-
imations the linear relationship between b and h may be
assumed, provided the scalar permeability needs to be re-
placed by a tensor. Thus, Eq. (2) becomes
blhmh 3
where m denotes the RF magnetization eld and l is
called the Polder permeability tensor [1].
In a magnetic substance the net magnetic dipole mo-
ment per volume, or the magnetization vector, denoted as
M, is nonzero as a result of spontaneous magnetization of
the material. Denote the angular momentum per volume
of the medium to be J. The time rate change of angular
momentum can be equated with the applied torque, and
this implies
@J
@t
m
0
MH 4
where H denotes the internal magnetic eld within the
volume. From both classical mechanics and quantum me-
chanics, the relationship between J and Mis linear, which
can be expressed as
MgJ 5
where g is the gyromagnetic ratio, which can be written as
g
gjej
2m
e
6
where g is the Lande g factor and e and m
e
are charge and
mass of an electron, respectively. Classically, g 1 for or-
bital angular momentum, and g 2 for spin angular mo-
mentum. Quantum-mechanically, g can take a noninteger
value between 1 and 2 due to the interaction between the
spin and the orbital motion of the electron [2]. However,
for magnetic transition metal ions, Fe, Co, and Ni, the or-
bital motion of 3d electrons is normally quenched and
hence gE2. This implies g 1.76 10
7
rad (s Oe)
1
(reciprocal seconds-oersteds). Combining Eqs. (4) and (5),
we derive, therefore, the following constitution equation
for a magnetic medium:
@M
@t
gm
0
MH 7
We now assume that the magnetic medium is magne-
tized to saturation either by an externally applied mag-
netic eld, an internal anisotropy eld, or both. Let the
saturation magnetization be denoted as M
S
. We separate
the DC and the RF components of M and H as follows:
MM
0
m; HH
0
h 8
Here, capital letters denote DC quantities, and small let-
ters denote RF quantities. Under small-signal assump-
tions, jmj{jM
0
j % M
s
, jhj{jH
0
j, Eq. (7) can be linearized
to yield
@m
@t
gm
0
M
S
e
z
h
H
0
M
S
m
_ _
9
where we have assumed H
0
, and hence M
0
, to be along the
z axis whose unit vector is denoted as e
z
. From Eqs. (3) and
(9), we derive, assuming again the exp(jot) time depen-
dence
lm
0
m jk 0
jk m 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
10
The Polder tensor elements m and k are given as
m 1
o
z
o
m
o
2
z
o
2
11
k
oo
m
o
2
z
o
2
12
and o
z
and o
m
are dened as
o
z
jgjH
0
13
o
m
jgjm
0
M
S
14
Equations (1), (3), and (10) sufciently describe the gen-
eral behavior of a linear magnetic microwave device.
1.2. Effective Fields
In Eq. (7) the magnetic eld H is the internal eld effec-
tively experienced by electron spins in the magnetic me-
dium. In other words, an effective eld is dened if there
exist a coupling between the magnetization motion of the
medium and the other physical eld quantities. The cou-
pling energy density is denoted as w(M, @M/@x
i
), which
may show dependence on the magnetization M, the mag-
netic strains @M=@x
j
, or both. For example, the externally
applied magnetic eld H
a
can be associated with the Zee-
man energy density w H
a
.
M. For other couplings the
resultant effective elds can be derived from the following
Lagrangian equations [3,4]:
H
eff
@w
@M
i
3
j 1
@
@x
j
@w
@@M
i
=@x
j
; i 1; 2; 3 15
2426 MAGNETIC MICROWAVE DEVICES
The associated energy ux is
s
i
3
j 1
@w
@@M
j
=@x
i
@M
j
@t
; i 1; 2; 3 16
so that
@w
@t
r
.
s 0 17
In general, H in Eq. (7) consists of the following compo-
nents
HH
a
H
D
H
A
H
E
H
S
h
RF
h
d
h
G
18
where
H
a
externally applied magnetic eld (parallel to the z-
axis)
H
D
DC demagnetizing eld
H
A
(2K/M
S
) e
z
uniaxial anisotropy eld (along the z-
axis)
H
E
(2A/M
S
2
) r
2
Mmagnetic exchange eld
H
S
magnetoelastic eld
h
rf
externally applied RF driving eld
h
d
RF dipolar eld
h
G
( l/gM
S
) qM/qt Gilbert damping eld
where K, A, and l are, respectively, (uniaxial) anisotropy
constant, exchange stiffness, and Gilbert damping con-
stant. We note that although H
A
, H
E
, and H
S
are written
in capital letters, they may contain both DC and RF com-
ponents. In this article we have used H
0
as H
a
inter-
changeably in the following discussions. However, it is
understood H
0
can be the externally applied bias magnetic
eld, or the internal DC magnetic eld experienced by
electron spins, whichever is applicable.
The DC demagnetizing eld H
D
, which results from the
shape anisotropy, can be solved analytically only for an
ellipsoidally shaped body. In this case a demagnetizing
factor tensor N
D
can be calculated so that [1]
H
D
N
D
M
0
19
where M
0
denotes the DC component of the magnetization
vector expressed in Eq. (8). For the limiting case of a thin
at ferrite slab lying on the xy plane, Eq. (19) becomes
H
D
M
.
e
z
e
z
20
The definition for H
A
in the list immediately following
Eq. (18) denotes the effective eld associated with a uni-
axial anisotropy. For other anisotropy elds H
A
can be de-
rived fromEq. (15) using the appropriate energy density of
the anisotropy. For example, the corresponding energy
density for a cubic anisotropy is
w
A
K
1
a
2
1
a
2
2
a
2
2
a
2
3
a
2
3
a
2
1
K
2
a
2
1
a
2
1
a
2
1
21
where a
i
, i 1,2,3, is the directional cosine of the magne-
tization vector M with respect to the ith cubic axis and K
1
and K
2
are the associated anisotropy constants [5].
Using Eq. (15), the magnetoelastic eld can be derived
from the following magnetoelastic energy density
w
S
b
1
a
2
1
e
11
a
2
2
e
22
a
2
3
e
33
2b
2
a
1
a
2
e
12
a
2
a
3
e
23
a
3
a
1
e
31
22
where the a
i
terms, i 1,2,3, are the directional cosines of
the magnetization vector M; the e
ij
terms, i, j 1,2,3, are
the strain elds; and b
1
and b
2
are the magnetoelastic
coupling constants [3]. The magnetoelastic coupling mea-
sures the response with which a strain signal or an acous-
tic signal interacts with a magnetic signal in a
magnetoelastic transducer device, or vice versa.
The dipolar eld h
d
denotes the RF eld associated
with the RF magnetization eld min Eq. (8), which needs
to be solved from Maxwell equations [Eq. (1)] and h
d
re-
lates to m as follows
h
d
1
g
I
m=m
0
I
_ _
m 23
where m is the Polder tensor derived in Eq. (10) and earlier
in this section and I denotes the identity tensor. Under
magnetostatic approximation, h
d
satises the following
magnetostatic equations
r
.
h
d
r
.
m 24
rh
d
0 25
subject to suitable boundary conditions. Thus, h
d
is solved
from m in almost the same way that the DC demagnetiz-
ing eld H
D
is solved from M
0
. In the literature h
d
is
sometimes called the RF demagnetizing eld.
The Gilbert damping eld can be effectively accounted
for if one replaces H
0
in Eq. (8) by H
0
(jl/gm
0
)o, or, equiv-
alently [1]
H
0
!H
0
jDH
2
26
where DH denotes the ferromagnetic resonance (FMR)
linewidth. The Gilbert damping term is identical to the
LandauLifshitz form in rst order, and is introduced into
the equation of motion, Eq. (7), phenomenologically to ac-
count for the damping torque experienced by electron
spins undergoing precessional motion. Equation (26) de-
scribes very well the measured magnetic loss of a mag-
netic microwave device, provided that the applied RF
frequency is not too far away from the frequency at which
DH was measured. However, the physical meaning of the
Gilbert damping, as related to the relaxation processes in
the medium, is lacking, as in contrast to the other dam-
ping forms, such as the BlochBloembergen damping [1].
Finally, we have to specify the boundary conditions on
m in the presence of an exchange eld of H
E
appearing in
Eq. (18). The (direct) exchange coupling is associated with
the overlapping integral that relates the spinspin inter-
action for two electron spins at neighboring atomic sites.
The exchange constant A is larger than 0 for ferromag-
netic coupling, and A is smaller than 0 for ferrimagnetic
and for antiferromagnetic couplings. The spatial boundary
conditions on m can be derived from the equation of
motion, Eq. (7), which requires that the quantity
m
0
AM
@M
@n
27
needs to be continuous across the ferrite boundaries. Here
n denotes the outward direction normal to the surface of
the boundary. The time boundary condition is derived
from the energy conservation law. Thus, from Eq. (16)
we require the outward energy ux
m
0
A
@M
@n
.
@M
@t
28
to be continuous across the material boundaries. However,
instead of Eq. (28), it is popular in the literature to use the
following spin-pinning condition at the material bound-
aries:
@M
@t
0 29
Since A is a microscopic quantity and at the boundary
layers the environment there is quite different from that of
the bulk, the spin-pinning condition, Eq. (29), might be
more realistic than the one representing the macroscopic
average, Eq. (28).
1.3. Dispersion Curves for Bulk Modes
Equations (1), (3), and (10) can now be solved for a bulk
ferrite medium for plane-wave solutions. The resultant
dispersion relation, o versus k ( 2p/l), is shown in Fig. 1.
Here, k is the wavenumber and l is the wavelength. In
Fig. 1 the k space is conventionally divided into three
zones. For the small-k region, kok
1
(E0.1cm
1
), electron
spin motion is strongly coupled with the RF electromag-
netic elds so that the full set of Maxwell equations is re-
quired to solve the dispersion relations. This region is
called the retarded zone, and most magnetic microwave
devices other than single-crystal YIG lms making use of
bulk ferrite materials are operational in this region, for
example, circulators, isolators, phase shifters, and reso-
nators. The next region consists of intermediate k values,
k
1
(E0.1cm
1
) okok
2
(E10
6
cm
1
), known as the mag-
netostatic-wave zone. In this region o{kem
0
1=2
and
hence the displacement current, oee, can be ignored in
Maxwell equations:
rh % 0 30
This equation is called the magnetostatic approximation.
A magnetostatic wave device usually require the use of a
high-quality single-crystal magnetic lm such as YIG
whose thickness determines the spectrum of the resultant
magnetostatic waves prevailing in the device structure.
The last region is for k4k
2
(E10
6
cm
1
), which is called
the spin-wave zone. In this region the dispersion curves
grow proportional to k
2
, as dictated by the effective ex-
change eld, H
E
, dened following Eq. (18). Although not
many practical microwave devices are designed in this re-
gion, the spectrum of spin waves is important in the sense
that the normal spin precessional motion will break up
into spin waves at the onset of instability when a magnetic
microwave device is driven beyond a high power thresh-
old. The quadratic dependence of the spin-wave dispersion
gives rise to an effective mass for magnons, m h%
d(2Ao
m
)
1
, where h% denotes Plancks constant.
For a given wave propagation direction k, Eqs. (1), (3),
and (10) imply two plane-wave solutions. Similar to the
plane-wave solutions in an isotropic medium, the three
vectors, e, b, and k for each mode in an anisotropic mag-
netic medium, are still mutually perpendicular to each
other. However, unlike the isotropic case, the two modes in
the magnetic medium are nondegenerate, possessing dif-
ferent effective permeabilities and polarizations. Because
of the wrong sense in polarization, one mode is weakly
coupled to the photon waves, and hence its dispersion
curve represents little departure from that of the (uncou-
pled) photon modes. This dispersion curve is shown in
Fig. 1 as a straight (short) dashed line in the retarded
zone. The other mode couples strongly to the photon
waves, giving rise to distortion of the dispersion curves
in the retarded zone.
For the strongly coupled mode two branches show up,
depending on whether the bias magnetic eld is applied
(3)
o
1
= o
z
o
2
= [o
z
(o
z
+ o
m
)]
1/2
o
3
= o
z
+ o
m
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

w
a
v
e

(
L
o
n
g
.
)
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

w
a
v
e

(
T
r
a
n
s
.
)
(2)
(1)
(1), (2), (3): Strongly coupled EM modes
(1):0
k
= 0 (Circular polarization)
(2):0
k
= /2 (Elliptic polarization)
k
1
(~0.1cm
1
) k
1
(~10
6
cm
1
)
W
e
a
k
l
y

C
o
u
p
l
e
d

E
M

m
o
d
e
o
1
o
2
o
3
Magnetostatic wave
zone
Spin wave
zone
Retarted
zone
k
o
Figure 1. Dispersion curves of the coupled photonmagnon
modes. The k space has been divided in three zones for retarded,
magnetostatic, and spin-wave modes. Phonon dispersion curves
are also shown in the gure.
above or below FMR. These two branches are shown in
Fig. 1 as bottom and top curves, respectively (bias above
FMR is referred to in the literature as the condition that
the bias eld is larger than that required by FMR; bias
below FMR means the reverse. According to this conven-
tion, in Fig. 1 the bias-below FMR condition corresponds
to the top curve, curve 3, and the bias-above FMR condi-
tion corresponds to the bottomcurves, curves 1 and 2). The
top branch, curve 3 in Fig. 1, lies entirely in the retarded
zone and shows very little variation with respect to the
wave propagation directions; that is, the propagation of
strongly coupled electromagnetic waves biased below
FMR is nearly isotropic in the magnetic medium. Howev-
er, the bottom branch, curves 1 and 2, depends strongly on
the wave propagation directions. When k is parallel to the
z axis, the dispersion curve is shown as curve 1 in Fig. 1,
and when k is perpendicular to the z axis, the dispersion
curve is shown as curve 2. For other propagation direc-
tions, the dispersion curves are distributed between these
two curves, and for this reason, the region bounded by
curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 1 is usually referred to as the spin-
wave manifold. In the literature curve 1 is known as the
Kittel mode and curve 2, the Voigt mode. A Kittel mode
possess a right-hand circular polarization, whereas a
Voigt mode is associated with an elliptic polarization. In
Fig. 1 y
k
denotes the angle between k and the z axis, which
is designated as the applied eld direction, and o
1
, o
2
, and
o
3
are given as
o
1
o
z
31
o
2
o
z
o
z
o
m
1=2
32
o
3
o
z
o
m
33
and o
1
and o
2
are the limiting values of the magnetostatic
modes in the retarded zone (see Fig. 2).
The elastic modes are also shown in Fig. 1 as straight
(long) dashed lines. There are two kinds of phonon modes:
longitudinal phonons and transverse phonons [6]. In the
presence of magnetoelastic coupling, b
1
and b
2
are nonzero
in Eq. (22), and the phonon, or acoustic, modes will couple
to the spin-wave, or magnon, modes. For the coupled case
the dispersion curves of the phonons and the magnons will
avoid running across each other in the same fashion that
the photon modes and the magnon modes detour each
other in the retarded-zone region as shown in Fig. 1 [7]. (If
one views the uncoupled dispersion lines of two modes as
two intersecting straight lines, the coupled dispersion
lines resemble the two branches of a hyperbola using
the two intersecting lines as asymptotes.) In Fig. 1 the
(uncoupled) magnon modes in the retarded zone are
shown as dotted lines, extending curves 1 and 2 smooth-
ly from the magnetostatic-wave zone, intersecting the
photon line, and ending at o
1
and o
2
of the o axis (see
Fig. 2).
1.4. Plane-Wave Solutions
Plane-wave solutions are needed when performing nu-
merical spectral-domain calculations where a stratied
structure is considered consisting of dielectric/magnetic
layers supporting electromagnetic wave propagation in
the retarded zone [8]. We give in this subsection the plane-
wave solutions following Maxwell equations, Eq. (1), as-
suming a Polder permeability tensor, Eqs. (3) and
(10)(14). We consider a bulk ferrite of innite content
(so as not to be bothered by the boundary conditions at
innity) that is biased by an external magnetic eld H
0
along an arbitrary direction. Without loss of generality we
assume that H
0
is along the z axis [see definition for H
a
immediately below Eq. (18)]. Other effective elds can be
readily added to H
0
according to Eq. (18). For a given di-
rection of wave propagation, which is specied by a direc-
tional cosine vector (a
1
,a
2
,a
3
)
T
, we have the following
dispersion relationship
k
2
e
f
m
0
m
eff
o
2
34
where e
f
is the permittivity of the ferrite bulk, and the
effective (scalar) permeability m
eff
can be calculated
from
m
eff
1
2a
2
3
o
m
1 a
2
3
o
z
1 a
2
3
o
m
1 a
2
3
2
o
z
o
m
2
4a
2
3
o
2
1=2
35
where o
z
and o
m
are as given by Eqs. (13) and (14), re-
spectively. The corresponding RF magnetic eld is, within
Layer thickness = d
o
1
= o
z
o
3
= [o
z
(o
z
+ o
m
)]
1/2
o
3
= o
z
+ o
m
o
s
= o
z
+ 0.5 o
m
0
k
= /2
0
k
= /2
0
k
= 0
0
k
= 0
o
3
o
s
o
2
o
1
o
MSFVW
M
S
B
V
W

M
S
S
W
(2/d) Finite curvature Curvature negligible
k
Figure 2. Dispersion curves of magnetostatic waves in a mag-
netic layer. The MSFVW is shown as a heavy dotted line, rising
from o
1
to o
2
as k increases from 0 to N. The MSBVWand MSSW
are shown hatched depending on the propagation direction of the
magnetostatic waves. y
k
denotes the angle between the wave
propagation direction and the applied eld direction.
a multiplication constant
h
x
1
g
a
1
a
2
m
eff
oj 1 a
2
1
m
eff
o
z
1
a
2
3
m
eff
1 m
eff
_ _
o
m
_ _
36a
h
y
1
g
1 a
2
2
m
eff
oj a
1
a
2
m
eff
o
z
36b
h
z
a
3
m
eff
g
a
2
oj a
1
o
z
o
m
1 m
eff
_ _ _ _
36c
the RF electric eld is
e
x
Ba
3
g
oj
a
1
a
2
o
m
m
eff
1 m
eff
_ _
37a
e
y
Ba
3
g
o
z
1 a
2
2
m
eff
o
m
1 m
eff
_ _
37b
e
z
B
g
a
2
o
z
a
1
oj a
2
o
m
1
a
2
3
m
eff
1 m
eff
_ _ _ _
37c
the RF magnetization eld is
m
x
m
0
g
1 m
eff
o
z
1 a
2
2
m
eff
o
m
38a
m
y
m
0
g
1 m
eff
oj a
1
a
2
m
eff
o
m
38b
m
y
0 38c
and the RF magnetic induction eld is
b
x
m
0
m
eff
g
a
1
a
2
oj 1 a
2
1
_ _
o
z
a
2
3
1 m
eff
a
2
2
_ _
o
m
_ _
39a
b
y
m
0
m
eff
g
1 a
2
2
_ _
oj a
1
a
2
o
z
o
m

_
39b
b
z
m
0
h
z
39c
where
B
m
0
e
f
_ _
1=2
40
Thus, wave propagation in a magnetized ferrite is nonde-
generate, assuming different effective permeability values
for different modes, resulting in different propagation
speeds and polarizations. Similar to the isotropic case,
the directions of electric eld e, magnetic induction b, and
wave propagation k for each mode are mutually perpen-
dicular to each other, as dictated by Maxwell equations;
magnetic eld h is no longer aligned with magnetic in-
duction b, although h is still required to be perpendicular
to the direction of electric eld e. These properties can
be readily checked by the above eld expressions, Eqs.
(36)(39).
1.5. Magnetostatic Waves in a Magnetic Layer
Wave propagation and dispersion in a magnetic layer can
be derived in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 1
except that boundary conditions need to be explicitly
considered at the layerair interfaces. For MSW device
applications the excited waves have wavelengths in an
order comparable to that for the layer thickness. As such,
the magnetostatic approximation, Eq. (30), applies, which
implies that the RF magnetic eld can be derived from a
scalar potential, and hence the dispersion calculations are
largely simplied. Figure 2 shows such a dispersion dia-
gram. When compared with Fig. 1, we see that in Fig. 2
the retarded zone has been pushed away into the k 0
region and the exchange coupling showing k
2
dependence
in the large-k region has been neglected. However, the
magnetostatic dispersion does not imply horizontal lines,
as depicted in the magnetostatic-wave zone of Fig. 1. The
nite curvatures of the dispersion curves shown in Fig. 2
are due to the nite thickness of the magnetic layer d,
which are restricted roughly to the region bounded by two
vertical lines k 0 and k2p/d (the vertical line k 2p/d
is not shown in Fig. 2, although it is understood from the
k-axis label).
Magnetostatic waves can be volume waves and surface
waves. For a volume wave the RF magnetization varies
sinusoidally along the thickness direction, whereas for a
surface wave it varies exponentially in this direction.
Thus, a volume wave penetrates the whole thickness of
the magnetic layer, whereas a surface wave is concentrat-
ed near the surface and the lmsubstrate interface. For a
forward wave the dispersion increases monotonically with
k so that the group velocity do/dk is positive. This is in
contrast with a backward wave where do/dk is negative.
Thus, for a forward wave the transmitted power is along
the same direction as wave propagation, whereas the pow-
er transmitted by a backward wave is opposite to the wave
propagation direction.
When the external eld is applied normal to the layer
plane, magnetostatic waves are generated isotropically
with respect to the wave propagation directions lying on
the layer plane. This branch of waves is called magneto-
static forward volume waves (MSFVWs), whose dispersion
in shown in Fig. 2 as a heavy dotted line. The MSFVW
mode undergoes uniform precessional motion at the Kittel
frequency o
1
for k0, and the frequency increases there-
after, approaching the bulk limit of the Voigt frequency o
2
as k goes to innity. Dispersion of this kind can be readily
understood by determining the spin motion occurring in
the layer.
However, when the external bias eld is applied in the
layer, plane anisotropy results in general except at k0,
where the uniform processional motion occurs at the Voigt
frequency o
2
. When k increases further, two kinds of
modes are possible: magnetostatic backward volume
waves (MSBVWs) and magnetostatic surface waves
(MSSWs). Depending on the propagation angle y
k
,
MSBVW dispersion will decrease as k increases, ap-
proaching the respective bulk-mode limit as k goes to in-
nity. Therefore, unlike MSFVW, MSBVW occupies a
nite area in the dispersion diagram, which is shown
hatched between o
1
and o
2
in Fig. 2. For device applica-
tions, MSBVW is usually launched at y
k
0; that is, the
excited MSBVW is collinear with the applied eld direc-
tion, since it provides the widest frequency bandwidth
among all the MSBVW propagation directions.
For MSSW the dispersion falls within the forbidden
area of the bulk modes extending from o
2
to o
3
(see Figs. 1
and 2). MSSW dispersions increase as k increases, reach-
ing limiting values at large k. The propagation of MSSWis
anisotropic, and the largest dispersion occurs at y
k
p/2,
which gives rise to a limiting frequency o
s
o
z
0.5 o
m
,
known as the DamonEshbach frequency. The most pop-
ularly used MSSW is for y
k
p/2, which requires the
MSSW to propagate transverse to the applied eld direc-
tion and results in the widest frequency band for MSSW
device applications.
In Fig. 2 MSFVW and MSBVW are shown only for the
lowest-order volume modes. Higher-order volume waves
are also possible. A high-order volume wave, which as-
sumes additional nodal points along the thickness of the
magnetic layer, will converge to the same frequency as the
lower-order waves at large k, except that the curvature of
the dispersion curve is reduced. In general magnetostatic
waves are generated in single-crystal YIG lms epitaxial-
ly grown on gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) substrates.
Very often, a dielectric superstrate, for example, alumina,
is covered on top of the YIG lm to facilitate the excitation
of magnetostatic waves. For these situations the disper-
sion diagram of Fig. 2 remains unchanged. However, when
a metal ground plane is placed on top of the superstrate
shown in Fig. 3, the dispersion of MSSW, but not MSFVW
and MSBVW, will change. The inuence of a metal plane
is that the MSSW dispersion curve will grow in a convex
manner, increasing initially from o
2
at k 0 to a maxi-
mum value less than o
3
followed by decreasing to o
s
as k
goes to innity. When a second metal ground plane is add-
ed to the bottom side of the GGG substrate shown in Fig.
3, the propagation of MSSW becomes even nonreciprocal;
that is, the dispersion curve is different depending on
whether the wave propagation is along the k or the - k
direction. In Fig. 3 magnetostatic waves may be excited by
using a microstrip line, consisting of only the top ground
plane; or a stripline, consisting of both the top and the
bottom ground planes. For a multilayered system contain-
ing alternating magnetic and dielectric layers, the bulk
and the surface modes form a band structure in almost the
same way that atomic energy levels crowded into energy
bands when atoms are brought together to form a periodic
lattice [9,10].
Finally, let us discuss the propagation loss of a delay
line. When an observer is traveling with the wave down
the delay line for a delay time t t
d
, the electric eld is
e e
0
exp2pjf jDf t
d
41
where e
0
denotes the initial amplitude at t 0. This im-
plies that the propagation loss in dB is
a 40plog
10
eDf t
d
42
In Eq. (41) f and Df respectively denote the real and the
imaginary parts of frequency. Df can be related to the line-
width measured with a resonator consisting of the delay
line of a nite length but weakly coupled to by an external
feeder line circuit. Thus, we have
Df Df
m
Df
d
Df
c
43
where Df
m
, Df
d
, and Df
c
denote, respectively, contributions
from magnetic loss, dielectric loss, and conductor loss. As
discussed in deriving Eq. (26), Df
m
may be identied as half
the FMR linewidth multiplied by a volume lling factor F
m
denoting the volume ratio of the ferrite material relative to
the total volume enclosing the resonating cavity:
Df
m
F
m
jgjm
0
DH
2
44
The other two linewidths (Df
d
and Df
c
) can be estimated in
a similar manner dealing with a dielectric lossy cavity, for
example, [11]. If we assume that magnetic loss dominates
and approximate F
m
E1, Eqs. (42) and (44) imply
a % 76:4t
d
DH 45
where t
d
is in microseconds and DH is in oersteds. Equa-
tion (45) was originally derived by Vittoria and Wilsey [12]
for an MSW delay line. However, since delay time is mea-
sured as group delay, t
d
expressed in Eqs. (41), (42), and
(45) will be multiplied by a factor v
g
/v
k
, where v
g
denotes
the group velocity ( do/dk) and v
k
denotes the phase ve-
locity ( o/k) for wave propagation.
1.6. Spin-Wave Instabilities and Their Route to Chaos
In Fig. 1 the high-k regime where the wave dispersion
curves show k
2
dependence is called the spin-wave zone.
Although spin waves may not be directly exploited for de-
vice applications, they are important to inuence device
performances especially at high power, because they are
intimately related to instabilities when a ferrite is exces-
sively excited invoking nonlinearity. The quantized spin-
wave particles are called magnons, which interact with
the quantized electromagnetic-wave particles, or photons,
through the nonlinear terms in the equation of motion
[Eq. (7) or (61)]. Instabilities occur if energy transfer from
the photon modes to the magnon modes, or among magnon
modes themselves, becomes unstable [13], rendering
YIG film Bottom ground plane
Dielectric superstrate
GGG substrate
Stripline feed
Metal strip
Top ground plane
Microstrip feed
Figure 3. Magnetostatic wave excitation conguration. The YIG
lm is deposited on top of the GGG substrate. A superstrate can
be used to provide microstrip excitation conguration. A bottom
ground plane can also be deposited on the GGG substrate to pro-
vide stripline excitation conguration.
unpredictability resembling the turbulencelike behavior
of chaos [14,15].
The concept of spin waves was rst introduced by Bloch
in 1930 to explain the thermodynamic properties of ferro-
magnets at low temperatures [16]. Suhl renewed the in-
terest in spin waves and explained the saturation effects
observed in ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) experiments
[13]. As just stated, the spectrum of spin waves shown in
Fig. 1 has proved to play a dominant role in the relaxation
processes observed at high power. When an RF eld is ap-
plied, it drives the spins into precessional motion, which in
turn couples with spin-wave propagation, dumping energy
into lattice vibration via spinspin and spinlattice relax-
ation processes. The coupling to spin waves must originate
from the nonlinear terms in the equation of motion,
Eq. (7). The quadratic interaction comes from hm and
the cubic interaction from either hm
.
m or mm
.
m, in-
ducing the so-called rst-order and second-order spin-
wave instabilities, respectively. For a spin wave compo-
nent, m
k
, it induces two h elds, denoted as h
E
, from the
definition for H
E
following Eq. (18), and the dipolar eld,
h
d
, from Eq. (23). These two h elds then feed back and
couple nonlinearly with the original m
k
eld to generate
instability if a threshold power is reached. The m
.
mterm
arises from the constraint that the magnitude of M needs
to be a constant (equal to M
S
); that is, in Eq. (8) the lon-
gitudinal component M
0
is replaced by
M
0
% 1
m
.
m
2M
2
s
_ _
M
S
46
As a consequence, the DC demagnetizing eld, if not zero,
will add cubic nonlinearity to the equation of motion, giv-
ing rise to adverse effects in inuencing the spin-wave in-
stability.
Under FMR measurements, the experiments showed a
subsidiary absorption at high excitation power that occurs
at a DC eld less than that required by the resonance
condition. Also, as the input power increases, the reso-
nance absorption peak broadened accordingly rendering
premature saturation of the main resonance. Suhl [13]
showed that the subsidiary peak arises from a spontane-
ous transfer of energy from the uniform precessional mo-
tion of spins to spin waves of half the resonance frequency,
o
k
o/2. This instability is caused by the rst-order (qua-
dratic) interaction between the dipolar eld h
d
and the
spin wave m
k
. The second instability responsible for the
broadened and declined saturation of the main resonance
peak comes from a catastrophic energy transfer from the
uniform precessional motion of spins to spin waves of the
same frequency o
k
o. This instability is brought about
by the second-order (cubic) interaction between the ex-
change eld h
E
and the spin waves, m
k
and m
k
. The re-
sultant input eld thresholds for these two instabilities
are, respectively [17]
h
th
SA
2DH
k
o
m
sin 2y
k
o o
z
2
o
2
DH
_
47
h
th
RS
DH
2DH
k
M cos 2y
k
48
where the subscripts SA and RS stand for subsidiary ab-
sorption (rst-order instability) and resonance saturation
(second-order instability), respectively. In Eqs. (47) and
(48) DH is the FMR linewidth
o
DH
jgjm
0
DH
k
49
and DH
k
is the linewidth of the spin wave that is intro-
duced phenomenologically to parametrize the energy
transfer rate from the spin wave m
k
to lattice vibration.
Thus, once excited, a spin wave will decay according to the
following equation
m
k
t m
k
0 expo
DH
t 50
assuming that it does not couple to other magnetic modes.
In addition to Suhls instabilities, Morgenthaler [17]
and Schloemann [18] found that spin waves could also be
parametrically excited by an RF eld applied parallel to
the static eld, known as parallel pumping, as in contrast
to the transverse RF eld conguration assumed by FMR
measurements. Similar to Suhls rst-order instability,
parallel pumping can impose an instability that occurs
at a spin-wave frequency equal to half the frequency of the
RF pumping signal o
k
o/2. The threshold for parallel
pumping instability is
h
th
PP
2DH
k
o
o
m
sin
2
y
k
51
which compare closely in magnitude to h
th
SA
, the threshold
for Suhls rst-order instability shown in Eq. (47). In Eq.
(51) the subscript PP denotes parallel pumping.
Parallel pumping excites spin waves via the cubic in-
teraction term hm
.
m. However, in contrast to perpendic-
ular pumping assumed by Suhls instabilities, parallel
pumping requires no involvement of the Kittel uniform
mode and the pumped photon energy or electromagnetic
energy is directly imparted to the creation of two spin-
wave magnons of opposite wavevectors 7k, called Cooper
pair magnons. For the case of perpendicular pumping, the
pump signal is to rst induce the Kittel uniform mode fol-
lowed by conversion into either a single magnon at wave-
vector k or Cooper pair magnons at 7k for the rst-order
and the second-order processes, respectively. In Eqs. (47),
(48), and (51), y
k
denotes the angle between the wavevec-
tor k and the z axis e
z
. From these three equations, min-
imum threshold pump elds occur when y
k
equals 0, p/4,
and p/2 for resonance saturation, subsidiary absorption,
and parallel pumping instabilities, respectively. These en-
ergy transfer diagrams are shown schematically in Fig. 4,
in which the spin-wave band is redrawn from Fig. 1 with
the retarded zone omitted, but extended in both 7k di-
rections. In Fig. 4 the Kittel uniform mode is also shown,
whose frequency is
o
0
gfH
a
H
A
4pM
s
N
x
N
z
H
a
H
A
4pM
s
N
y
N
z
1=2
52
which can be derived by using the linearized equation
Eq. (9) assuming the following dipole eld for the uniform
precessional mode
h
d
N
D
m 53
see Eqs. (19) and (23). Note that in Fig. 4 Kittel uniform
mode is not excited during parallel pumping, since the
former requires transverse components of the RF magne-
tization eld that are not able to be supplied by the latter.
In Fig. 4 the wavy arrows indicate photon transitions, and
solid arrows indicate magnon transitions; only the critical
transitions are illustrated in Fig. 4, giving rise to mini-
mum values in the pumping eld responsible for the onset
of instabilities.
The turbulencelike behavior of magnetic excitations af-
ter spin-wave instabilities have set in and their routes to
chaos have been studied using the generic numerical anal-
ysis [14,15]. The responses of a nonlinear system, such as
spins in a ferromagnet, can be totally unpredictable, due
to amplication of errors made in the initial states. Such
an error amplication mechanism, which is characterized
by Lyapunov exponents for trajectories in state space dur-
ing time evolvement, renders randomness to the systems
response leading to the violation of the causality principle;
namely, the connection between the past and the future of
the system is lost after a short transient period. However,
in more recent decades, researches have found regulari-
ties in irregular systems and randomness appears to have
a deterministic underpinning; even the random events
such as water dripping from a leaking faucet has been
shown to show similarities with other irrelevant chaotic
processes such as stretching and folding a plane (Heno
attractor) or kneading a piece of dough (Lorentz attractor).
Universal rules have thus been developed that govern the
intrinsic structure of a chaotic system or a random process
in a manner analogous to the scaling rules developed by
using the renormalization group theory for phase transi-
tions observed in condensed-matter physics.
Research in chaos has resulted in a common language
suitable for the description of chaotic systems or random
processes. This language applies to the universal struc-
ture of the limiting curves traced out by trajectories of a
dynamic system or process embedded in state space. With
dissipation these trajectories will, after a transient period,
settle into limiting curves or cycles called attractors. If the
system or the process is regular with its response predict-
able, state space trajectories will remain converged and
conned all the time and the dimension of the resultant
attractor will necessarily be an integer, for example, given
by a circle, a torus, or another conguration. However,
when chaos or turbulence launches, nearby trajectories in
state space diverge and the attractor shows strange be-
havior, thereby called strange attractors. For a strange at-
tractor, its dimension is not an integer and its appearance
shows repeated resemblance after it has been continuous-
ly magnied, a scenario implied by a fractal. A similar
fractal structure can be attributed to the strange basin
boundaries separating the domains for different attrac-
tors settled in the state space of a chaotic system or
process.
o
o
o
o
(o
k
= 0.5 o
p
)
o
k
o
k
(o
k
= 0.5 o
o
; o
p
= o
o
) (o
k
= o
o
= o
p
)
o
p
0
k
= /2
o
k
o
0
k
= /2
0
k
= /2
o
o
/4
0
P
h
o
t
o
n
P
h
o
t
o
n
P
h
o
t
o
n
k
k
k +k +k
+k
0 0
0
0
0
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Photo-induced magnon transitions re-
sponsible for the observed instabilities for perpen-
dicular pumping [rst-order (left) and second order
(right)] (a), and parallel pumping (second order) (b)
of a nonlinear ferromagnetic spin system.
The usefulness of the language developed for describ-
ing chaos are twofold:
1. It allows a general erratic time-sequenced data or
dynamically uctuating picture to be categorized,
according to the appearance of the associated attrac-
tors and/or basin boundaries in state space, analo-
gous to the fact that phase transitions are classied
according to their order in transformation. As such,
routes to chaos can be visualized, and only a few
routes have been found available for general random
processes or phenomena to follow, including frequen-
cy-doubling bifurcation, intermittence, and crises.
Similarly, thousands of kinds of phase transitions
take place in the physical world, but only a few
transformation orders are generally deduced for
phase transitions. Universal scaling rules are con-
cluded for both the chaotic/random systems and for
the phase transition systems, which describes the
rate at which instabilities or critical phenomena are
approached by the change in system-pumping pa-
rameters or order parameters, respectively.
2. From the dimension or the size of the resultant at-
tractors and/or the basin boundaries in state space,
it is possible to determine the degree of randomness
or agitation inherent in the chaotic system or pro-
cess under study, enabling extraction of the maxi-
mum amount of information out of irregularity: the
larger the entropy or the information content of the
system or the process, the more complicated and in-
volved structure will be implied by the strangeness
of the attractors and/or the basin boundaries. When
the nature of randomness is better known, which is
clearly described in terms of the language of chaos,
weather prediction and broadcast in the future, say,
can then be much more reliable although still per-
haps unable to yield 100% accuracy.
It has been shown that spin-wave instabilities result-
ing from parametric transverse and parallel pumping dis-
play chaotic dynamics characterized by the universal
routes such as period-doubling bifurcation [14] and sub-
harmonic generation [15]. In general, when the pumping
eld was increased beyond a threshold value [e.g., see
Eq. (47), (48), or (51)], modulation in self-oscillation of the
ferrite spin system set in at a low frequency; the ampli-
tude of this low-frequency modulation oscillation grew
steadily with pumping power until frequency doubling bi-
furcation occurred before leading to a full-scale chaotic
state. For parallel pumping subharmonic generation
routes were also observed from windows of the Fe-
igenbaum scenario [15]. Strange attractors associated
with computer-generated time sequences from the nonlin-
ear coupled spin-wave modes, or the so-called two-mode
model, showed fractal scenarios common to a generic cha-
otic system. A scaling parameter d 4.675 was found for
perpendicular pumping, which is close to the Feigenbaum
universal value, indicating the success in adopting the
chaotic language in describing the unstable dynamics of
the nonlinear spin-wave system [14].
2. FERRITE JUNCTION CIRCULATORS
A circulator is dened as a device with ports arranged such
that energy entering a port is coupled to that of an adja-
cent port but not to that of the remaining ports. A ferrite
junction circulator has become a versatile microwave de-
vice because, in addition to its use as a circulator, it also
can be used as an isolator or as a switch. Depending on the
bias eld direction onto the junction area, either upward or
downward, the output ports operate in turn each time an
input port is selected, either clockwise or counterclockwise,
respectively, so that the junction is said to provide the cir-
culation operation. The three-port version of the ferrite
junction circulator, usually called the Y-junction circulator,
is most commonly used. It can be realized by feeding the
junction with three joining transmission lines, including
waveguides, striplines, microstrips, CPWs (coplanar wave-
guides), and slotlines. The waveguide version is usually an
H-plane junction, although an E-plane junction circulator
can also be created. The stripline ferrite junction circulator
is usually made with coaxial connectors facilitating its use
as a discrete component at the UHF, microwave, and mil-
limeter-wave frequencies.
Early experimenters found that waveguide T junctions
having a transversely magnetized ferrite slab suitably
placed in the junction could, with proper matching and
adjustment of the magnetic eld, be changed into circula-
tors. The bandwidth of such devices was very narrow. Re-
nements producing better symmetry were found to
broaden the bandwidth so that useful devices were ob-
tained. The rst commercial microwave circulator ap-
peared in the early 1950s, while a full theoretical
account of its operation was not published until 1962 by
Bosma [19,20].
The stripline Y-junction ferrite circulator consists of
two ferrite disks lling the space between a metallic cen-
ter disk and two conducting ground planes. The static
magnetic eld is applied parallel to the axis of the ferrite
disks. In Bosmas theory TEM Voigt modes were assumed
propagating clockwise/counterclockwise in the region be-
tween the two conductor planes possessing no variation
along the applied eld direction [19,20]. Magnetic wall
boundary conditions were assumed by Bosma at the fer-
rite disk periphery not adjacent to the circulator ports.
Impedance boundary conditions were then imposed on the
periphery areas dened by the circulator ports. Under
these assumptions the RF magnetic eld inside a 2D fer-
rite junction can be solved analytically, involving Bessel
functions of the rst kind to be cast in the series form. The
circulation conditions were then postulated by Bosma, re-
sulting in two real equations allowing for determination of
two circulator design parameters. Bosma chose the radius
of the junction R and the dielectric constant of the match-
ing dielectric material surrounding the junction e
d
as the
two independent parameters [19,20]. Therefore, at the
circulation frequency the junction will yield 0 dB inser-
tion loss and innite isolation with all the input electro-
magnetic energy dumped into the output port without
attenuation. Note that a circulation condition can be for-
mulated only with respect to an ideal lossless junction
with perfect impedance matching at all ports.
Fay and Comstock [21] presented a practical model for
the operation of a Y-junction circulator. In their treatment
the circulator circuit is approximated by a pair of slightly
detuned RCL resonators connected in parallel to account
for the two counterrotating dipole modes of the ferrite
disks in the presence of a bias eld. Participation from
high orders has thus been ignored. At circulation the two
dipole modes are nondegenerate, and the splitting be-
tween their (detuned) resonant frequencies Df is propor-
tional to the resultant gyrotropy pk/m of the junction
circuit. Here, k and m are the off-diagonal and diagonal
elements of the Polder tensor of the ferrite material, re-
spectively [Eqs. (11) and (12)]. Fay and Comstock have
shown that it is imperative to incorporate moderate p of
the ferrite material to obtain broadband operation of the
circulator junction [21].
Fay and Comstock have also proposed RF eld patterns
responsible for the circulation operation of a ferrite junc-
tion [21]. This is shown in Fig. 5, where dipole-mode
excitations are shown as standing waves in an isotropic
junction (Fig. 5a), and in a ferrite junction at circulation
(Fig. 5b); the junction assumes a thin-disk geometry of a
negligible aspect (thickness to diameter) ratio whose pe-
riphery is dened by the magnetic wall boundary condi-
tions. In Fig. 5 solid curves with arrows depict RF
magnetic eld lines, and crosses and dots represent elec-
tric lines entering and exiting the junction area, respec-
tively. For an isotropic junction the input eld will excite a
symmetric eld pattern with respect to the output and the
isolated ports attaining an equal intensity (Fig. 5a). En-
ergy entering the input port, which has been shown with
the most eld intensity, will split in two equal halves
reaching the output and isolated ports undergoing recip-
rocal operation. However, for a ferrite junction biased at
circulation the dipole pattern of Fig. 5a is rotated 301
counterclockwise such that the input and the output ports
are at an equal eld intensity; the isolated port is aver-
aged to zero, since an equal number of positive and neg-
ative electric eld lines appears at the isolated port (Fig.
5b). Thus, electromagnetic energy entering the input port
feeds the output port directly, leaving behind the isolated
port essentially electronically insulated. The circulator
operation is nonreciprocal in the sense that the circula-
tion action takes place in a cyclic order among the three
circulator ports, 1-2, 2-3, 3-1, and so forth.
The continuous frequency tracking conditions for the
operation of a broadband junction circulator were rst re-
ported by Wu and Rosenbaum [22], whose design requires
the junction to operate below FMR with the magnetization
magnetized slightly above saturation. The other design
parameters postulated by Wu and Rosenbaum are as fol-
lows:
y 0:5 rad 54
e
d
e
f
55
oRm
0
m
eff
e
f
1=2
1:82 56
where y is half the port suspension angle, e
f
(e
d
) is the
permittivity of the ferrite (dielectric matching) material,
m
eff
( 0.556) is the effective permeability of the ferrite
junction, R is the junction radius, m
0
is the permeability of
air, and o is the angular frequency (at the center of the
transmission band). Equation (55) implies that the ferrite
and the dielectric-matching material, also called the di-
electric-matching sleeve, are characterized by the same
dielectric constant. Thus, the junction and the sleeve can
be conveniently fabricated using the same piece of ferrite,
which needs to be magnetized slightly above saturation so
as to avoid domain wall loss. As such, there is no need to
separately fabricate a dielectric-matching sleeve sur-
rounding the ferrite junction thereby reducing the fabri-
cation costs. The thickness of the junction is not specied
by the design, whose value is based on matching of the
circulator port impedance:
Z
in
m
eff
e
f
_ _
1=2
57
Isolated
Output
(a)
(b)
Isolated
Input
Input
Output
Figure 5. Field pattern for dipole excitations in an isotropic
junction (a) and in a ferrite junction at circulation (b). Solid lines
represent magnetic eld lines; crosses/dots, electric lines entering
and exiting the plane of the drawings.
The WuRosenbaum circulator design provides an octave
bandwidth extending from o
m
to 2o
m
[22]. Here, o
m
|g|m
0
M
S
and g is the gyromagnetic ratio and M
S
, the sat-
uration magnetization [Eq. (14)].
Schloemann and Blight [23] have improved the Wu
Rosenbaum circulator performance [22] by extending the
transmission band at a lower frequency limit. Schloemann
and Blight were able to calculate the junction response in
the FMR region where the effective permeability becomes
a negative number [22]. To proceed, they employed the
modied Bessel functions of the rst kind to account for
the evanescent modes excited during FMR. They also
claimed that the measured bandwidth by Wu and Rot-
henbaum was narrower than that calculated, due to the
nonuniform magnetic bias eld accidentally introduced
with the measurement. To prove their assertion, Schloem-
ann and Blight [23] fabricated two semispherical domes
using the same ferrite material as in the junction to cover
the junction from above and below so as to ensure a uni-
form demagnetizing eld within the junction area. By so
doing, they successfully measured a 3:1 bandwidth for a
crystal YIG (yttrium iron garnet) junction circulator (2.8
10.2 GHz) and for a crystal lithium ferrite junction circu-
lator (5.818 GHz) [23].
All ferrite circulators are functional utilizing the non-
reciprocal property for wave propagation in ferrites, pro-
viding low insertion loss and high isolation over a broad
frequency band. The bandwidth is proportional to the in-
verse of the Q value of the cavity resonator formed by the
circulator junction, namely, the region of the ferrite bound
by metal boundaries at top and bottom and by a magnetic
wall at periphery. Typically the bandwidth is about 515%
of the center frequency, depending on the deployed sus-
pension angle of the ports, unless the frequency-tracking
conditions are enforced as postulated by Wu and Rose-
nbaum [22]. The circulator junction is a low-Q device,
since the three coupling ports bestow the junction an open
structure, allowing electromagnetic waves to leak from
the junction area; the larger the port suspension angle,
the broader the transmission bandwidth that will result.
It is thus desirable to adopt the WuRosenbaum param-
eters [Eqs. (54)(56)] to achieve the broadest transmission
band, unless the circulator operation is attempted at high
power (or if one attempts to minimize the junction size as
discussed later).
To design a circulator junction at high power we must
consider the following issues: heat production, intermod-
ulation, spin-wave generation, and thermal stability.
There are two kinds of magnetic loss. The rst kind is as-
sociated with magnetic domain wall motion, and the sec-
ond kind relates to the intrinsic magnetic relaxation
processes underlying the magnonphonon interactions.
To eliminate magnetic loss of the rst kind, the ferrite
junction needs to be magnetically biased well above satu-
ration. This eliminates residual domains existent with a
barely magnetized ferrite junction, thereby reducing heat.
For this reason, a power circulator circuit should be biased
well above FMR. The second kind of magnetic loss is char-
acterized by a material parameter called FMR linewidth
(DH) Eq. (26). To minimize magnetic loss of the second
kind, one prefers to employ low-loss ferrites such as
crystal YIG and lithium ferrite, since these materials
have shown the lowest DH values at the X-band and at
the Ka -band frequencies, respectively.
The second issue relates to nonlinear coupling of elec-
tromagnetic signals at high power. This gives rise to in-
termodulation noise. In a ferrite junction intermodulation
noise grows quickly with power, identied as clicking nois-
es in a telephone line, which must be minimized, if not
totally eliminated, to ensure quality communication. In
the following we argue how intermodulation noise can be
minimized in a semiquantitative manner. Let the power
be applied to the input port of a circulator junction as
Pi
2
Z
in
58a
h
2
w
2
Z
in
58b
M
2
s
h
M
s
_ _
2
4R
2
sin
2
yZ
in
58c
M
2
s
jm
eff
1j
2
m
M
s
2
4R
2
sin
2
yZ
in
58d
M
2
s
jm
eff
1j
2
d
2
m
4R
2
sin
2
yZ
in
58e
where i denotes the RF current owing into the input port
of impedance Z
in
, h is the transverse RF magnetic eld at
the junction edge adjacent to the input port, wis the width
of the input port, R is the radius of the junction, y is half
the port suspension angle, m
eff
is the effective permeability
of the junction dened by
m
eff
1
m
h
59
and d
m
denotes the excursion angle of the magnetization
vector away from the DC bias eld direction, or the devi-
ation or inclination angle of the precessional motion of
electron spins in the ferrite junction around the DC bias
eld direction
d
m
%
m
M
s
60
where d
m
measures the extent that linear approximation
of magnetic excitation remains valid inside the ferrite
junction. In other words, if d
m
is large, linear approxima-
tion no longer holds true and nonlinear effects become no-
ticeable. As a general rule, the onset of nonlinearity, or
intermodulation coupling, is given by
d
m
0:1 rad 61
beyond which nonlinear effects set in, giving rise to ap-
preciable amount of intermodulation noise. In Eq. (58e) d
m
denotes the excursion angle of the magnetization vector
near the input port. However, the circulation mode as-
sumes mostly the dipole mode, which implies the largest
magnetic excitation near the input and the output ports
(see Fig. 5). As such, the threshold condition of Eq. (61),
which was derived at the input port, can be applied within
a multiplication constant (E0.6) over the whole junction
area, denoting the worst situation invoking the nonlinear
interaction. Thus, we dene the following parameter F
denoting the gure of merit of a power circulator design
characteristic of the amount of intermodulation noise as
F 4pM
s
R siny Z
1=2
in
62
by which Eq. (58a) becomes
P / F
2
d
2
m
63
From Eq. (63) it is understood an effective power circulator
design requires the value of F, the gure of merit, to be
minimized, so as to yield minimum intermodulation man-
ifested by d
m
under a given power excitation P.
Alternatively, the circulator junction problem at high
power can be solved quantitatively, as proposed in [24]. By
keeping high-order terms up to the third power of small-
eld quantities in Eq. (4), Eq. (9) becomes
1
g
dm
dt
e
z
H
in
m
M
s
h h
z
4pN
z
m
z
mm
z
h
64
where
m
z
M
s
M
z
%
m
.
m
2M
s
65
denotes the z component of the RF magnetization vector
that has been neglected in Eq. (9) under the rst-order
approximation [see Eq. (49)]. In Eq. (64) H
in
is the internal
DC eld given by
H
in
H
0
4pN
z
M
s
66
where H
0
is the applied DC eld along the z axis and N
z
is
the axial demagnetizing factor [see Eq. (18)]. The sche-
matic drawing at the bottom of Fig. 6 illustrates the rela-
tionship between intermodulation signals and the applied
RF signals, where two RF signals are applied at two near-
by carrier frequencies f
1
and f
2
, which are coupled via the
(cubic) nonlinear terms in Eq. (64) so as to generate in-
termodulation signals at 2f
1
f
2
and 2f
2
f
1
. At the top of
Fig. 6 the ferrimagnetic amplifying echo signals are also
shown; their significance will not be discussed until Sec-
tion 7, where nonlinear magnetic microwave devices are
introduced. Here we want to contrast both phenomena
with the same physical origin with which intermodulation
and ferrimagnetic echoing are driven by the same cubic
nonlinear terms in the equation of motion [Eq. (64)] but
with their respective responses expressed in the frequency
domain and in the time-domain characteristic of different
device applications.
It has been shown [24] that the nonlinear demagnetiz-
ing term in Eq. (64) plays a crucial role in bringing in in-
termodulation noise in a ferrite junction; the larger the
demagnetizing eld, the larger the intermodulation noise
will be generated. This suggests the following bias cong-
uration, which is thought to be effective in reducing in-
termodulation noise. As shown in Fig. 7, the two ferrite
junctions implied by a stripline circulator are clamped
Cubic interaction in ferrites
S
i
g
n
a
l

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
S
i
g
n
a
l

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
(Time-domain:ferrimagnetic echo)
(Time-domain: Intermodulation)
t 0 +t t
2f
t
-f
2
f
1
f
2
2f
2
-f
1 f
Figure 6. Nonlinear (cubic) coupling in an echo line and in a
ferrite junction expressed in time domain and in frequency do-
main, giving rise to ferrimagnetic echo signals and intermodula-
tion signals, respectively.
Condenser cap
Permanent magnet
Return-flux yoke
Gnd plane
Clamper
Gnd plane
Clamper
Condenser cap
Permanent magnet
Return-flux yoke
Central
Conductor
Circuit
Substrate
(dielectric)
Ferrite (same 4 M
s
)
Figure 7. A ferrite junction is clamped between two ferrite cyl-
inders having the same magnetization and cross-sectional area as
the junction, and the clamped junctioncylinder assembly is bi-
ased by a permanent magnet pair included with ux condenser
caps and return contour yoke.
between two cylindrical ferrite poles, which are placed
outside the respective ground planes of the stripline cir-
cuit having the same saturation magnetization as the
junction material and the same cross-sectional area as
the junction geometry. While these two ferrite poles have
no effect whatsoever in inuencing the RF performance of
the circulator junctions, they are effective in reducing the
DC demagnetizing eld within the junction areas so that
4pN
z
in Eq. (64) becomes nearly zero, thereby minimizing
intermodulation noise. Here we assume the thickness of
the clamping ferrite poles to be much greater than the di-
ameter of the junctions. In Fig. 7 a magnetic yoke (pro-
viding magnetic ux closure contour) and condensers
(providing magnetic focusing) are used so as to facilitate
the bias of the circulator junction circuit incorporating
clamping ferrite poles.
We must point out here that the same ferrite clamping
technique has been used by the ferrimagnetic echo exper-
iments that reduced the demagnetizing eld within an
echo line such that an echo gain larger than unity can be
realized [25,26]. More detail on ferrimagnetic echo ampli-
cation can be found in Section 7. The additional advan-
tage associated with the magnetic bias conguration of
Fig. 7 is that it is effective in inhibiting the onset of spin-
wave instabilities occurring within the ferrite junction,
thereby stabilizing its operation at high power. It is known
that the demagnetizing eld term in Eq. (64) can adverse-
ly affect the spin-wave instabilities at high power [13] and
hence must be minimized; see discussion following Eq.
(46). This constitutes the third issue, namely, that a ferrite
junction to be applied at high power necessitates spin-
wave stabilization. Furthermore, besides minimizing
spin-waves, reducing the content of magnetostatic surface
waves (MSSWs) is also necessary. We know that surface
waves are inherent to a guiding structure possessing 2D
discontinuities in magnetic or dielectric quantities [8]. In
the microstrip geometry surface waves always exist whose
modal spectrum depends on the thickness and the dielec-
tric constant of the substrate material; the thicker the
substrate and the larger the dielectric constant, the more
surface modes will appear [8]. Analogously, one expects
MSSWs to abound in a thick ferrite junction showing high
saturation magnetization. This situation should be avoid-
ed if high power is attempted. Also, a thin ferrite junction
facilitates heat removal via conduction so that it favors
high-power applications.
The fourth issue on power circulator operation con-
cerns thermal stability. Figure 8 shows four types of mag-
netization curves exhibited by magnetic materials with
qualitatively different temperature dependence. The Q
type represents the normal temperature dependence usu-
ally observed for metals and alloys. Almost all ferrites
(e.g., Mn-Zn ferrite, Ni-Zn ferrite, Co ferrite) and garnets
show the R-type temperature dependence. P-type and
N-type temperature dependence were observed for some
concentration ranges of Ni-Mn-Ti, Ni-Al, and Mn-Fe-Cr
ferrites and for garnets in general [27]. In Fig. 8 Q and R
types always show a negative slope for their magnetiza-
tion curves. However, for P and N types the magnetization
curves are possible to show a positive slope at certain
temperature ranges. If positive slopes occur near room
temperature, the ferrite is then called a temperature-com-
pensated ferrite, which provides advantages when the fer-
rite is used at high power.
When applied at high power, the axial component of the
magnetization vector decreases, since the spins preces-
sional motion dictates the magnetization vector to deviate
or incline farther away from the direction of the DC bias
eld: the more the power applies, the further the deviation
or inclination will result [Eq. (60)] in addition to more heat
generated in the junction area. This causes the tempera-
ture of the junction to rise. However, for a P- or a N- type
ferrite, the temperature rise is accompanied by an in-
crease in saturation magnetization, which compensates
for the decrease in its axial component expressed in Eq.
(46), ensuring that the circulation conditions do not drift
away as a result of thermal heating, thereby stabilizing
the circulator operation at high power. It is thus clear that
temperature-compensated ferrites are preferred when a
circulator junction is to be applied at high power.
The size of a ferrite junction can be considerably re-
duced if the junction is biased above FMR providing di-
rectly 50 O impedance at the junction ports. The
advantage of using the bias-below FMR conguration is
that it is then possible to realize the frequency-tracking
conditions so as to enable the broadband operation of a
ferrite junction [22,23]. However, the drawback is that, to
invoke a bias-below FMR conguration, the junction ac-
quires a large area, since the junction is then character-
ized by a relative permeability value considerably smaller
than unity (E0.556). In order to reduce the junction size,
the junction has to be biased above FMR, utilizing an ef-
fective permeability value appreciably larger than unity
(E56). Furthermore, if the circulator design directly
4M
S
4M
S
4M
S 4M
S
Q R
P N
T T
T T
Figure 8. Temperature-dependent magnetization curves: Q type
is normally observed for magnetic metals and alloys, and R type
for ferrites; both of them show normal temperature dependence. P
type and N type occur for some ferrites that show positive slopes
at certain temperature ranges near room temperatures; they are
termed temperature-compensated ferrites.
provides 50 O impedance at junction ports, there is no
need for transformers, resulting in miniaturization of the
circulator circuit at low frequencies. By using these two
techniques Hotech has fabricated 5-mm circulator junc-
tions at the ISM (industrialscientificmedical) band pro-
viding 15% bandwidth in transmission. The ISM band
includes the frequency ranging from 902 to 928MHz and
from 2.4 to 2.48GHz, which do not require a FCC (U.S.
Federal Communications Commission) license. Even
smaller circulator junctions are currently attempted by
Hotech incorporating high-dielectric materials so that
miniaturized UHF circulators in the order of 1 mm can
be potentially fabricated in the future.
A conventional Y-junction circulator utilizes a low-Q
resonator that causes the standing modes to couple in and
out electromagnetic energy in a nonreciprocal manner
[21]. To admit ultrabroadband operation of a circulator
junction, one must abandon the conventional standing-
mode picture to allow for traveling waves. Broadband two-
port isolators using the traveling displacement modes or
edge modes were rst reported by Hines in 1961 [28]. In
Fig. 9 a stripline is fabricated on top of a ferrite substrate
and a dissipation pad, such as a thin layer of poor con-
ductor, is deposited at one side of the substrate next to the
stripline circuit. The superstrate, which consists of the
same ferrite material, stacks above the substrate, and
ground planes are attached to the substrate and superst-
rate at their outer surfaces. Superstrate and ground
planes are not shown in Fig. 9. In the presence of a ver-
tically applied bias magnetic eld, wave propagation along
the stripline is nonreciprocal: highly transmitting along
one direction, but highly attenuating along the other di-
rection. Thus, the RF magnetic eld pattern shown as
dashed curves in Fig. 7 displaces toward the edge of the
stripline in the presence of the bias magnetic eld, which
is either shifting away from the dissipation pad (top
drawing), or onto the dissipation pad (bottom drawing),
resulting in little attenuation, or heavy attenuation, re-
spectively. Hynes [28] has shown the operation of an edge-
mode isolator providing a 31 transmission band, which is
about the same bandwidth measured by Schloemann and
Blight in 1986 wherein the frequency-tracking conditions
were enforced employing the conventional (standing-
mode) resonator-type circulator junctions [24].
Edge-mode traveling-wave operation can also be real-
ized by three-port junction geometry. In Fig. 10, three ad-
joining ports exhibiting a three fold symmetry rather than
two aligning ports are shown depositing on top of a trian-
gularly shaped ferrite substrate. Again, a similar superst-
rate covers the substrate on top and two ground planes are
applied at their respective outer surfaces. Superstrate and
ground planes are not shown in Fig. 10. To operate, a bias
Edge-mode circulator
H
P
o
r
t

3
P
o
r
t

3
Port 1
Port 1
j (ferrite)
j (ferrite)
h
h
z
P
o
r
t

2
P
o
r
t

2
Edge-mode coupling
port 1 to port 2
Edge-mode de-coupling
port 1 to port 3
H
h
h
z
Figure 10. Operation of edge-mode circulator. In the presence of
a bias magnetic eld, the RF magnetic eld pattern shifts toward
the edge of a stripline fabricated with ferrite materials, which
couples strongly to one joining line (top) but decouples to the other
joining line (bottom), resulting in circulation action over a broad-
band.
Port 1
j (ferrite)
j (ferrite)
D
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
i
o
n

P
a
d
D
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
i
o
n

p
a
d
h
Edge-mode/displacement mode
backward wave-propagation
Port 1
H h
Edge-mode/displacement mode
Forward wave-propagation
Edge-mode isolator
Non-reciprocal
Wave-propagation
H
Port 2
Port 2
Figure 9. Operation of edge-mode isolator. In the presence of a
bias magnetic eld, the RF magnetic eld pattern is shifted to-
ward the edge of a stripline fabricated using ferrite materials de-
posited with dissipation pad at one side. As such, propagation of
electromagnetic waves along the stripline is nonreciprocal, trans-
mitting along one direction, top, but attenuating along the other
direction, bottom.
magnetic eld is applied along the junction thickness di-
rection inducing the displacement modes or the edge
modes to propagate in a manner analogous to Hines iso-
lator circuit shown in Fig. 9. As a consequence, edge modes
couple strongly between ports 1 and 2, due to overlapping
of their respective propagation electromagnetic waves
with phase coherency, but decouple also strongly between
ports 1 and 3 due to lack of the required wave overlapping.
This results in the desired circulator operation in which
electromagnetic signals entering port 1 can exit only from
port 2, and so forth. In comparison to Fig. 9, the dissipa-
tion pad is not needed by Fig. 10; rather, the wave prop-
agation direction, or the circulation direction, is dictated
by the coupling/decoupling mechanism imposed by the
ports. In Fig. 10 the dashed curves depict schematically
the RF magnetic eld pattern illustrating the coupling
and decoupling of the propagation waves in ports.
In order to broaden the transmission band of an edge-
mode circulator, it is necessary to enforce phase coherency
for wave propagation between the input and the output
ports across a broad frequency range; that is, phase co-
herency needs to be maintained over a wavelength dis-
tance denoted as l in Fig. 10. Therefore, high-frequency
signals couple more strongly near the center of the junc-
tion and low-frequency signals, near the side edge of the
junction. Since the operation of a ferrite device requires
the magnetization to scale with frequency [this ratio is
known as gyromagnetic ratio; see Eq. (13)], one expects an
ultrabroadband edge-mode circulator to occur if the ferrite
junction shows different magnetizations scaled with the
propagation wavelengths: large at the center but small at
the side edge. This ultrabroadband circulator geometry is
shown in Fig. 11, in which a composite substrate is illus-
trated consisting of ve triangular shells of different fer-
rite materials, labeled as m
1
to m
5
, respectively, whose
saturation magnetization decreases from center to edge
progressively. In Fig. 11 the metal strip has been tapered
accordingly from edge to center to accommodate the
change in saturation magnetization, assuming that the
ferrite materials are characterized by the same dielectric
constant. Again, a similar geometry is assumed by the su-
perstrate. Initial studies on circulators of Fig. 11 have
shown a 101 transmission band. A U.S. utility patent ap-
plication for ultrabroadband edge-mode circulator opera-
tion has been led by Hotech.
An asymmetric circulator junction can be used as a
broad stopband lter [29,30]. Broad stopband lters are
required by radome applications protecting the receiver
circuits from high-power incidence over a broad frequency
band. The traditional lters utilizing coupled resonators
can hardly provide the broad stopband operation, since
high-order harmonics will inevitably appear at high-order
harmonic frequencies. By using an asymmetric ferrite
junction it is possible to induce the broad stopband oper-
ation. This is seen in Fig. 12, where an asymmetric ferrite
junction is shown similar to that in Fig. 5 except that the
cyclic symmetry has been removed. Instead, the input and
the output ports still show the leftright (image) symme-
try so as to allow the circulation conditions to occur. As
shown in Fig. 12, at circulation, electromagnetic energy
enters the input port and exits from the output port, with
the isolated port being connected with a matched dummy
load. However, due to the asymmetric arrangement of the
ports, high-order harmonics are effectively suppressed,
resulting in broad stopband operation as desired. Broad
stopband operation revealing a 101 bandwidth has been
Input Output
Isolated
Figure 12. Dipole eld pattern for an asymmetric ferrite junc-
tion excited at circulation. The eld pattern still shows symmetry
between the input and the output ports so that energy entering
the input port is dumped into the output port, with the isolated
port essentially electronically insulated from the input port.
Asymmetric junction will provide a broad stopband.
Ultra broadband edge-mode circulator
Coupling zone changes
adaptively with
wavelength
P
o
r
t

3
H
Port 1
P
o
r
t

2
z
j
1
j
5
j
4
j
3

j
2
h
h
Figure 11. Operation of edge-mode circulator employing a com-
posite substrate/superstrate structure containing ve triangular-
ly shaped shells labeled as m
1
to m
5
. The magnetization is
increased from the side edge m
5
toward center m
1
to accommodate
the phase-matching requirement to achieve ultrabroadband cir-
culator operation.
measured by using an asymmetric circulator junction
[29,30].
When biased above FMR, a three-port ferrite junction
normally shows a transmission band no broader than 15%
of its center frequency. However, this bandwidth can be
increased if additional tuning ports are added to the junc-
tion geometry. This is shown in Fig. 13, where three tun-
ing ports, called tuning stubs, have been added to the
junction circuit still exhibiting the threefold symmetry of
the ports. This allows the circulation conditions to occur as
usual. However, the added three tuning stubs are effective
in broadening the bandwidth if their length and imped-
ance have been properly designed. It has been shown [31]
that the added capacitance from the tuning stubs in
Fig. 13 has broadened the bandwidth to 30% of its center
frequency when biased above FMR.
Difculty in using a ferrite substrate is that the bias
magnetic eld is required to have a magnitude of at least
several thousand oersteds to effectively change the per-
meability of the substrate at X-band frequencies, [e.g., see
Eq. (13)]. In order to reduce this bias eld requirement, it
is desirable to utilize the internal anisotropy eld associ-
ated with a hexaferrite material to substitute, at least
partially, the external eld. In a ferrite material exhibit-
ing hexagonal symmetry the internal crystalline anisot-
ropy eld can be as high as 50 kOe, admitting device
applications even beyond 100GHz [27]. For a hexaferrite
material crystalline anisotropy causes the energy of mag-
netization direction along the c axis to differ from energies
in the directions lying on the ab plane. For an M-type
hexaferrite the c axis is an easy axis, and the magnetiza-
tion vector favors alignment along the c axis. This implies
that in an M-type hexaferrite the crystalline anisotropy
behaves like an external eld aligning the magnetization
along the c axis [see the definition for H
A
below Eq. (18)].
Important device applications for M-type hexaferrites in-
clude circulators and isolators, wherein the easy axes co-
incide with the thickness direction of the substrates so as
to eliminate, or at least reduce, the bias eld requirement
at high frequencies. Using M-type hexagonal ferrites, bar-
iumstrontium magnetoplumbites, a practical self-biasing
stripline circulator, has been fabricated at 37GHz, exhib-
iting 1dB insertion loss and 15 dB isolation [32].
The performance of a circulator junction can be numer-
ically simulated by assuming a 2D geometry [3335].
Dielectric loss can be accounted for by assuming a com-
plex permittivity for the ferrite junction
e e
0
e
r
1 j tan d
js
f
o
67
and magnetic loss due to domain-wall motion by a complex
permeability
m m
0
m
0
jm
0 0
68
where tan d denotes the dielectric loss tangent, s
f
the con-
ductivity, and e
r
the dielectric constant, and m
0
and m
0 0
are
the real and imaginary parts of permeability, respectively.
Magnetic loss due to the intrinsic relaxation processes can
be included by modifying the bias eld to include an imag-
inary part proportional to the FMR linewidth DH
[Eq. (26)]. Conductor loss due to imperfect metal bound-
aries of the ground planes and the stripline central con-
ductor patch can be modeled by using the mean-eld
theory [36]; that is, the metal boundaries are withdrawn
a distance d
c
into the interior of the imperfect metal bulk
with the recessed volume to be lled by air [36]. Here d
c
denotes the (complex) skin depth
d
c
1 j
2
om
0
s
69
and s denotes the conductivity of the metal bulk. This
procedure is analogous to Weelers incremental impedance
[37,38], and the resultant permittivity of the junction
structure, which is viewed as an airferriteair compos-
ite, is obtained as an average by using the mean-eld the-
ory [36]. As an example, numerical calculations have been
applied to a microstrip circulator fabricated on top of an
M-type Sc-barium hexaferrite characterized by the follow-
ing parameters: 4pM
s
2400G, H
A
19 kOe, and e
r
22.
Calculations compared nicely with measurements, shown
in Fig. 14. Note that in performing calculations in Fig. 14
no adjustable parameters have been used (Fig. 14
appeared in an internal report from Hotech).
3. LUMPED-ELEMENT CIRCULATORS
The linear dimension of a distributed-element microwave
device is comparable to the wavelength of the RF signal
propagating in the device, for example, a ferrite junction
circulator. At UHF/VHF frequencies the size of a distrib-
uted-element device sometimes turns out to be too bulky
Input
Tuning stub
Tuning stub
Tuning stub
Isolated
Output
Figure 13. Three additional tuning ports, called tuning stubs,
are added to a three-port circulator junction. By carefully design-
ing the width and length of the tuning stubs, the added capaci-
tances from the tuning ports can effectively broaden the
transmission band.
to be handled practically, and hence the need for lumped-
element devices arises. A lumped-element device is dened
as having a linear dimension much smaller than the wave-
length, and its performance can be analyzed in terms of
the classical electric components, including resisters, ca-
pacitors, and inductors.
The original design of a lumped-element circulator con-
sists of three coils wound around a common ferrite disk/
puck intersecting each other at a 1201 angle. The modern
design makes use of the printed-circuit technique, and the
three coils have been replaced by three interwoven micro-
strips deposited directly on top of the ferrite puck. The
other side of the puck is deposited with a copper ground
plane. The top view of the circuit is shown in Fig. 15,
where the three microstrips intersect each other at 1201
angles interwoven to retain the complete threefold sym-
metry. The importance of the interwoven geometry is that,
besides maintaining the cyclic order of the circulator ports
as dened by a circulator, interport capacitive coupling
can be minimized to facilitate more precise designs of
lumped-element circulators. In Fig. 15 the microstrips are
grounded at their respective ends to complete the current
loops for return paths (shown as heavy arcs in Fig. 15).
Matching capacitances are inserted at the entrances of the
microstrips to match the input impedance of the circulator
to 50-O feeder lines. The DC magnetic eld is applied in
the direction normal to the ferrite puck surfaces, which is
designated as the z axis. A lumped-element circulator
usually operates under the bias-above FMR conditions.
The voltage drop across the kth port microstrip or in-
ductor is
Dv
k
jo
_
A
k
b
.
e
n
da; k1; 2; 3 70
where A
k
denotes the area enclosed by the feeding current
of the kth strip. To be specific, we dene A
k
as the area
bounded by the line along the center of the kth strip. When
a ground plane is used for the current return path, the
image strip will be included in conjunction with the orig-
inal strip to totally specify the current path, and, hence,
A
k
. In Eq. (70) e
n
denotes the unit vector normal to the
surface element da.
When the Polder permeability tensor is used, the b eld
in Eq. (70) can be rewritten as
b
.
e
n
m
0
mh
.
e
n
jkh
.
e
z
e
n
71
where e
z
denotes the unit vector along the z axis. Here, m
and k respectively are the diagonal and off-diagonal ele-
ments of the Polder tensor, Eqs. (10)(12). The h eld can
be written as
h
3
k 1
i
k
4p
_
S
k
dw
W
k
d r
r
3
72
where we have assumed the current to ow uniformly in
the strips parallel to the length element d. The total cur-
rent in the kth strip is i
k
, and W
k
denotes the width of the
Figure 15. Top view of a lumped-element circulator fabricated
using the printing circuit technique. The microstrips are inter-
woven with each other, rendering a threefold symmetry. The mi-
crostrips are electrically grounded on one end and connected with
matching capacitances on the other end.
S
c
a
t
t
e
r
i
n
g

p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r

(
d
B
)
1
0
c
Marker 1
31.95 GHz
hp
1
1
S
12
S
21
33.889 dB
10.0 dB/
log MAG
REF 0.0 dB REF 0.0 dB
10.0 dB/
6.1719 dB
log MAG
Measurement
1
1
2
START 20.000000000 GHz
STOP 40.000000000 GHz
Frequency (GHz)
20 25 30 35 40
S
31
S
21 S
11
40
20
0
20
40
S
c
a
t
t
e
r
i
n
g

p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r

(
d
B
) Calculation
Figure 14. Calculated and measured scattering parameters of a
self-biasing hexaferrite circulator.
kth strip not necessarily a constant, for example, for the
interwoven strips shown in Fig. 15. The kth strip is de-
ned by the area S
k
. In Eq. (72) dw is the width element,
and vector r connects the source point of the current to the
observer point. Combining Eqs. (70) and (72), we obtain
the following equation
Dv
i
3
k 1
Z
ik
i
k
73
where the interport impedance Z
ik
is given as
Z
ik
jom
0
4p
_
A
i
da
0
_
S
k
dw
00
W
k
md
00
r
0
r
00
e
n
jkd
00
r
0
r
00
.
e
z
e
n
jr
0
r
00
j
3
74
The interport impedance of a cyclic three-port lumped-cir-
cuit element circulator can then be written as
ZjoL
1 a jb a jb
a jb 1 a jb
a jb a jb 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
75
where
L
mm
0
4p
_
A
1
da
0
_
S
1
dw
00
W
1
d
00
r
0
r
00
e
n
jr
0
r
00
j
3
76
a
1
L
mm
0
4p
_
A
1
da
0
_
S
2
dw
00
W
2
d
00
r
0
r
00
e
n
jr
0
r
00
j
3
_ _
77
b
1
L
km
0
4p
_
A
1
da
0
_
S
2
dw
00
W
2
d
00
r
0
r
00
e
z
e
n
jr
0
r
00
j
3
_ _
78
and
L self-inductance of each of the current strips
aL mutual inductance between each pair of the cur-
rent strips
8jbLgyromagnetic inductance between each pair of
the current strips
We note that the gyromagnetic component of the interport
inductance is nonreciprocal under port exchange. This
renders the circulation action for the circulator device.
Once the interport impedance matrix is known [Eq. (75)],
the circuit of Fig. 15 can then be fully analyzed by using
Kirchhoff s law as performed by a classical circuit. Or, one
can follow the route adopted by Bosma [19,20] to solve the
circulation conditions for a given lumped-element circula-
tor circuit. Literature on lumped-element circulators is
cited in Refs. 39 and 40.
4. HEXAFERRITE WITH EASY PLANE
For a Y-type hexaferrite the c axis turns out to be a hard
axis and the magnetization vector tends to lie in the ab
plane, which is termed the easy plane. While it is
thought M-type hexaferrite is appropriate for circulator
and isolator applications requiring out-of-plane magnetic
bias, Y-type hexaferrite is adequate as the substrate ma-
terial for microwave tunable lters because of its large
magnetization and in-plane anisotropy, as well as the ease
in usethe demagnetizing eld is negligible along the
transverse directions of a planar device [41]. Also, elimi-
nation of the external magnets represents a significant
step toward more compact circuit design, allowing for
integration of the device with future semiconductor cir-
cuitries.
The effective eld associated with an easy plane can be
derived from using Eqs. (15) and (21). However, this would
result in a magnetizationorientationdependent effective
eld, as rst demonstrated by Schloemann et al. [42],
which is in contrast to the conventional concept of a mag-
netic eld [see Eq. (85)]. In the following we dene a mean
effective eld characteristic of the anisotropy of an easy
plane from an operational point of view. The precessional
motion of the magnetization vector is depicted in Fig. 16
for both cases of an easy axis (top) and an easy plane (bot-
tom). For an easy axis the magnetization vector undergoes
a uniform precessional motion around the easy axis, ex-
periencing a uniform torque exerted by the anisotropy, re-
sulting in a constant angular velocity. This is shown in a
polar plot at the top of Fig. 17, where the loci of the an-
gular velocity o traces a circle. However, for the case of an
easy plane (Fig. 16, bottom), the precessional motion of the
magnetization vector is not uniform. The anisotropy eld
exerts no torque at all on the magnetization vector at
points A and A
0
lying on the easy plane, and a maximum
Torque exists only outside easy plane
Easy plane: Elliptical precession
A
A
B
B
Torque exists everywhere
Easy axis: Circular precession
B
A A
B
Figure 16. Precessional motion of the magnetization vector
around an easy axis (top) and an easy plane (bottom).
torque is exerted by the anisotropy at the vertical posi-
tions marked as B and B
0
at the bottom of Fig. 16. Thus, in
the presence of an easy plane the loci of the angular ve-
locity traces out an ellipse, as shown at bottom of Fig. 17,
whose semimajor and semiminor axes are, respectively
o
max
g H
0
H
A
; o
min
gH
0
79
Here, H
0
denotes the external eld; H
A
, the anisotropy
eld measured by Vibrational Sample Magnetometer
(VSM); and g, the gyromagnetic ratio. The period of the
nonuniform precessional motion is
T
_
2p
0
dy
o
80
where y denotes the precessing angle of the magnetization
vector shown in Fig. 17. Let this nonuniform magnetiza-
tion vector precessional motion be associated with an ef-
fective internal eld H
i
whose Larmor frequency gH
i
coincides with the period given by Eq. (80):
gH
i
2p
T
81
We derive, therefore
H
i
g
2p
_
2p
0
dy
oy
_ _1
82
When the functional form of o(y) is specied as an ellipse
in the polar plot whose semimajor and semiminor axes
are given by Eq. (79), respectively, we obtain the following
analytic equation from Eq. (82):
H
i
H
0
H
0
H
A
1=2
83
Figure 17 shows how the anisotropy eld H
A
adds to
the external eld H
0
for both the cases of an easy axis and
an easy plane. For a cubic material, or an isotropic mate-
rial, the anisotropy eld is insignificant comparing to H
0
,
and the magnetization vector undergoes a uniform pre-
cessional motion whose angular velocity is a constant,
tracing out a circle of radius gH
0
, denoted as o
min
in Eq.
(79). For an easy axis pointing along the c-axis of an M-
type hexaferrite, H
A
adds to H
0
arithmetically, wherein
the magnetization vector still undergoes a uniform pre-
cessional motion whose angular velocity traces out a circle
of radius g (H
0
, H
A
), denoted as o
max
in Eq. (79). How-
ever, for an easy plane coincident with the ab plane of a Y-
type hexaferrite, the magnetization vector no longer per-
forms a uniform precessional motion, and the loci of the
angular velocity becomes, instead, an ellipse whose semi
major and semiminor axes are respectively o
max
and
o
min
given by Eq. (79). These three kinds of magnetiza-
tion vector precessional motions are shown as solid curves
in Fig. 18.
Now, Eq. (83) dictates that in the presence of an easy
plane the magnetization vector can still be visualized as if
it were performing a uniform precessional motion as long
as the associated hypothetical motion is characterized by a
Larmor frequency whose period is given by Eq. (80). This
hypothetical motion is depicted in Fig. 18 as a dashed cir-
cle whose radius is gH
i
, as specied by Eq. (83). This gives
rise to an expression for the effective internal eld H
i
characteristic of an easy plane, Eq. (83). Note that H
i
as-
sumes a magnitude between the two elds corresponding
to the isotropic case H
0
and the case of an easy axis H
0
H
A
. Actually, H
i
happens to be the geometric mean of
these two elds: H
0
and H
0
H
A
[Eq. (83)]. In other words,
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
Easy axis
Easy plane
o
o
0
0
Figure 17. Polar plots of the instantaneous angular velocity of
the magnetization vector precessing around an easy axis (top) and
an easy plane (bottom).
H
i
can be constructed in a geometric manner such that in
Fig. 18 a hypothetical circle is drawn whose area equals
that of an ellipse representing the actual loci of the angu-
lar velocity. In this discussion we have assumed the other
DC effective elds to be zero, including the DC demagne-
tizing elds. In case there are nonzero DC elds other
than H
0
, they need to be added to H
0
arithmetically before
the geometrical construction of H
i
giving rise to the total
effective internal eld in a Y-type hexaferrite exhibiting a
magnetic easy plane. The effective eld expression [Eq.
(83)], applies to wave propagation of arbitrary polariza-
tion, as long as the longitudinal component of the magne-
tization vector does not couple into the precessional
motion, as assumed by the small-signal approximation
in deriving linearized equations of motion.
By using Eq. (83) the resonant frequency of the uniform
mode in a Y-type hexaferrite can be written as
o
0
gfH
a
4pM
s
N
x
N
z
H
a
H
A
4pM
s
N
y
N
z
1=2
84
which was derived by Schloemann et al. [42]. However, we
must point out that in deriving Eq. (84) those authors
have used the following effective eld for the planar an-
isotropy [37]
H
i
e
A
H
A
.
M
M
s
85
whereas the effective eld we used in deriving Eq. (84) is
Eq. (83). The difference is that Eq. (83) is a mean effective
eld, and Eq. (85) is an instantaneous effective eld. In Eq.
(85) H
A
denotes the anisotropy eld along the hard axis
whose unit vector is e
A
, and Mis the magnetization vector.
In comparison, the corresponding resonant frequency of
Kittel uniform mode for an M-type hexaferrite showing an
easy axis is given by Eq. (52). The magnetization proper-
ties of an easy-plane Y-type hexaferrite including insta-
bility studies and spinwave linewidth measurements are
discussed in further Refs. 4346.
5. FERRITE NONRECIPROCAL RESONATORS
Microwave and millimeter-wave (MMW) devices and sys-
tems are becoming increasingly important today for both
the defense and the commercial applications. For example,
in the collision avoidance industries, low-prole conformal
antennas are needed to provide electronically steerable
radiations to detect and identify obstacles and extrusions
in front of moving vehicles. On navigation the receiver
antennas need to follow and trace the motion of GPS
(global positioning system) satellites so as to continuous-
ly monitor and update their positions. Also, there is a need
to create radiation nulls along certain spatial directions
for an antenna transmitter/receiver to warrant secure and
covert communications. Other applications can be found
in target searching/tracking radars for surveillance, sat-
ellite communication systems, and TV program broadcast-
ing antennas installed with civilian jet carriers. All of
these applications require microwave phase shifters to
participate at affordable prices.
Traditional approaches include the use of frequency-
agile materials (varactors, ferroelectrics, and ferrites) so
that the electrical length of a transmission line, and hence
the propagation phase of an electromagnetic signal, can be
electronically tuned by applying a voltage, a current, or a
magnetic eld. Microwave phase shifters thus obtained
are expensive, requiring manual tuning or adjustment of
the fabricated devices. Furthermore, the resultant phase
shifting function is nonuniform, as it is dependent on the
derived phase shift angle, since the impedance of the
transmission line is inevitably changed accompanying
the intended phase shift operation, in addition to the de-
sired change in electrical length. This section introduces
an innovative method permitting the phase-shifting func-
tion to be realized at microwave frequencies whose oper-
ation is independent of the phase shift angles. This
method is based on the use of a nonreciprocal ferrite res-
onator that has been patented by Hotech [47].
For an isotropic resonator showing circular symmetry,
for example, an isotropic dielectric microstrip/stripline
disk/ring resonator, the excited modes contain both clock-
wise and counterclockwise rotational modes, because
these two mode types are degenerate in frequency, and
wave propagation is reciprocal with respect to rotation
around the axial direction of the resonator. As such, phas-
es are ambiguous if one attempts to couple out the excited
modes from the resonator. This is no longer true for an
anisotropic resonator in which the rotational symmetry
for wave propagation is removed. As a consequence, the
two eigenmodes associated with clockwise and counter-
clockwise rotations occur at different frequencies, and ex-
citation of one mode excludes the other, and vice versa.
This implies that the resonant modes are definite in
phase, allowing the resonator to be effectively used as a
Isotropic
Y
-
t
y
p
e
Y
-
t
y
p
e
H
o
Y
-
t
y
p
e
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
Y
-
t
y
p
e Y
-
t
y
p
e
(H
o
+H
A
)
[
H
o
(
H
o
+
H
A
)
]
1
/
2
M
-
t
y
p
e M
-
t
y
p
e
Figure 18. Loci of the angular velocities for an isotropic mate-
rial, an M-type hexaferrite, and a Y-type hexaferrite, and con-
struction of the effective internal eld for the Y-type hexaferrite.
phase shifter. Most importantly, the eigenmodes excited in
a nonreciprocal resonator are traveling waves, in contrast
to the standing eigenmodes excited in a conventional iso-
tropic resonator supporting reciprocal propagation of elec-
tromagnetic waves. This traveling-wave nature ensures
that when used as a phase shifter, output from a nonre-
ciprocal resonator is uniform or identical in amplitude,
except for the desired change in phase, as imposed by the
circular symmetry of the resonator circuit.
Among many possible solutions, an explicit example is
discussed in this section utilizing a ferrite microstrip/
stripline disk/ring resonator [47]. As stated above, in a
ferrite disk/ring resonator magnetized along the axial di-
rection the degeneracy between the two counterrotational
modes is removed, and the resonant frequencies of these
two eigenmodes occur at different frequencies, denoted as
f
and f
for the clockwise and the counterclockwise ro-

tational modes, respectively [21]. While the operation of a
ferrite junction circulator is designated at a frequency
midway between these two frequencies, f (f
)/2
[21], circularlypolarized radiations are obtained from the
disk/ring resonator if the excitation frequency is located
near one of these two frequencies, f
or f
[48]. This im-

plies that at resonance the resonant mode in a ferrite res-
onator exhibiting circular symmetry consists of only one
eigenmode whose phase can thus be determined without
ambiguity, allowing the device to be used as a phase shift-
er.
For a 2D ferrite junction Maxwell equation, Eq. (1) re-
duces to the following form [19,20]:
@
2
@r
2

1
r
@
@r

1
r
2
@
2
@f
2
k
2
_ _
e
z
0 86
h
f
j
om
0
m
eff
@e
z
@r

jk
m
1
r
@e
z
@f
_ _
87
h
r
j
om
0
m
eff
1
r
@e
z
@f
j
k
m
@e
z
@f
_ _
88
e
r
e
f
0 h
z
89
Here (r, f, z) are the cylindrical coordinates, k relates to
the angular frequency o by the dispersion relationship
[Eq. (37)], and the effective (relative) permeability m
eff
is
[Eq. (38)]
m
eff
m
2
k
2
m
90
where k and m are the Polder permeability tensor elements
[Eqs. (10)(14)]. The normal-mode solution of a thin ferrite
disk/ring resonator can thus be solved assuming the mag-
netic wall boundary conditions at the peripheries, result-
ing in analytic solutions involving the Bessel and the
Neuman functions.
For a disk resonator of radius R, the magnetic wall
boundary conditions require
h
f
R 0 for n 1; 2; . . . 91
or
J
0
n
kR
k
m
nJ
n
kR
kR
_ _
0 92
from which the normal-mode frequency o or k can thus be
solved as a function of H
in
, or H
0
, Eq. (18). For a ferrite
ring resonator of inner radius R
1
and outer radius R
2
, the
magnetic wall boundary conditions require
h
f
R
1
0; h
f
R
2
0; for n 1; 2; . . . 93
or
J
0
n
kR
1

k
m
nJ
n
kR
1
kR
1
_ _
a N
0
n
kR
1

k
m
nN
n
kR
1
kR
1
_ _
0
94
J
0
n
kR
2

k
m
nJ
n
kR
2
kR
2
_ _
a N
0
n
kR
2

k
m
nN
n
kR
2
kR
2
_ _
0
95
Here a denotes an unknown mode-mixing parameter. By
solving Eqs. (94) and (95) simultaneously, k and a are de-
termined, giving rise to the normal-mode frequency as a
function of H
in
, or H
0
, Eq. (18). In the above equations J
n
denotes the Bessel function of order n, and N
n
the Neu-
man function or order n, and n1,2,3,y for the dipole,
quadrupole, and octopole modes, respectively.
A gyromagnetic medium, or a ferrite, is characterized
by a nonvanishing off-diagonal element of the Polder per-
meability tensor k [Eqs. (10) and (12)]. If k is zero, the
medium becomes isotropic, and wave propagation is re-
ciprocal with respect to the wave traveling direction, or
the sign of the modal number n in the equations above. For
an isotropic medium, Eq. (92) and Eqs. (94) and (95) re-
duce to those ordinary equations describing the normal-
mode solutions of an isotropic disk resonator and ring
resonator, respectively. However, if k is nonzero, wave
propagation is nonreciprocal and the normal-mode solu-
tions become dependent on the wave traveling directions,
or the sign of the modal number n, as implied by Eq. (92)
and Eqs. (94) and (95) for a ferrite disk resonator and ring
resonator, respectively. This forms the basis for the oper-
ation of a phase shifter using a nonreciprocal ferrite res-
onator.
Thus, by coupling out the resonant mode selectively
from a sequence of positions of the resonator showing cir-
cular symmetry, the output phase can be varied, but keep-
ing the output amplitude at a rather constant level. In
making this statement we have assumed that the input
position is xed. The reverse also holds true. That is, by
keeping the output position xed, the output phase, but
not the amplitude, can be varied if the input position is
selectively changed from a sequence of positions showing
circular symmetry, exciting the resonant mode with a def-
inite phase. Since the ferrite operation is designed away
from ferrimagnetic resonance (FMR), low insertion loss is
thus possible. Note that a ferrite junction circulator, which
makes use of the standing modes excited inside a ferrite
resonator (rather than the aforementioned traveling
waves excited inside a nonreciprocal ferrite phase shift-
er), has generally shown an insertion loss less than 0.5 dB,
and an even smaller insertion loss, say, less than 0.1 dB,
can be obtained if the circulator operates over a narrow
frequency band. This implies that phase shifts obtained
from using a nonreciprocal ferrite resonator can poten-
tially show low insertion loss, if the coupling impedance
has been well matched at the input/output ports.
Depending on the speed requirement, the output phase
from the ferrite resonator can be coupled out using switch-
es of various kinds, including mechanical switches, optical
switches, electronic switches, or electromechanical switch-
es. A mechanical switch might be slow, but it is neverthe-
less cost-effective. Electronic switches can be fabricated
using semiconductor junctions located in close proximity
to the resonator ports to be integrated with the other
phased-array elements. Microelectromechanical switches
(MEMSs) provide high isolation between ports. Optical/
superconducting switches are fast devices, and a response
time shorter than 1 nsec can be readily achieved.
Phase shifters using ferrite resonators are narrowband
devices whose bandwidth is typically 5% of the transmis-
sion frequencies. However, one is allowed to vary the bias
eld magnitude so as to alter the resonant mode of the
resonator, resulting in continuous tuning of the transmis-
sion frequency. In this sense, phase shifters using ferrite
resonators are operational as broadband devices. Howev-
er, if broadband transmission is not a requirement, the
resonator can be fabricated using a self-biasing hexafer-
rite so that the need for external bias is eliminated. Also,
the fabrication of a phase shifter utilizing a ferrite reso-
nator is cost-effective, since, once it is fabricated, there is
no need for individual tuning for performance adjustment,
because the transmission amplitude is a constant, as im-
plied by the resonators circular geometry. Phase shifters
using ferrite resonators can be fabricated over all the mi-
crowave bands, from UHF to millimeter-wave frequencies.
Figure 19 shows an example that a ferrite-ring reso-
nator serves to provide phase shifts invoking a rotating
arm as the coupling mechanism. Unlike the other elec-
tronic/optical/MEMS coupling mechanisms, a rotating
arm gives continuous change in phase shift angles. In
Fig. 19 a hole is drilled with the ferrite substrate that
constitutes the central hole of the ring resonator, as shown
in Fig. 19. In Fig. 19 port 0 is not xed in position, and is
allowed to rotate around an axis at the center of the res-
onator, contacting loosely, but coupling tightly to, the in-
ner periphery of the ring patch of the conductor circuit of
the resonator. Air is used as the substrate material for
port 0 so as to facilitate the mechanical motion of the ro-
tating arm intended there. The other end of port 0 is con-
nected to the central conductor of a coaxial cable, which
penetrates through the ground plane of the resonator from
below, protruding into the hole region formed by the fer-
rite resonator, joining port 0 and making a 901 angle at the
point of joint. This forms a rotating arm, consisting of port
0 and the central conductor of the coax cable, shaped as
the letter L but upside down. Via a gear assembly,
the coax cable, and hence the rotating arm, is loaded
into a step motor that drives the rotating arm to perform
rotational motion, as shown in Fig. 19. A rotary joint is
used to isolate the rotational motion of the coax cable from
the coax launcher, which serves as the entrance for the
input signal.
A prototype phase shifter device, whose schematic is
shown in Fig. 19, has been fabricated and tested by Ho-
tech. The resonator used garnet G1010 (Trans-Tech, Ad-
amstown, MD) biased by a magnet located under the
resonator (Fig. 19). The bias eld was measured to be
1050 kOe, and the resonant mode was identied as the 1
mode at 3.78 GHz (clockwise rotating dipole mode). The

measured transmission phases, as well as amplitudes, are
shown in Fig. 20 at the resonant frequency, as a function of
the rotating arm positions, normalized with respect to
those values when the rotating arm is located along the
output port direction (Fig. 19). From Fig. 20 it is seen that
Rotary joint
Gear
Input
Motor
Gear
Substrate
Ring-shape
magnet
Output
1
Image plane
Ground plane
0
Figure 19. An example of microwave phase shifter construction
using a nonreciprocal ferrite resonator. Due to the removed de-
generacy in wave propagation, the phase of the resonant mode
can thus been uniquely determined. The resonant mode is coupled
out via the use of a rotating arm driven by a stepped motor to
select the output phase via mechanical means.
the output phase from the phase shifter follows exactly the
rotating arm position. Note that in Fig. 20, the measured
transmission amplitudes of the phase shifter uctuate
slightly, to an extent of about 72 dB, due to the imperfec-
tion impressed with device fabrication (the rotating arm
was fabricated a bit off center). The measured bandwidth
of the phase shifter was about 5% of the center transmis-
sion frequency, as expected. The minimum insertion loss
was measured to be 0.33 dB when the rotating arm was
located pointing along a 901 angle (see Fig. 20).
Instead of adopting mechanical means, the phase of the
resonant modes excited with the ferrite ring resonator of
Fig. 19 can also be coupled in and out using switches, as
shown in Fig. 21. Although the construction of a mechan-
ical rotating arm is cost-effective (Fig. (19)), its operation
is slow, in the order of milliseconds, suffering from poten-
tial problems such as worn-out materials and hence me-
chanical breakdown. By using electronic switches, the
phase shifter becomes more reliable and its response
time greatly improves, in the order of microseconds for
semiconductor junctions or MEMSs, and nanoseconds for
superconducting or optical switches. The phase shifter,
circuit shown in Fig. 21 consists of 64/8 switches at the
inner/outer ports capable of providing 512 discrete phase
angles in operation, if both the inner and outer port
switches are under selection at the same time . Most im-
portantly, the input/output ports are all symmetric with
respect to one another, ensuring the transmission ampli-
tude from the phase shifter to be uniform and independent
of the angle in phase shifting. By applying a magnetic eld
perpendicular to the ring plane, one can vary the effective
permeability of the ferrite resonator, resulting in tuning in
the transmission frequencies. The tuning range of an oc-
tave band can be readily obtained from UHF to beyond
Ka-band frequencies. A U.S. patent for the shifter circuit
shown in Fig. 21 is currently pending (Hotech, 2004).
6. MAGNETOSTATIC WAVES AND YIG FILM DEVICES
There exists an ever-increasing demand for signal pro-
cessing devices that can be used for radar detection, elec-
tronics communication, and instrumentation applications.
At UHF frequencies surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices
have been widely used, providing phase shifting, time de-
laying, and other analog signal processing functions. How-
ever, at higher frequencies (42GHz), SAW devices are
inefcient because of device fabrication and increased in-
sertion loss. At microwave or even millimeter-wave fre-
quencies signal processing devices have been largely
achieved utilizing the newly developed magnetostatic
wave (MSW) technology providing similar functional per-
formance as SAW devices. Additional advantages include
lower insertion loss, large bandwidth up to 1 GHz, ease of
fabrication, frequency tuning, dispersion shaping, and
nonlinear operation.
In contrast to SAWs, MSWs are very disperse and can
be controlled readily by means of an external magnetic
eld. In principle, three basic types of MSWs are distin-
guished: forward volume MSW (MSFVW), backward vol-
ume MSW (MSBVW), and surface MSW (MSSW). An
MSFVW is excited in the ferrite material, usually a YIG
lm, magnetized perpendicularly to the lm plane. An
MSBVW is excited in a YIG lm and the magnetization
direction is in the lm plane along the wave propagation
direction. An MSSW is also associated with a transverse
magnetization, but the wave propagation is perpendicular
to the direction of magnetization. For detailed discussions
about excitation and dispersion trends of these three
types of MSWs, see text discussion following Fig. 2. All
three types of MSWs can be effective used in fabricating
f = 3.78 GHz
180
180 270
90
90 0
0
90
180
5
10
0
10
5
360
Rotating arm position (degree)
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

p
h
a
s
e

s
h
i
f
t

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

(
d
B
)
Figure 20. Transmission phase and amplitude at the resonant
frequency plotted as a function of the rotating arm position. The
measured phase and amplitude values have been normalized with
those when the rotating arm is located at the 01 position, that is,
when the arm is pointing toward the output port shown in Fig. 15.
Switch (Optical/MEMS)
Ferrite ring resonator
Input/Output
Microstrip Line
Figure 21. Novel ferrite phase shifter allowing for 512 phase
values subject to frequency tuning capability. Isotropic symmetry
of the device circuit ensures the phase shifting function to be
uniform independent of the derived phase values.
microwave devices, such as delay lines, tunable lters,
phase shifters, resonators, noise suppressers, and ampli-
tude correctors.
In order to reduce wave propagation loss, high-quality
single-crystal yttrium iron garnet (YIG) lms are usually
used for the fabrication of MSW devices. When YIG single-
crystal lms are epitaxially grown on gandolinium galli-
um garnet (GGG) substrates, the ferromagnetic resonance
(FMR) linewidth DH can be as narrow as 0.3Oe at 9 GHz
and 0.6 Oe at 20 GHz. Using Eq. (45), the propagation loss
in an MSW delay line is 23 and 46dB per ms at 9 and
20 GHz, respectively. Therefore, for a typical delay-line
application, the propagation loss requiring 200ns delay
will be, respectively, 4.6 and 9.2 dB at 9 and 20 GHz. This
compares very favorably with other kinds of delay lines
such as a coaxial cable; at 9 GHz, a 200-ns coaxial cable
would require a length of 50 m long, resulting in 30dB loss
in propagation.
MSWs are excited within YIG lms using either mi-
crostrips or striplines as the transducer circuits. The guid-
ed electromagnetic modes of the transducers couple with
the intrinsic excitations of the YIG lms to launch mag-
netostatic waves traveling down from the input to the
output transducers to perform the signal processing func-
tions. In addition to straight microstrip/stripline trans-
ducers, meander lines, gratings, and interdigital and
unidirectional transducers can also be used to couple in
and out the MSW signals. Transducers involving short-
circuited and open-circuited microstrip lines are common-
ly used for broadband MSW device applications. The
entire MSSW, MSFVW, or MSBVW frequency band can
be excited by using a narrow (10-mm) microstrip transduc-
er. For narrowband devices, meander lines and gratings
can be used. These transducers can be designed with
5075 O input impedance over broad frequency bands,
and matching circuits can be used to reduce mismatch
losses.
In order to reduce spurious reection of MSWs from the
YIG lm edges, MSW terminations or absorbers need to be
utilized. These terminations can appear in the form of fer-
rite powders, or iron/permalloy rods, or even recording
tapes, or GaAs thin lms may be placed at the YIG edges.
However, the simplest way to avoid MSW interference is
to cut the YIG edges into angles other than 901 such that
the reected beam is directed away from the active area of
the MSW device [49]. Among the many MSWapplications
discussed in this section, we will briefly discuss the oper-
ation of MSW delay lines, lters, directional couplers, and
resonators. Other nonlinear and magnetooptic MSW de-
vices will be discussed in Sections 7 and 9, respectively.
6.1. MSW Delay Lines
Figure 22 shows the commonly used ip-over congura-
tion for MSW delay lines. Microstrip lines serving as the
transmitter and receiver for MSWs are fabricated using
photolithographic technique on top of a dielectric superst-
rate such as alumina, sapphire, fused silica, or duroid
material. The high-quality crystal YIG lm epitaxially
grown on GGG substrate is brought in contact with the
transducers via a spacer layer and the overall dielectric
spacerYIGGGG assembly is placed between the poles of
the biasing magnet. The biasing magnetic eld can be di-
rected either on the YIG lm plane parallel to or perpen-
dicular to the microstrip lines, or perpendicular to the YIG
lm plane, to provide MSBVW, MSSW, or MSFVW delay-
line operation, respectively. Therefore, due to the coupling
between the electromagnetic waves (EMWs) induced by
the microstrip lines and the MSWs, the microstrip trans-
mitter will excite MSWs that travel down the delay-line
structure to be picked up by the microstrip receiver. Let-
ting the distance between the transmitter and the receiver
be D, the time delay for this device is
t
d
D
v
g
96
where v
g
do/dk denotes the group delay velocity of
MSWs.
Delay-line elements exhibiting a linear dependence of
the delay time t
d
on frequency are key components in
pulse compression radar, microscan receiver, and Fourier
transform systems. In general t
d
is highly dispersive, de-
pending nonlinearly on frequency. There exists various
methods that allows t
d
to show linear dependence on
YIG film
Alumina superstrate
GGG substrate
(EMW)
(EMW)
(Propagating MSW)
Microstrip
transmitter
Ground plane
Microstrip
receiver
Figure 22. Schematic showing the MSW de-
lay-line conguration. Microstrip transducers
are used to couple in and out the MSWs. De-
pending on the direction of the bias magnetic
eld, all types of MSWs can be excited and de-
tected using the present circuit conguration.
frequency over broad-frequency bands [50,51]. For exam-
ple, at X band it is possible to show 1 GHz bandwidth for a
linearly dispersion delay line by using a thin YIG lm
with thickness 20 mm covered with a thin dielectric su-
perstrate of the same thickness [50]. Alternatively, the
linear dependence of t
d
on frequency can be obtained by
varying the separation distance between the ground plane
and the YIG lm [51], using the bias eld gradients [52],
or deploying multiple YIG lms [53].
Nondispersive broadband delay lines are potential de-
vices replacing phase shifters at microwave frequencies,
providing electronically tuning capability for phased-ar-
ray antenna and other signal processing component ap-
plications. Therefore, we require the time delay t
d
to be
independent of the bias eld strength and, hence, the fre-
quency over a broad frequency bandwidth. A possible so-
lution to this requirement is to cascade two broadband
linearly dispersive delay lines with opposite propagation
characteristics; that is, the rst device operates for for-
ward volume MSWs and the second, for backward MSWs
such that they compensate each other to provide nondis-
persive dependence on frequencies. Other methods make
use of nonuniform bias eld [52] and multilayer structure
[53], as discussed for the construction of a linearly disper-
sive delay-line device.
6.2. MSW Filters
Filtering of electronic signals is performed as a frequency-
selective process realized in the frequency domain. In
principle, any delay-line conguration can be viewed as
a frequency lter structure provided that the following
features are emphasized: low insertion loss occurring at
the passband and high attenuation occurring at the stop-
bands. The lter characteristics can be feasibly obtained
by controlling the transducer dimensions and the YIG/
ground-plane separation. While short-circuited straight
microstrip lines are generally used as transducers for a
broadband lter, multielement grating transducers, such
as those shown in Fig. 23, are used to synthesize narrow-
band lters. As such, narrowband lters of bandwidth
30 MHz tunable from 3 to 7GHz have been successfully
demonstrated [54]. Similarly, by carefully adjusting the
width of the short-circuited microstrip transducer and the
YIG lm thickness, a broadband lter tunable from 0.3 to
12 GHz with stopband rejection better than 45 dB has
been shown [55]. The advantage of using a MSW lter is
that the passband can be tuned by varying the strength of
the bias magnetic eld.
6.3. MSW Directional Couplers
Figure 24 shows the schematic of an MSW directional
coupler, with which two YIG lms are deployed face to
face, separated by a dielectric spacer. Ground planes are
deposited on the outer sides of the GGG substrates and
two multistrip lines are used as transducers, coupling in
and out microwave energy though exchange of MSWs. By
careful design of the microstrip line spacing as well as the
dimensions of the dielectric spacer, the characteristic of a
directional coupler can be obtained. Operation at full pow-
er coupling is possible [56]; hence, the directional coupler
Parallel-Bar
line
Interdigital
line
Meander
line
Figure 23. Microstrip circuit showing the geometry for multiel-
ement grating transducers used for excitation and receiving
MSWs over a narrow frequency band for tunable lter applica-
tions.
(Side view)
Ground plane
GGG
YIG Film
GGG
Ground plane
Power out
Dielectric
spacer
Power in
Multi-strip
transducer
(Top view)
Power out
MSW
Power out
Figure 24. Schematic showing the MSW directional coupler con-
guration. Microstrip multistrip transducers are used to couple in
and out the MSWs. All types of MSWs are possible depending on
the bias eld direction. The coupling coefcient between the input
and output ports can be varied by changing the strength of the
bias magnetic eld.
can be equivalently used as a bandpass lter. Also, by
varying the bias eld strength the power transferring co-
efcient of the directional coupler can be consequently ad-
justed.
6.4. MSW Resonators
Although the MSW bandpass lters discussed above are
useful for many applications, occasionally, considerable
signal selectivity may be required over as narrow a pass-
band width as possible. For example, tunable MSW reso-
nators can be used as the frequency-selective elements in
tunable oscillator circuits in the microwave frequency
bands. MSSW resonators can be constructed by placing
reective metal gratings at the edges of the resonating
cavity. Alternatively, grooves may be cut on the YIG lm
surface using wet etching or ion bombardment to form an
MSSW cavity. This is shown in Fig. 25, in which two ar-
rays of straight grooves are etched parallel to but on the
two sides of the microstrip transducer lines, and, MSSWs,
once generated, bounce back and forth indefinitely be-
tween these two groove arrays at resonance. As reported
by Castera [57], MSSW resonators fabricated in this man-
ner have shown a tuning capability between 2 and 5 GHz,
exhibiting a loaded Q of 500 and an off-resonance rejection
level of 15 dB.
For MSFVWs the bias magnetic eld is perpendicular
to the YIG lm plane, and hence the propagation of
MSFVWs is isotropic in all directions in the lm plane.
As such, the MSSW resonator shown in Fig. 25 is not
suitable for MSFVWapplications; it will result in poor off-
resonance isolation, since at off resonance the propagation
of MSFVWs at slightly tilted angles may still satisfy the
resonance condition. To avoid this drawback, a new con-
guration that involves two cavities coupled by MSFVWs
has been proposed [58], as shown in Fig. 26. Each cavity
consists of two etched-groove gratings and a single micro-
strip transducer. The two cavities are placed at a 901 angle
and are coupled by a 451 obliquely oriented gratings ca-
pable of deecting the incident MSW beam by a 901 angle.
The resonators reported by Castera and Hartemann [58]
exhibited insertion losses between 20 and 32 dB and a
loaded Q value of 2901570 over a tuning range of
211GHz.
The resonator structures discussed so far involve re-
ection surfaces or mirrors, which is complex in the sense
that they require groove or metal-strip arrays to be fabri-
cated on the YIG lm surface. To avoid this complexity, it
is also possible to directly use the straight edges of the YIG
lm to form a MSW cavity resonator. Figure 27 shows
such a straight-edge resonator (SER) device, where the
YIG/GGG resonator, which is of a rectangular shape cut
by a dicing saw, is place on top of the dielectric substrate
coupled in and out by the short-circuited microstrip trans-
ducers on both sides of the resonator. Depending on the
bias eld direction, both MSSWand MSFVW SERs can be
constructed. Thus, MSSWs propagate along the surface of
the YIG lm and are reected back onto the surface at the
straight edges. A standing-wave pattern results and a
high-Q resonance is obtained. In this manner a MSSW
SER has been reported [59], exhibiting an insertion loss of
3.1 dB and a sideband suppression level better than 20 dB
tunable from 1 to 22 GHz.
Finally, we consider the MSW structure of Fig. 28,
which depicts a one-port resonator circuit. The circuit of
Fig. 28 can be fabricated using photolithographic tech-
nique, and, hence, cutting of reective grooves on the YIG
lm is avoided. In Fig. 28 MSWs are excited within the
metal window coupled in and out via the microstrip trans-
ducer. In order to form total reection of the MSWs at the
window boundary, and hence to achieve a high Q value,
the geometry of the resonator needs to be carefully de-
signed. The circuit of Fig. 28 allows for operation for all
types of MSWs, and simple MSW resonators can be con-
structed.
7. MAGNETIC MICROWAVE NONLINEAR DEVICES
As discussed in Section 1, nonlinear terms appear in the
equation of motion whenever the small-signal assump-
tions no longer hold true for the magnetization vector.
Under these conditions, the magnetization eld will cou-
ple to itself, resulting in spin-wave interactions between
different wavenumbers and frequencies [Eq. (64)]. In this
section we discuss how this nonlinear phenomena can be
utilized for device applications. Among many important
nonlinear devices, we will discuss frequency-selective lim-
iters, signal-to-noise enhancers, amplitude correctors, and
ferrimagnetic echoing devices.
7.1. Frequency-Selective Power Limiter
Frequency-selective limiters have been demonstrated us-
ing YIG spheres and ferrite slabs in the waveguide, coax,
Ground
plane
(Side view)
GGG
Grooves
Power in
Microstrip
(Top view)
Power out
MSSW
Grooves
H
E
YIG
Figure 25. Schematic showing the conguration of an MSSW
resonator. Reecting arrays of grooves are cut on the YIG lm
surface to form an MSSW cavity resonator. The bias eld is ap-
plied parallel to the microstrip transducer direction.
and stripline congurations [60]. We will discuss here the
limiter operation using a single-crystal YIG lm arranged
in the conguration shown in Fig. 3 of Section 1, except
that a meander line is normally used instead of a straight
microstrip line. Also, a thick YIG lm is preferred, because
it implies an abundant spin-wave spectrum allowing the
guided electromagnetic waves to react sufciently with
spin waves to induce instability at high power. All types of
ferrite frequency-selective limiters operate analogously;
when a transmission line is loaded with a ferrite element,
the transmitted power cannot exceed a threshold value
beyond which catastrophic energy transfer occurs be-
tween the guided RF electromagnetic elds and the spin
precessional motion. This phenomenon has been discussed
in Section 1, and it is generally known as the Suhl spin-
wave instability [13]. Parallel pumping instability is irrel-
evant, since it requires the RF magnetic eld to be applied
parallel to the applied DC eld direction, and this is not
the case here.
Figure 29 depicts a simple picture explaining the op-
eration of frequency-selective power limiter. As shown at
the top left of Fig. 29, the relationship between the input
power P
in
and the output power P
out
is roughly linear only
when P
in
is smaller than P
th
, the threshold power. When
P
in
is larger than P
th
, we observe that P
out
becomes grad-
ually saturated at P
s
, and the excess power, P
in
P
out
,
couples into spin-wave motion to be ultimately converted
into lattice vibration, and hence dissipated as heat. Thus,
when P
in
is given as a function of frequency, as shown at
the bottom left of Fig. 29, the excess power of P
in
P
th
will
be removed by the limiter and the resultant output char-
acteristic will be as shown at the top right of Fig. 29.We
note that Fig. 29 shows only an idealized operation. In re-
ality, the P
s
level shown in the P
out
/P
in
diagram is not a
constant; it increases slightly with P
in
when P
in
exceeds
P
th
. As such, instead of showing chopped-head peaks, the
output will consist of rounded-head transmission peaks in
the P
out
/P
in
diagram shown in Fig. 29.
As an example, in Ref. 61 a 57-mm-thick YIG lm was
coupled to a 25-mm-wide microstrip meander line of char-
acteristic impedance 50 O fabricated on a high-dielectric-
constant substrate. This limiter, which operated in the 2
4 GHz range showed a limiting range of 25 dB, a threshold
input power level of 0 dBm, and a small-signal loss of 7 dB.
The upper frequency limit was not sharply dened, since
the limiting power decreased with increasing frequency,
but operation up to 8 GHz is possible with this device.
The failure of the limiter device reported by Stizer and
Goldie [61] to operate at high frequencies can be explained
in terms of the onset condition giving rise to Suhls spin-
wave instabilities. As discussed in Section 1, Suhls rst-
order instability occurs for spin waves possessing a fre-
quency equal to half the applied RF frequency. Thus,
above 8GHz, the instability will occur in spin waves of
(Side view)
Ground
plane
Metal
strip
YIG
Film
GGG
Power in
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
n
g
g
r
o
o
v
e
s
M
S
F
V
W
(Top view)
Power out
D
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
n
g
g
r
o
o
v
e
s
H
E
Reflecting
grooves
Figure 26. Schematic showing the conguration of
an MSFVW resonator. Two cavities are placed at a
901 angle, and are coupled via MSFVWs passing
through an obliquely oriented groove grating array.
The bias eld is applied perpendicular to the YIG
lm plane.
frequencies exceeding 4 GHz, which are located above the
spin-wave manifold extending the frequency range from 2
to 4 GHz. The second-order spin wave instability, which
involves spin waves of the same frequency as the applied
RF signals, has a higher threshold and is not used in fre-
quency-selective power limiters. Thus, a power limiter is
operational only when half the applied frequency falls
within the spin-wave manifold region bounded by the two
frequencies o
1
and o
2
shown in Fig. 1. Since o
1
and o
2
can
be tuned by varying the applied eld strength, the limiter
is therefore termed a frequency-selective device.
7.2. Signal-to-Noise Enhancers
Epitaxially grown single-crystal YIG lms have been used
to fabricate frequency-selective limiters and signal-to-
noise enhancers. Although the construction of these two
devices is very similar, as shown in Fig. 3, they perform
opposite signal processing functions. The limiter presents
low attenuation to low-intensity signals and high attenu-
ation to high-intensity signals while the signal-to-noise
enhancer attenuates weak signal more severely than
strong signals. However, the major difference results
from the origin of nonlinearities admitting the operation
of these two devices. For a limiter the nonlinear coupling
is related to the onset of spin-wave instabilities, whereas
the nonlinear behavior of a signal-to-noise enhancer
comes from the generation of magnetostatic waves
(MSWs). The occurrence of the latter is at a power level
much lower than that of the former.
Although a power limiter and a signal-to-noise en-
hancer are constructed using a conguration similar to
that shown in Fig. 3, they are operational under different
(Side view)
Ground plane
Dielectric substrate
Metal strip
Power in
YIG Film
GGG
Metal strip
MSW
(Top view)
Power out
Figure 27. Schematic showing the conguration of a two-port
MSW straight-edge resonator. The bias eld can be applied per-
pendicular to the microstrip transducers in the YIG lm plane, or
perpendicular to the YIG lm plane for MSFVW or MSSW oper-
ation, respectively.
Ground plane
(Top view)
GGG
Dielectric superstrate
Metal circuit YIG Film
MSW
(Top view)
Power in/out
Figure 28. Schematic showing the conguration of a one-port
MSW groove-free resonator. The bias eld can be applied either
perpendicular to the microstrip transducer in the YIG lm plane,
or perpendicular to the YIG lm plane for MSFVW or MSSW op-
eration, respectively.
f
P
i
n
P
th
P
in
P
o
u
t
P
s
P
o
u
t
f
Figure 29. Power transmitted through a nonlinear frequency-
selective limiter. Input power spectrum is shown at the bottom
left, and the output power spectrum is shown at the top right. The
relationship between the input and the output powers is shown at
the top left.
physical principles. While the former device requires the
insertion loss to increase with input power, the latter re-
quires the insertion loss to decrease with input power. A
power limiter circuit will couple most efciently with spin
waves, whereas a signal-to-noise enhancer will avoid this
by operating at a frequency o so that o/2 is located well
beyond the spin-wave manifold region. On the contrary, a
signal-to-noise enhancer will couple tightly with magne-
tostatic waves, for example, MSSW, while for a power lim-
iter this is seldom the case. As a result, meander lines are
commonly used in power limiter circuits.
Let us examine the conguration of Fig. 3. Here we as-
sume that the biasing magnetic eld is applied parallel to
the microstrip direction such that MSSWs are excited
propagating perpendicular to the strip. Since the genera-
tion of MSSW in this conguration is very efcient, the
input RF power is almost entirely consumed for the gen-
eration of MSSWs at low input-power levels. However, as
the input power increases, the amplitudes of MSSWs in-
crease accordingly until reaching saturation beyond which
no more conversion into MSSWs is appreciable. Figure 30
shows that P
MSSW
increases with the input power P
in
lin-
early in the initial region but saturates at large P
in
. The
functional dependence of P
MSSW
is similar to that of the
output power from a limiter device shown in Fig. 29. The
output power from the signal-to-noise enhancer is
P
in
P
MSSW
, which is shown as the heavy line in Fig. 30.
Thus, from Fig. 30 we conclude that low-intensity signals
will be damped more by the generation of MSSWs than
high-intensity signals.
The top diagram in Fig. 31 shows the power spectrum
output from a signal-to-noise enhancer device based on
the input spectrum shown at the bottom of the gure. It is
seen in Fig. 30 that noises, appearing at low power levels,
are damped out, leaving alone the high-level signals with
improved signal-to-noise ratio. Again, Fig. 30 shows an
idealized situation in which P
s
does not depend on the
input power level P
in
. In reality P
s
will increase slightly
with P
in
when saturation is approached. As an example,
Adam and Stizer [62] show a signal-to-noise enhancer de-
vice centered at 3.3 GHz with a bandwidth of 800MHz
that exhibited 16 dB less attenuation when the input pow-
er increased from 6 to 10 dBm.
7.3. Amplitude Correctors
For signal processing at microwave frequencies broadband
ampliers are needed whose characteristics are desired to
show linear dependence on the amplitude of the input sig-
nals. However, for most power ampliers including micro-
wave traveling-wave tubes (TWTs), the amplication is
deteriorated at high power, resulting in reduced power
amplication for high-power input signals. One possible
way to resolve this problem is to compensate the input
power with a corrector that attenuates more input power
at low input power levels. This is exactly the same char-
acteristic that we have discussed for a signal-to-noise en-
hancer, and, hence, it can be equally used as an amplitude
corrector device. It was shown [63] that an amplitude cor-
rector operated at 3GHz with low and high signal sup-
pression level of 4.2 and 1 dB, respectively, and the
threshold power level was 100mW. This device was
equipped with an O-type TWT operating from 2.5 to
3.6 GHz, and corrected output characteristics have thus
been obtained.
7.4. Nonlinear Ferrimagnetic Echoing Devices
Echo phenomena are characterized by reradiation of the
input signals stored in a nonlinear system through the
agitation of a consequently applied pump pulse. Observa-
tion of ferrimagnetic echoes was rst reported in 1965 by
Kaplan in polycrystalline YIG samples [64]. Amplied
echoes were thereafter reported in cylinders and truncat-
ed spheres of YIG crystals [65] and in single-crystal YIG
lms [66]. Echo experiments offer a possibility of a novel
approach to performing important signal processing func-
tions, such as nondispersive time delay and pulse corre-
lation in the frequency range below 10GHz. Within the
demand of electronic technology advances there is now a
P
in
P
MSSW
P
s
P
i
n

=

P
o
u
t
P
o
u
t
Figure 30. The relationship between the input power P
in
and the
output power P
out
of a signal-to-noise enhancer. The converted
MSSW power P
MSSW
is also shown, and P
out
P
in
P
MSSW
.
f
P
s
f
P
o
u
t
P
i
n
Figure 31. The input power spectrum, bottom, and the output
power spectrum, top, applied to and transmitted from a signal-to-
noise enhancer, respectively.
renewed interest in the use of ferrimagnetic echoing
devices.
Among many nonlinear systems capable of producing
an echoed signal (e.g., cyclotron echo, plasma echo, molec-
ular echo, phonon echo, and spin echo), only ferrimagnetic
echo can show amplication. This feature renders the
ferrimagnetic echo phenomena in a very unique position
for device applications. Ferrimagnetic echo is concerned
mainly with the reservoir of the electron spin system pro-
vided by a YIG crystal that is nearly the perfect medium
for signal storage. Thus, in view of the extremely narrow
FMR linewidth (0.3 Oe at X band) the damping action ac-
companying the spin motion in the YIG crystal is very
small; once the spins are put in motion, they will continue
the motion indefinitely in time exhibiting very little at-
tenuation. The lifetime of the magnons in a YIG crystal is
very long, usually exceeding 1 ms. Ferrimagnetic echo sig-
nals are shown at the top of Fig. 6 in conjunction with in-
termodulation signals shown at bottom that are induced
by a ferrite junction when excited at high power. We imag-
ine that at the time instant t t a signal pulse is applied
to the YIG crystal setting the spins in precessional motion.
Before the spin motion damps out, a pump pulse is applied
at the time instant t 0, which is so intense that nonlinear
interaction is aroused in the spin system. Due to the (odd)
cubic nature of the interaction, the process of time conju-
gation is recalled, which reverses the timescale for the
stored signal such that the spins begin to precess in the
opposite direction. As a consequence, at time t t ( 1 ms)
the original signal pulse recovers, which appears as the
image, or replica, of the original signal echoed back by the
pump pulse (see Fig. 6, the top diagram).
However, we must emphasize that if the cubic interac-
tion is local in nature, no amplication is possible for the
echoed signals, as occurs in the other nonlinear systems
involving only isolated echoing sites. For ferrimagnetic
echo the nonlinear interaction is brought about by the
dipolar eld interacting with the nonlocal spin waves
showing a long-range dependence (this nonlocal interac-
tion can be described in terms of a Green function whose
kernel shows a 1/r dependence [25,26], see Eq. (100)
below). As such, the echoed signal can show amplication,
receiving power from the pump pulse not only to duplicate
the signal waveform to result in an echo but also to am-
plify the echoed signal to high intensity. The amplication
gain can be as large as 100, as measured experimentally
[64] and calculated theoretically [25,26].
Ferrimagnetic echo experiments are carried out using
crystal YIG bulk or thin-lm materials in the presence of a
high-magnetic-eld gradient (E1 kOe/cm). In order to ob-
tain high amplication gain, the YIG material needs to be
clamped between two polycrystalline poles to effectively
suppress the demagnetizing eld. Theoretically it has
been demonstrated that the DC demagnetizing eld has
adverse effect in reducing the echo gain to zero [25,26].
This result is consistent with Suhls nding [13] that the
DC demagnetizing eld is apt to enhance spin-wave in-
stability resulting in subsidiary absorption during micro-
wave resonance measurements.
Finally, we want to point out the similarities between
the ferrimagnetic echo signals and the intermodulation
noise observed in a ferrite circulator junction [24]. As
shown at bottom of Fig. 6, two RF signals at adjacent fre-
quencies f
1
and f
2
will couple each other to form intermod-
ulation noises at frequencies 2f
1
f
2
and 2 f
2
f
1
.
Intermodulation signals grow rapidly with power, which
may be identied as clicking noises in a telephone line.
Actually, both the echoing signals and the intermodula-
tion noises are generated through the same cubic interac-
tion terms in the equation of motion, Eq. (64). The only
difference is that echo is a phenomenon in the time do-
main, whereas intermodulation is manifested in the fre-
quency domain. While the DC demagnetizing eld has
been shown to have adverse effects in inuencing the echo
gain in the time domain, it has also been demonstrated
that the same demagnetizing eld will enhance the inter-
modulation level in a circulator junction [24]. Therefore,
the DC demagnetizing eld needs to be suppressed or
minimized in nonlinear studies of ferrites applied at high
power concerning the phenomena of spin-wave instabili-
ties, the echo gain, and the intermodulation noise.
8. MAGNETIC SOLITONS
It is widely recognized that the study of nonlinear equa-
tions and their solutions is of great importance in many
areas of physics. Of particular importance are nonlinear
wave equations that admit large-amplitude solitary wave
or soliton solutions that retain their shape during propa-
gation. Such solutions have received considerable atten-
tion by elementary particle physicists since they may be
regarded as extended particle-like solutions of nonlinear
eld equations. The study of solitary waves has proved
fruitful in many areas of condensed-matter physics as
well, for example, in theories of Bloch walls that separate
domains in magnetic materials [3], structural phase tran-
sitions [67], liquid helium
3
He [68], 2D uxons in Joseph-
son weak-link junction [69], and low-temperature charge
density wave condensates [70]. Engineering applications
prefer solitonlike wavepackets or pulses to be formed in
materials allowing the carried information to be transmit-
ted over long distance without experiencing much atten-
uation and dispersion, such as for the study of optical [71]
and microwave [72] magnetic envelope solitons. In this
section Bloch wall solitons and magnetic microwave en-
velope solitons, referred to in general as magnetic solitons,
are briefly introduced.
The rst documented observation of the solitary wave
was made in 1834 by the Scottish scientist John Scott
Russell [73]. While observing the movement of a canal
barge, Scott Russell noticed a novel type of water wave on
the surface of the canal, in the form of a long bell-shaped
wave that emerged and traveled down the channelit did
not cause rippling of the water, instead it remained stable
and localized without change of waveform and diminution
of speed over a distance about 2 miles in propagation. This
type of water wave is now known as KdV solitons, short-
ened for Kortweg and de Vries, who rst successfully dem-
onstrated the underlying mathematical solutions in 1895.
The other two well-known soliton systems are associated
with the sine Gordon and the nonlinear Schrodinger
equations, describing the kinetics and dynamics of mag-
netic Bloch walls and microwave magnetic envelope soli-
tons, respectively, discussed in the section.
In a nonlinear system that admits soliton-like solu-
tions, two kinds of elementary exciations are possible: (1)
particles with a nite amplitude in excitation called sol-
iton/antisoliton, or bright/dark solitons, which possesses a
nite mass; and (2) massless particles, with an innites-
imal excitation amplitude, called quasiparticles. Exam-
ples of solitons/antisolitons are electrons/positrons, and so
forth, and quasiparticles are phonons, magnons, photons.
Solitons and anti-solitons are topological entities, some-
times called kinks, whose waveform shapes are self-bal-
anced so that dispersion imposed by the wave equation
cancels exactly the nonlinear contribution from the am-
plitude of wave excitation. Thus, solitons and antisolitons
carry shape integrity along with their motion, retaining
their respective waveform shapes after the collision pro-
cesses, similar to those massive particles observed in the
physical world. Furthermore, like particles and antiparti-
cles, a soliton can collide with an antisoliton, resulting in
pair annihilation, ending up with radiations in the form of
massless particles. Although losses can be readily added to
the system, they will not affect the waveform shapes of
solitons and antisolitons. Rather, the added loss terms in
the equation of motion can merely introduce damping
forces impeding the particles mobility in their kinetic mo-
tion. At a given temperature the thermodynamic quanti-
ties of the system, which describe the equilibrium states of
solitons/antisolitons and the massless particles, can all be
calculated, and phase transition can result at a Currie
temperature in a manner analogous to that induced by
soft-phonon/displacive modes, as described in Ref. 67. The
following section describes domain wall solitons and mi-
crowave envelope solitons.
8.1. Magnetic Bloch Wall Soliton
A Bloch wall denes a magnetic transition layer that sep-
arates two magnetic domains of opposite magnetization.
That is, inside a magnetic Bloch wall the magnetization
vector reverses its direction undergoing 1801 in-plane ro-
tation in a manner so as to minimize the total free energy
imposed by the uniaxial anisotropy and the exchange
terms dened for H
A
and H
E
, respectively, following Eq.
(18). Besides Bloch walls, the process of magnetization re-
versal can also take place by assuming 1801 out-of-plane
rotation, giving rise to Neel walls, which are not discussed
in this section. After applying the Lagrangian equation
utilizing the energy densities given by Eq. (15), one ob-
tains the following equation governing the dynamic mo-
tion of a magnetic Bloch wall [3]
@
2
C
@t
2
sin C
@
2
C
@x
2
f sin
C
2
G
@C
@t
B cos
C
2
@
2
R
y
@x@t
sin
C
2
@
2
R
z
@x@t
_ _
97
where c denotes twice the azimuthal angle of the magne-
tization vector swinging away from the easy axis, the z
axis, and R
y
and R
z
are the y and z components of the dis-
placement elds. In Eq. (97) f, G, and B are dimensionless
parameters characterizing the magnitudes of the other
coupling terms, including the external driving force (the
Zeeman eld), the Gilbert damping term, and the magne-
toelastic constant of the medium, respectively. Here, x de-
notes the direction normal to the Bloch wall surface. In
Eq. (97) the right-hand-side (RHS) terms may be treated
as perturbations to the left-hand-side (LHS) terms, which
renders the original sine-Gordon equation, describing and
dening the unperturbed prole, kinetics, and dynamics
of magnetic Bloch wall solitons/anti-solitons. Namely, the
rst term is associated with the kinetic energy of a sine-
Gordon soliton (of a unied mass or inertia), and the sec-
ond and the third terms are potential energies, arising
from the uniaxial anisotropy, and the normalized ex-
change interaction, respectively. The effects of external
magnetic driving f, the Gilbert damping G, and the mag-
netoelastic coupling B in inuencing the solitons prole
and its subsequent motion can thus be calculated [3]. A
stability analysis on the mobility of a Bloch wall soliton/
anti-soliton has also been performed in Ref. 3, discussed in
conjunction with Slonzewskis formula, which assumed
the low-magnetization limits.
8.2. Magnetic Microwave Envelope Soliton
In the absence of an externally applied RF signal eld the
resultant equation of motion up to the third order in RF
magnetization m is, from Eq. (9)
dm
dt
ge
z
H
o
m M
s
m
.
m
2M
S
_ _
h
d
2A
M
S
_ _
r
2
m
l
g
dm
dt
_ _
;
98
where H
0
denotes the externally applied DC magnetic
eld normalized with respect to M
s
, the saturation mag-
netization, and A and l denote the exchange stiffness and
Gilbert damping constant introduced following Eq. (18),
respectively; the nonlinear term comes from Eq. (46) as-
suming large excursion angle of the magnetization vector
away from the z axis, the applied eld direction. In Eq.
(98) h
d
denotes the dipole eld induced by the rf-magne-
tization m, all normalized with respect to M
s
. Assuming
the magnetostatic limit, the relationship between h
d
and
m is specied by Eq. (24). Or
h
d
1=m
0
rCr
.
m 99
where the Green function operator C is dened, upon op-
eration on a regular function f(r) as
Cf r
_
all space
d
3
r
0
1
jr r
0
j
f r
0
100
which represents the nonlocal effect characteristics of a
dipole eld [25,26]. However, if one insists on a local ap-
proximation enforcing the dipole eld to be equal to the rf
magnetization, or
h
d
1=m
0
m 101
Eq. (98) becomes
df
dt

jg H
o
f
M
S
m
0
1
jfj
2
2
_ _
f
2A
M
S
r
2
f
l
g
df
dt
_ _
; 102
where
fm
x
jm
y
=M
S
103
denotes the (normalized) circularly polarization eld.
From Eq. (102) one recognizes immediately the (damped)
nonlinear Schrodinger equation [73], which admits solu-
tions for microwave magnetic envelope solitons whose ex-
istence has been reported by various authors [7476].
Although we have derived the desired equation of mo-
tion characteristic of microwave magnetic envelope soli-
tons [Eq. (102)], caution is needed regarding use of the
nonlinear term that was derived on the basis of the local
assumption of the dipole eld, Eq. (101), which was pro-
posed intuitively without justication. Actually the same
local assumption, Eq. (101), was used by Hermann in for-
mulating the ferrimagnetic echogain calculations [77].
Although Hermann was able to predict the existence of
ferrimagnetic echos, the calculated echo gain factors were
two orders smaller than actually measured [64,65], indi-
cating the insufciency or inadequacy of the local dipole
eld assumption, Eq. (104). As such, Eq. (102) can pose
only limited value; it at best leads to heuristic conclusions
that in Eq. (102) the cubic interaction term, due to the
large excursion angle of spins performing precessional
motion, and dispersion, due to the exchange coupling
among spins, constitute the two necessary ingredients
for the generation of solitonlike solutions coincident with
the nonlinear Schrodinger equation under the very crude
assumptions. Only after the nonlocal nature of the dipole
eld rigorously treated in the equation of motion, can the
formulation predict reliable results, Eqs. (99) and (100).
Also, Eq. (98) assumes an innite system for which the
boundary conditions have been ignored. In real measure-
ments nite samples such as single-crystal YIG lms are
normally used in conjunction with the microstrip launcher
circuits shown in Fig. 24. As such, boundary conditions
need to be included and the demagnetizing eld effects to
be explicitly considered [Eq. (66)]. The demagnetizing eld
has been found effective in triggering profound processes
in ferrite samples undergoing high-power excitations, as
observed in ferrimagnetic echo, intermodulation, and
stabilities measurements. More work in these areas is
needed.
Two different types of envelope solitons, bright solitons
and dark solitons, or solitons and antisolitons, can prop-
agate in nonlinear waveguiding dispersive media. Bright
and dark solitons may be classied as dynamical and to-
pological, respectively. The term dynamical for bright
solitons means that these pulses are essentially nonlinear
wavepackets for which the carrier signal maintains a con-
stant phase over the pulse. The term topological denotes
the fact that the passage of a single dark soliton modies
the medium or the medium response in some critical way.
Dark envelope solitons may be described in terms of a
carrier signal of constant amplitude that has a dip in am-
plitude at the soliton position. If this dip goes completely
to zero, one has a black soliton. If the minimum power at
the dip is nonzero, one has a gray soliton. Dark envelope
solitons have a nonzero jump in phase for the carrier sig-
nal as one crosses the dip. In the case of black solitons, this
jump in phase is exactly 1801.
Observation of self-generated bright and dark micro-
wave magnetic envelope solitons in ferrite lms can be
found in Refs. 75 and 76, respectively. Interaction between
microwave magnetic envelope solitons and between mi-
crowave magnetic envelope solitons and continuous mag-
netostatic waves can be found in Refs. 74 and 78,
respectively. Before ending this section, we note that it
was generally observed that formulation, propagation,
and decay of microwave magnetic envelope solitons were
always accompanied by the generation of high-wavenum-
ber spin waves, indicating that the equation of motion of
the system is more involved than described by the simple
nonlinear Schrodinger equation, Eq. (102), which allows
for isolation of stable clean solitons and continuous waves.
Thus, a complete description of the nonlinear spin system
has to recruit the long-range dipole eld, Eqs. (99) and
(100), not only to faithfully describe soliton behaviors but
also to understand interactions between themselves and
between themselves and continuous waves, including the
scattering processes involving three magnons and the re-
sultant (modulation) instabilities of the system. These
areas are discussed further in Refs. 7981.
9. MAGNETOOPTIC DEVICES
At optical frequencies the Polder permeability tensor of a
ferrite specimen is nearly isotropic with the diagonal
element mE1 and off-diagonal element kE10
5
, as can
be calculated from Eqs. (11) and (12). Although small, the
resultant magnetic anisotropy or gyrotropy can be mea-
sured using a laser optical beam. On incidence, the re-
ected and the transmitted beams will carry the
magnetization information of the specimen, resulting in
not only a rotation in polarization but also a change in
reectivity and transmission. These are called magneto-
optic Kerr and Faraday effects for reection and transmis-
sion measurements, respectively. Kerr and Faraday effects
have been used in observing the dynamic processes of
domain wall motion in a ferromagnetic metal or a ferri-
magnetic insulator sample, respectively [82].
The most important devices utilizing magnetooptic cou-
pling for electronic signal processing applications concern
the scattering process between photons and magnons.
This process is called Bragg diffraction, where in a ferri-
magnetic medium a photon of momentum P is scattered
by a magnon of momentum k, resulting in a photon of
momentum Pk. This interaction is second order in
nature and is described a term of gm
0
m
k
h
P
included
with the right hand side of Eq. (7). Here m
k
denotes the
magnetization eld of the magnon and h
P
is the magnetic
eld of the photon. As such, the photon wave is said to be
modulated by the magnetization wave, carrying along
with it the electronic information after scattering. Be-
cause of the nature of a second-order interaction, Bragg
diffraction between photons and magnons, or MSWs in a
magnetic lm, is not very prominent, and only about 4%
light diffraction was observed experimentally with a 7-mm
interaction length for MSSW excitations approaching sat-
uration [83].
Optical techniques are being increasingly utilized to
meet the ever-growing data rate requirements of signal
processing and communication applications. A key ele-
ment to such applications has been acoustooptic modula-
tors based on Bragg diffraction between photons and
phonons. A large timebandwidth product (TBW; i.e.,
time delay of acoustic signal in traversing the optical
beam times signal bandwidth) is usually desirable.
However, acoustic waves cannot be efciently excited
at frequencies above 2 GHz. Instead, magnetooptic
devices offer the potential of large TBW modulation di-
rectly at microwave frequencies. The diffraction of guided
optical waves by MSW is analogous to optical diffraction
by a SAWand has the potential to enhance a wide variety
of integrated optical applications such as spectrum
analyzer, optical lters, deectors, switches, and con-
volvers.
The basic theories of the MSWoptical interaction, in-
cluding the development of expressions for optical diffrac-
tion efciency and coupling factor as a function of the
MSW power and other relevant parameters, has been de-
rived by Fisher [83]. The theory applies to the collinear
conguration, shown in Fig. 32, with the MSW traveling
in a direction parallel or antiparallel to the optical beam,
as well as to the transverse conguration, shown in
Fig. 33, where the MSW travels at a 901 angle to the op-
tical beam. In Figs. 32 and 33 prisms are used to guide
optical beams onto the YIG layers that are transparent
to lightwave propagation. In Figs. 32 and 33 the MSW
conguration may be replaced by the superstrate struc-
ture shown in Fig. 3. To achieve good optical properties,
the YIG lm is usually highly doped, mainly by bismuth.
As such, Bragg diffraction of guided optical waves by
MSSWs and MSFVWs has been demonstrated in the con-
gurations shown in Figs. 32 and 33, and the conversions
between TE and TM modes have been experimentally ob-
served from 1 to 6.5 GHz [83].
In experimental solid-state physics photons are used
as instrumentation tools to probe the phonon spectra in
solids. This is termed Brillouin light scattering. Analo-
gously, Brillouin light scattering can be applied to a ferrite
sample to study the magnon or spin-wave spectrum in the
presence of solitons as well as to investigate the role of
spin waves at the onset of instabilities [84,85]. In a ferrite
a photon can create or absorb a magnon. The photon
will be scattered in the process; its wavevector will
change from k to k
0
and its frequency from o to o
0
.
Suppose a magnon is created with a wavevector K and
angular frequency O. The kinematics of the collision or
scattering event are simple. According to the conservation
of energy
oo
0
O 104
and per the wavevector selection rule
kk
0
K 105
where, for simplicity, we do not include the possibility that
the scattering may be combined with a Bragg diffraction
involving a reciprocal lattice vector of the crystalline
structure of a ferrite crystal. When o, o
0
, k, and k
0
are
known, O and K can thus be determined.
In conclusion, MSW optical devices are currently in an
early stage of development, and their basic feasibility has
been demonstrated. However, they are expected to lead to
a variety of high-performance integrated optical signal
processing devices.
Ground plane
YIG film
(Power in)
(Power out)
TM
TE
GGG
Figure 33. Transverse conguration for MSWand optical beams.
Bragg diffraction of the guided optical wave by an MSW induces
conversion between orthogonally polarized optical modes.
Ground plane
YIG film
(Power out)
TM
TE
GGG
(Power in)
MSW
Figure 32. Collinear conguration with codirectional MSW and
optical beams. Due to Bragg diffraction between the optical beam
and the MSWs, the original TM guided optical beam is scattered
into a TE beam with deected angle of propagation.
10. ANTIREFLECTION LAYERS AND ABSORBING LAYERS
To date microwave or millimeter-wave antireection lay-
ers and absorbing layers are almost exclusively used for
radome design applications. Because of the highly classi-
ed nature of this topic, not much data have been pub-
lished in the literature. In this section we discuss only the
concepts that lead to the construction of microwave or
millimeter-wave antireection and absorbing layers. No
explicit design parameters are given here. By definition,
an antireection/absorbing layer is placed on top of a sub-
strate such that an incident microwave or millimeter-
wave beam will be totally transmitted/absorbed when
passing across the layer without causing reection. The
layer should be functional over a frequency range as broad
as possible to be independent of the incident angle and
polarization of the incident beam.
To realize the design of an antireection layer, we con-
sider rst the case of normal incidence of the incident
beam. According to the transmission-line theory, one con-
cludes immediately that the rst-order solution would re-
quire the layer to behave like a quarter-wave transformer.
This implies that the layer shall possess a thickness equal
to one quarter the wavelength with a characteristic im-
pedance
Z
L
Z
0
Z
S
1=2
106
where
Z
0
m
0
e
0
_ _
1=2
107
Z
S
m
S
e
S
_ _
1=2
108
where Z
0
(Z
S
) is the characteristic impedance of air (sub-
strate) and e
0
(e
S
) and m
0
(m
S
) are the permittivity and per-
meability of air (substrate), respectively. When broader
bandwidth is desired, higher-order solutions are required,
and this results in a multilayer system with progressively
changing electromagnetic parameters matching the im-
pedance difference between air and substrate.
For an absorbing layer design the air impedance can
also be matched by a multilayer system with progressively
increasing damping parameters such that the series of the
layers satises the transformer matching requirement.
Thus, we use the same impedance transformer theory for
the design of absorbing layers, except that the impedances
of the layers are now complex numbers, since the permit-
tivity and permeability of the layers are complex numbers.
As such, the incident wave damps out when it passes
through the layer system before arriving at the substrate.
When oblique-angle incidence is considered, the imped-
ance transformer theory can be generalized using the
transfer matrix technique [41,86]. The present problem
is to determine an optimal layer system design allowing
for polarization independent operation over a frequency
band and angle range on beam incidence as broad as pos-
sible. Also, the design task is subject to a very important
constraint requiring the thickness of the layers to be
minimal, since at microwave and/or millimeter frequen-
cies a practical layer system should be thin enough com-
pared to the wavelength of the waves propagating in air.
The design is in general not a trivial problem, and efcient
computer algorithms are needed.
Once an optimal multilayer system is determined, the
remaining task is to synthesize it using real materials.
Unfortunately, nature does not provide general materials
covering the whole range of electromagnetic parameters.
Instead, articial materials need to be developed. The rst
kind of articial materials include particle composites
where dielectric particles [87], metal-shelled particles
[88], ferrite particles [89,90], and graphite powders are
embedded in a matrix epoxy such that the effective per-
mittivity, permeability, and/or conductivity of the compos-
ite can be controlled over the desired frequency band by
adjusting the mixing faction of the particles.
The second class of articial materials is quite new; it
involves periodic patterns of metal strips or grooves (sur-
face relief gratings) to be fabricated on top of a layer sur-
face. In fact, when electromagnetic waves interact with
periodic structures much ner than the wavelength, they
do not diffract, but instead reect and transmit as if they
were encountering a nonstructured medium. Effective
eld theory describes the interaction between electromag-
netic waves and such subwavelength structures by repre-
senting a region of subwavelength heterogeneity in terms
of a homogeneous material possessing a single set of ef-
fective electromagnetic parameters: permittivity, perme-
ability, and conductivity [91]. Actually, the antireection
structures consisting of surface relief gratings can be
found on the cornea of certain night-ying moths, and
the rst scientists to investigate antireection-structured
surfaces for application in the visible or near-infrared
portion of the spectrum worked to replicate moth eye sur-
faces [92].
Antireection means establishing a resonant structure
on the substrate surface that is able to capture the in-
cident electromagnetic signal forming standing modes so
as to dissipate the captured energy, converting it into heat
before it reaches the substrate. In this sense an antire-
ection layer is a sheet of absorbent. Two kinds of reso-
nant structures are possible. Standing modes can be
formed along the propagation direction, or the longitudi-
nal direction, of the signal by constructing a quarter-wave
transformer [Eq. (106)] or a transformer of high order, as
discussed previously. Alternatively, standing modes can be
formed along the transverse directions. For example, met-
al patches or meshes of a diameter equal to one-half the
wavelength of the incident electromagnetic waves can be
deployed in front of the substrate surface accompanied by
an dissipation layer responsible for wave damping. Mul-
tiple antireection layers can be stacked together to joint-
ly capture and damp a broadband signal, thereby realizing
the broadband operation.
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MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
ANDREW WEBB
University of Illinois at
UrbanaChampaign
Urbana, Illinois
1. INTRODUCTION
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the major ra-
diological diagnostic modalities in the clinic. More than 20
million exams per year are carried out in the United
States alone. A large number of academic and commercial
laboratories are involved in the development of new hard-
ware, data processing algorithms and applications. Stud-
ies can be performed on size scales ranging from humans
to single neurons. One factor linking many of the most
recent developments in MRI is the trend towards higher
static magnetic elds. Higher elds provide many bene-
ts, which will be outlined in this article, but also present
considerable challenges in engineering design. Since the
operating frequency of the system and associated hard-
ware is proportional to the strength of the static magnetic
eld, high-frequency analysis of system design, as well as
the interactions between electromagnetic radiation and
the human body are increasingly important areas of re-
search. As shown in Fig. 1, MRI now spans almost the
entire radiofrequency spectrum.
The MRI signal arises from protons in the body, pri-
marily water but also lipid. The patient is placed inside a
superconducting magnet, which produces a static mag-
netic eld several tens of thousands times stronger than
Earths magnetic eld. Each proton, which is a charged
particle with angular momentum, can be considered as
acting as a small magnet. The protons align in two con-
gurations, with their magnetic elds aligned either par-
allel or antiparallel to the direction of the large static
magnetic eld, with slightly more found in the parallel
state. The protons precess around the direction of the
static magnetic eld, analogously to a spinning gyroscope
under the inuence of gravity. The frequency of precession
is proportional to the strength of the static magnetic eld.
Application of a weak radiofrequency (RF) eld causes the
protons to precess coherently, and the sum of all the mag-
netic moments of the precessing protons is detected as an
induced voltage in a tuned detector coil. Spatial informa-
tion is encoded into an image using magnetic eld gradi-
ents [1,2]. These impose a three-dimensional linear
variation in the magnetic eld present within the patient.
As a result of these variations, the precessional frequen-
cies of the protons depend on their position within the
body. The frequency and phase of the precessing magne-
tization are detected by the RF coil, and the analog signal
is digitized. An inverse two-dimensional Fourier trans-
form is performed to convert the time-domain signal into
the spatial domain to produce the image. By varying data
acquisition parameters, differential contrast between soft
tissues can be introduced into the image. Figure 2 shows a
block diagram of an MRI system. Many of the subsystems
are described in detail later in this article.
2. BASIC PRINCIPLES
For this article, only proton MRI will be considered, al-
though useful spatial information from other nuclei such
as
23
Na,
19
F, and
31
P can also be obtained. In proton MRI
the signal comes essentially from the protons in water,
with a minor component from those in fat. From a quan-
tum mechanical standpoint, the proton possesses two nu-
clear energy levels, which correspond to the z component
of the magnetic moment of the proton being aligned either
parallel or antiparallel to the applied static magnetic eld,
as shown in Fig. 3.
The energy gap between the two energy levels is given
by
DE
ghB
0
2p
1
In order to stimulate transitions between the two energy
levels, an oscillating magnetic eld must be applied at a
frequency o, such that
ho
2p

ghB
0
2p
)ogB
0
2
1 10 50 100 500 1000 2000
Frequency/MHz
Human MRI systems
0.1T 0.2T 0.5T 1.5T 1T 3T 4T 7T 8T 9.4T
4.7T 17.6T
Animal MRI systems
Figure 1. Operating frequencies of human
and animal MRI systems. The corresponding
static magnetic eld strengths are given in
tesla (T).
2462 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
The Boltzmann equation can be used to calculate the rel-
ative number of protons in each energy level
N
antiparallel
N
parallel
exp
DE
kT
_ _
exp
ghB
0
2pkT
_ _
3
where k is the Boltzmann coefcient with a value of 1.38
10
23
J/K and T is the temperature measured in
degrees Kelvin. Applying the approximation e
x
E1 x,
we can calculate the net magnetization of the object as
M
0
gh
4p
N
parallel
N
antiparallel

g
2
h
2
B
0
N
s
16p
2
kT
4
Therefore, the higher the static magnetic eld B
0
, the
greater is the equilibrium magnetization, and, as will be
seen later, the higher the MRI signal. It is also useful to
consider, from a classical description, the motion of the
individual magnetic moments. As derived in the previous
section, the proton magnetic moment m is aligned at an
angle of 54.71 to the axis of the external magnetic eld B
0
.
This magnetic eld attempts to align the proton magnetic
moment parallel to the direction of B
0
, and this action
creates a torque C, given by
CmB
0
i
N
jmjjB
0
j siny 5
where i
N
is a unit vector normal to both m and B
0
. The
result of the torque is that the proton precesses around the
axis of the magnetic eld, keeping a constant angle be-
tween m and B
0
, at an angular frequency given by
ogB
0
6
where B
0
is universally used to represent B
0
. Classical
mechanics, therefore, shows that the effect of placing a
proton in a magnetic eld is that it precesses around the
axis of that eld, at a frequency that is proportional to the
strength of the magnetic eld. This frequency is termed
the Larmor frequency.
2.1. Application of a Radiofrequency Pulse
Although all of the protons precess around B
0
, they are
randomly oriented around a cone, as shown in Fig. 4, and
therefore the net magnetization is aligned along the z
axis, that is, there is no transverse component. In order to
create a transverse component, an oscillating electromag-
netic eld (B
1
), linearly polarized in the x direction, is
applied.
B
1
^ xxB
10
cos ot
1
2
B
10
^ xx cos ot ^ yy sin ot
1
2
B
10
^ xx cos ot ^ yy sin ot
7
where B
10
is the magnitude of the magnetic eld. The
right-hand side of Eq. (7) shows that the B
1
eld consists
Gradient
amplifiers
Frequency
synthesizer
Superconducting magnet
Gradient coils
RF coil
Waveform generator
timing boards
Pulse programmer
software interface
Image display
Host computer
A/D
convertor
AF
amp
Quadrature
mixer
Demodulator
Preamp
Transmit/
receive
switch
RF
amp
Figure 2. Block diagram of an MRI scanner.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING 2463
of the sum of two rotating magnetic elds, one rotating
clockwise and the other anticlockwise. It can be shown
that only the clockwise rotating eld interacts with the
nuclear spins. Application of the B
1
eld at the Larmor
frequency rotates the net magnetization M
0
toward the y
axis, creating a component of magnetization M
y
, given by
M
y
M
0
singB
1
t
B1
M
0
sin a 8
where a is the excitation tip angle. This process of tipping
the magnetization is shown in Fig. 4. After the RF pulse,
the component of magnetization in the xy plane precesses
around B
0
at the Larmor frequency.
2.2. Signal Detection
Signal detection involves placing an RF coil close to the
sample. In its simplest form, this coil can be a single loop
of wire. Faradays law states that, when the magnetic ux
enclosed by a loop of wire changes with time, a current is
produced in the loop, and a voltage is induced across the
ends of the loop. The induced voltage E is proportional to
the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic ux
(df/dt):
E /
df
dt
9
The time-varying magnetic eld produced by the preces-
sion of the magnetization vectors results in a voltage in-
duced in the RF coil. The requirement for a time-varying
magnetic ux is the reason why only precessing magneti-
zation in the xy plane gives rise to an NMR signal; the z
component does not precess and therefore produces no
voltage. At higher strengths of the B
0
eld, the protons
precess at a higher frequency [Eq. (6)], and the value of
df/dt increases. Therefore, higher magnetic elds produce
higher signal not only because of greater nuclear polar-
izations [Eq. (4)] but also because of the higher voltage
induced in the RF coil. Overall, we obtain
E /
g
2
h
2
B
0
N
s
16p
2
kT
gB
0
sina 10
4

=

E
E
4
Direction of B
0
h 3
=
Magnetic field
present
E=
hB
0 4
h
4
j
z
=+
h
0
0
E
4
E=+
hB
0
Antiparallel
Parallel
No
magnetic field
Parallel
Antiparallel
j
4

=
h 3
=
j
E
j
z
=
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Quantization of the magnitude
of the z-component of a protons angular mo-
mentum means that the z component of the
protons magnetic moment (m
z
) has two possi-
ble physical orientations, parallel and antipar-
allel, with respect to the direction of the main
magnetic eldthe value of the angle y is
54.71; (b) in the absence of an external mag-
netic eld, there is only one energy level. When
an external magnetic eld is present, Zee-
man splitting results in two energy levels,
with more protons occupying the lower energy
level, corresponding to the proton magnetic
moments being aligned parallel to the main
magnetic eld, than the higher energy level,
corresponding to an antiparallel alignment.
B
1,x
B
1,x
x
z
y
z
z
z
y
y y
x
(a) (b)
(d) (c)
Figure 4. (a) Application of a B
1
eld (B
1,x
) along
the x axis rotates the individual proton magnetic
moments about the x axis toward the y axis; (c)
After applying the B
1
eld for a certain time du-
ration, the cone of magnetic moments has been
rotated by 901 (the magnetic moments continue
to precess around the B
0
axis); (b,d) the vector
model representations of the effect of the B
1
eld.
The initial longitudinal magnetization (M
z
) has
been rotated into the transverse plane and has
been converted into transverse magnetization
(M
y
) along the y axis.
2.3. Relaxation
Each of the magnetization components M
z
, M
x
, and M
y
must return to their thermal equilibrium values over
time. The time evolutions of M
z
, M
x
, and M
y
are charac-
terized by the Bloch equations [3]
dM
x
dt
gM
y
B
0
o
g
_ _
M
x
T
2
dM
y
dt
gM
z
B
1
gM
x
B
0
o
g
_ _
M
y
T
2
dM
z
dt
gM
y
B
1
M
z
M
0
T
1
11
where T
1
is the spinlattice relaxation time and governs
the z component of magnetization and T
2
is the spinspin
relaxation time governing the transverse component. In
the well-known rotating reference framea frame of
reference where the x
0
y
0
axes rotate around B
0
at the
Larmor frequencysimple expressions can be obtained
for the time evolution of longitudinal and transverse
magnetization:
M
z
t M
z
t 0 M
0
M
z
t 01 e
t=T
1
12
M
y
t M
y
t 0e
t=T
2
M
x
t M
x
t 0e
t=T
2
13
As seen later in the article, image contrast depends
strongly on the different T
1
and T
2
values for various tis-
sues in the human body.
2.4. Magnetic Field Gradients
Three separate gradient coils are required to encode un-
ambiguously the three spatial dimensions within the body.
Since only the z component of the magnetic eld interacts
with the proton magnetic moments, it is the spatial vari-
ation in the z component of the magnetic eld which is
important. Image reconstruction is simplied consider-
ably if the magnetic eld gradients are linear over the
region to be imaged:
@B
z
@z
G
z
@B
z
@x
G
x
@B
z
@y
G
y
14
By convention, for human studies the z direction lies along
the head-to-foot axis, the y axis corresponds to the vertical
(spine-to-abdomen) direction, and the x axis extends from
side to side. The gradient coils are designed (as discussed
later in this article) such that there is no additional con-
tribution to the static magnetic eld at the isocenter (z 0,
y 0, x 0) of the magnet, which means that the magnetic
eld at this position is simply B
0
. If a gradient G
z
is
applied, the magnetic eld B
z
experienced by all nuclei
with a common coordinate z is
B
z
B
0
zG
z
15
where G
z
has units of tesla (T) per meter or gauss (G) per
centimeter (cm). The corresponding precessional frequen-
cies (o
z
) of the protons, as a function of their position in z,
is given by
o
z
gB
z
gB
0
zG
z
16
In the rotating reference frame the precessional frequency
is
o
z
g zG
z
17
Analogous expressions can be obtained for the spatial de-
pendence of the resonant frequencies in the presence of
the x and y gradients.
The process of image formation can be broken down
into three components: slice selection, phase encoding,
and frequency encoding. Examples of common imaging
sequences are shown in Fig. 5. In the gradient echo se-
quence the combination of a frequency-selective 901 pulse
TR
TR
TE
TE
RF
G
slice
G
freq
G
phase
N
r
data points
N
p
A/D
RF
G
slice
G
phase
G
freq
A/D
t
t
pe
90
90
180
(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Basic scheme for a gradient
echo imaging sequence and (b) for a spinecho
sequence. In both cases the acquisition matrix
size is N
r
N
p
data points.
and the slice gradient tips protons within a thickness Do/
gG
slice
, where Do is the frequency bandwidth of the pulse,
into the transverse plane. Protons outside this slice are
not excited. Application of the phase encoding gradient
G
phase
, denoted as the y direction here, imparts a spatially
dependent phase shift into the signal. During signal ac-
quisition, the frequency encoding gradient (x direction)
generates a spatially dependent precessional frequency in
the acquired signal. Overall, ignoring relaxation effects,
the detected signal is given by
sG
y
; t
pe
; G
x
; t /
_
slice
_
slice
rx; ye
jgG
x
xt
e
jgG
y
yt
pe
dx dy 18
where r(x,y) is the spatially dependent proton density,
specifically, the number of protons at a given x,y coordi-
nate. Using the k-space formalism [4], this signal can be
expressed as
Sk
x
; k
y
/
_
slice
_
slice
rx; y e
j2pk
x
x
e
j2pk
y
y
dx dy 19
where the two variables k
x
and k
y
are dened as
k
x
g
2p
G
x
t; k
y
g
2p
G
y
t
pe
20
This representation of the acquired data is particularly
useful since the image can simply be reconstructed by an
inverse two-dimensional Fourier transform.
rx; y
_
1
1
_
1
1
Sk
x
; k
y
e
j2pk
x
x k
y
y
dk
x
dk
y
21
The k-space representation of the data is shown in Fig. 6.
In the k
x
dimension N
r
data points are acquired (see
Fig. 5). The imaging sequence is repeated N
p
times, with
the phase encoding gradient incremented for each repeti-
tion. This results in N
p
lines being acquired in the k
y
direction.
If the effects of T
1
and T
2
relaxation are taken into
account, it can be shown that in a gradientecho sequence,
the image intensity I(x,y) is given by
Ix; y /
rx; y1 e
TR=T
1
e
TE=T
2
sin a
1 e
TR=T
1
cos a
22
where T
2
is the spinspin relaxation time, including the

effects of magnetic eld inhomogeneity. For a spinecho
imaging sequence, the corresponding expression is
Ix; y / rx; y1 e
TR=T
1
e
TE=T
2
23
The times TR (repetition time) and TE (echo time) within
the imaging sequence can be chosen to give different con-
trasts in the image. For example, Fig. 7 shows the effects of
increasing the TE on a simple brain scan.
The ability to produce many different contrast charac-
teristics in images is one of the major advantages of MRI
as a clinical diagnostic technique. Clinical applications
include brain scanning (for tumors, hematomas, astro-
cytomas, etc.), musculoskeletal (shoulder, knee, etc.), car-
diac, and liver/kidney imaging. Contrast agents such as
gadolinium DTPA and superparamagnetic iron oxide are
often used to highlight pathological features from
surrounding healthy tissue [5]. Detailed descriptions of
clinical MRI can be found in Ref. 6.
3. HARDWARE DESIGN
The major hardware components of an MRI system are
the magnet, magnetic eld gradients, and RF coil, in ad-
dition to the receiver. The rst three components involve
similar analytical methods [7,8] to design, respectively, a
homogenous DC static magnetic eld, linear spatially de-
pendent rapidly switched magnetic elds, and high-
frequency (60750 MHz) resonators producing a uniform
magnetic eld.
k
x
k
y
x
y
2D-IFFT
2D-FFT
(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) The magnitude of the signal, S(k
x
,k
y
),
from a scan of the human head (the center data
points have the highest signal intensity and repre-
sent the low-spatial-frequency components; data
points at the extremities of k space correspond to
the high spatial frequencies); (b) a magnitude rep-
resentation of the image produced by inverse two-
dimensional Fourier transformation of the k-space
data.
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Axial images of the brain acquired at 1.5T. The image
in (a) is acquired with a TE value of 34ms. Increasing the TE
value to 102ms produces the image in (b).
3.1. Superconducting Magnets
For all imaging studies performed at eld strengths above
B0.5 T, a superconducting magnet is required. For elds
below this, permanent magnets can be used. In either case
the critical factors in magnet design are high homogeneity
of the eld [o1 part per million (ppm) over the sample],
and a high degree of temporal stability(o50 Hz drift per
hour). Almost all clinical superconducting magnets have a
cylindrical bore, approximately 1 m in diameter, which
encloses the magnetic eld gradients, radiofrequency coil,
and patient, as shown in Fig. 1. In order to create high
static magnetic elds, it is necessary for the superconduc-
tor to carry a large current, and this capability is pos-
sessed only by certain alloys, particularly those made from
niobiumtitanium. Below a critical temperature (9 K) and
critical magnetic eld (10T), once current has been fed
into such an alloy, this current will run through the wire
with constant magnitude essentially indefinitely. The su-
perconducting alloy is formed into multistrand laments
and interspersed within a conducting matrix. This ar-
rangement can support a much higher critical current
than a single, large-diameter superconducting wire. The
superconducting coils shown in Fig. 8 are housed in a
stainless-steel can containing liquid helium at a temper-
ature of 4.2 K. This inner container is surrounded by a
series of radiation shields and vacuum vessels to minimize
heat transfer to the liquid helium. Liquid nitrogen is used
to cool the outside of the vacuum chamber and the radi-
ation shields. Since heat transfer cannot be completely
eliminated, liquid nitrogen and liquid helium must be re-
plenished on a regular basis.
The exact placement of the superconducting laments
within the magnet is designed to give the maximum eld
homogeneity over the patient. The basic design consists of
a number of wire helices, or solenoids, of different diam-
eters and separations, each wound along the major axis of
the magnet. A typical layout is shown in Fig. 8.
For a single loop of wire, the eld can be expressed as
B
z
r; y
1
n0
r
r
0
_ _
n
B
n
P
n
cos y 24
where r
0
is half the length of the region of interest and P
n
(cos y) is the standard Legendre polynomial of degree n.
The design problem is to determine the optimum number,
spacing, and diameter of wire loops such that the B
n
co-
efcients are zero up to the maximum order. The larger
the number of current-carrying elements that are present,
the higher the order of the harmonics that can be mini-
mized; however, one constraint is the total length of the
magnet.
Slight errors in positioning the wires can lead to sig-
nificant variations in the eld uniformity, in which case
the B
z
eld is given by the complete solution to Laplace
equation. Additional coils of wire are added in series with
the main coil as superconducting correction coils. After the
magnet has been energized by passing current into the
major lament windings, the current can be changed in
these correction coils to improve the homogeneity. Fine
tuning is performed by using a series of independently
wired coils at room temperature, termed shim coils. The
operator can adjust the current in these coils for each
clinical examination, and so the magnet homogeneity can
be optimized for individual patients.
A strong magnetic eld is also present outside the mag-
net, and this can interfere with any electronic equipment
nearby. Machines with moving parts, such as induction
motors, or any object with metallic elements must be
placed outside the fringe eld; this creates an effective
deadspace around the magnet. In many clinical and
academic institutions space is limited, and so a reduction
in the extent of the stray eld is highly desirable.
Active shielding of a magnet uses secondary windings,
placed outside the primary magnet windings, with the
current traveling in the opposite direction, in order to
minimize the fringe eld. Clearly, the presence of these
secondary windings also reduces the eld within the
patient, and so an increased current is now needed
in the primary windings. The alternative method of pas-
sive magnet shielding incorporates iron plates into the
magnet exterior. The disadvantage of this method of
shielding is that the mass of the magnet is increased sig-
nificantly.
3.2. Magnetic Field Gradient Coils
Three separate gradient coils are required to encode the
x, y, and z dimensions of the sample. The requirements for
gradient coil design are that the gradients are as linear as
possible over the region being imaged, that they are ef-
cient in terms of producing high gradients per unit cur-
rent, and that they have fast switching times for use in
rapid imaging sequences. Copper is used as the conductor,
with chilled-water cooling to remove the heat generated by
the current. Since the gradient coils t directly inside the
bore of the cylindrical superconducting magnet, the geo-
metric design is usually also cylindrical. The simplest con-
guration for a coil producing a gradient in the z direction
is a Maxwell pair, shown in Fig. 9a, which consists of two
separate loops of multiple turns of wire, each loop con-
taining equal currents I owing in opposite directions. In
order to estimate the distance between the two loops that
maximizes the linearity of the gradient, the value of B
z
is
z
Figure 8. Schematic of the layout of the su-
perconducing wires to produce a homoge-
neous magnetic eld B
z
within the patient.
rst calculated
B
z
m
0
Ia
2
2d=2 z
2
a
2
1:5
m
0
Ia
2
2d=2 z
2
a
2
1:5
25
where m
0
is the permeability of free space and a is the ra-
dius of the gradient set. The rst term that can give a
nonlinear contribution is the third derivative, given by
d
3
B
z
dz
3

15m
0
Ia
2
2
4d=2 z
3
3d=2 za
2
d=2 z
2
a
2
9=2
_
4d=2 z
3
3d=2 za
2
d=2 z
2
a
2
9=2
_
26
This term becomes zero at a value of daH3. The magnetic
eld produced by this gradient coil is zero at the center of
the coil, and is linearly dependent on position in the z
direction over about one-third of the separation of the two
loops. The region over which the gradient is linear can be
extended by adding other sets of coils in the axial dimension.
The x- and y-gradient coils are completely independent
of the z-gradient coils. The derivation of gradient eld
linearity for the transverse gradients is somewhat more
complicated than for the Maxwell pair. The usual cong-
uration is to use four arcs of wire as shown in Fig. 9b. The
wire segments in the z direction do not produce a trans-
verse component to the eld, and the four outer arcs pro-
vide return paths for the current. The B
z
eld produced by
an arc on a cylinder of radius a is given by
B
z
r; y; f
1
n0
n
m0
r
n
P
m
n
A
nm
cos mfB
nm
sin mf P
nm
cos y
27
If the four inner arcs are placed symmetrically around
z 0, then A
nm
0 for all m, and B
nm
0 if n or m is even.
Equation (27) can now be expanded as follows:
B
z
r; y; f B
11
r sin y sin fB
31
r
3
P
1
3
cos y sin f
B
33
r
3
P
3
3
cos y sin 3f
28
The rst term is a linear function of y, but the other terms
are nonlinear. The term in B
33
can be made zero by setting
the angle c1201, and the term in B
31
can be eliminated
by setting y
0
21.31 for z
0
2.57a. These results mean
that the separation between the arcs along the z axis is
B0.8 times the radius of the gradient coil. From symmetry
considerations the same basic design can be used for coils
producing gradients in the x direction with the geometry
simply rotated by 901.
A second design criterion is that the current in the
gradient coils should be switched on and off in the shortest
possible time. This reduces the time that must be allowed
for gradient stabilization in imaging sequences. This cri-
terion is achieved by minimizing the inductance L of the
gradient coils. A related issue is achieving high efciency
Z, where Z is dened as the gradient strength per unit
current at the center of the gradient set. These three cri-
teria (homogeneity, switching speed and efciency) for
judging gradient performance can be combined into a so-
called gure of merit b, dened as
b
Z
2
L
1
V
_
Br
B
0
r
1
_ _
2
d
3
r
29
where B
0
(r) is the desired magnetic eld, B(r) is the ac-
tual magnetic eld, and V is the volume of interest over
which the integral is evaluated.
When the current in the gradient coils is switched rap-
idly, eddy currents can be induced in nearby conducting
surfaces, such as the radiation shield in the magnet. These
eddy currents, in turn, produce additional unwanted gra-
dients in the sample that may decay only very slowly, even
after the original gradients have been switched off. These
eddy currents can result in image artifacts, and are par-
ticularly problematic for sensitive measurements of diffu-
sion coefcients and in localized spectroscopy. All gradient
coils in commercial MRI systems are now actively shield-
ed to reduce the effects of eddy currents. Active shielding
uses a second set of coils placed outside the main gradient
coils, the effect of which is to minimize the stray gradient
elds.
3.3. Radiofrequency Coils for MRI
Radiofrequency coils for MRI differ from conventional an-
tennas in that they are designed to maximize the near-
eld magnetic energy that is stored in the patient. The
desirable properties of such a coil include: (1) a homoge-
neous B
1
distribution within the patient, (2) minimum
electric elds within the patient since these lead to signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR) losses and also to an increased
specific absorption ratio (SAR; i.e., patient heating), (3)
maximum B
1
intensity per unit driving current, and (4)
minimum resistive losses in the RF coil.
Since most RF coils are used to image either the brain
or torso, the form of the coil is usually cylindrical as shown
in Fig. 1. Assuming that this cylinder is innitely long and
carries a surface current J
s
, given by
J
s
^ zzJ
0
sin f 30
I
I
z
0
0
0
d
a
I
I
z z
(a) (b)
Figure 9. (a) Schematic of a Maxwell gradient set that produces
a linear magnetic eld gradient in the z direction; (b) schematic of
a saddle geometry gradient set producing a linear magnetic eld
in the y direction.
the eld inside the cylinder is given by
Br; f ^ rr
1
m1
mr
m1
A
m
cos mfB
m
sin mf
^
ff
1
m1
mr
m1
A
m
sin mf B
m
cos mf
31
By applying boundary conditions at the cylinder surface
(considering the B
1
eld created outside the cylinder), all
the B
m
coefcients must be zero, and the only nonzero A
m
coefcient is given by A
1
m
0
J
0
/2. Therefore
Br; f
m
0
J
0
2
^ rr cos f
^
ff sin f ^ xx
m
0
J
0
2
32
This shows that a perfectly uniform B
1
eld, directed
along the x direction, is produced by a sinusoidal current
along the surface of a cylinder of innite length. Of course,
this conguration cannot be realized in practice, but the
basic tenet of coil design is to approximate this sinusoidal
surface current. The most common such realization is
called the birdcage resonator [9], which is shown in
Fig. 10. The resonator is usually constructed in a high-
pass conguration, with a series of equidistantly spaced
rungs and two end rings.
The birdcage coil has multiple resonant modes. For an
n-rung highpass birdcage the highest-frequency mode is
the so-called end-ring mode, the next n2 modes are each
doubly degenerate (the highest-frequency one produces a
homogeneous transverse B
1
eld), and there is a single
mode at the lowest frequency. Since the birdcage coil has
two orthogonal, degenerate homogeneous modes, it can be
operated in quadrature; that is, it can produce a circularly
polarized B
1
eld. This reduces the power required for RF
transmission by a factor of 2, and increases the image SNR
also by a factor of
2
p
. Practical implementation simply
involves splitting the transmitter pulse through a quad-
rature hybrid, the two outputs of which are connected to
the coil at feedpoints that are physically 901 apart.
Impedance matching of the coil must be performed in
order to ensure maximum power transmission and ef-
cient reception. Since amplier outputs, transmission ca-
bles, and preamplier input impedances are almost
exclusively 50 O, this is the impedance to which the coil
is matched at the Larmor frequency. A balanced imped-
ance-matching network should be used to reduce electric
eld losses in the sample, and the most common is a stan-
dard pi-matching network, with variable capacitors to ad-
just for different sample-dependent loads. Often, baluns or
cabletraps are used to reduce currents traveling on the
outside of the transmission cable connecting to the coil.
Noise in MRI originates from the sample and also the
RF coil. Coil losses are linearly dependent on the operat-
ing frequency, and sample losses in human patients in-
crease as the square of the operating frequency. In
general, at low frequencies coil losses are dominant,
whereas at high frequencies sample losses are the domi-
nant factor. In all cases it is desirable to minimize the loss
L
k1,k1
L
k1,k1
L
k+1,k+1
L
k+1,k+1
M
k+1,k+1
C
k1
C
k1
I
k1
C
k+1
C
k+1
I
k+1
L
k,k
L
k,k
M
k,k
C
k
C
k
I
k
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 10. (a) Highpass birdcage coil; (b) equivalent circuit model for the highpass birdcage in-
cluding the mutual inductance between individual loops; (c) photograph of a 12-leg birdcage coil for
a 1.5-T system.
inherent in the coil, that is, to maximize the quality factor
Qof the tuned circuit. At high magnetic eld strengths the
dimensions of the RF coil constitute a substantial fraction
of the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave inside the
patient. This leads to a number of problematic issues, in-
cluding increased radiative losses and nonuniform current
distribution along the conductors, which reduces the B
1
homogeneity. One way to minimize these effects is to de-
sign the coil using distributed capacitance rather than
discrete lumped elements. Thus, familiar elements in mi-
crowave technology, such as transmission lines and cavi-
ties, will potentially play an increasingly important role in
the design of high frequency coils. For example, one such
design, termed a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) reso-
nator, has been used for human studies up to frequencies
of 300 MHz [10].
3.4. Mutually Decoupled Coil Arrays
In many MRI applications, it is not necessary to acquire
signal from the entire patient, but only from a localized
region. In this case, a small surface coil can be placed
next to the region of interest. Typically, this surface coil is
a simple circular or square loop. Since the B
1
eld pro-
duced from such a coil is very inhomogeneous, a larger-
volume coil, such as the birdcage described previously, is
used for transmitting a homogeneous B
1
eld, and the
surface coil is used to receive the signal. Using the small
surface coil in this way gives a local SNR much higher
than that from the volume coil alone, due to both the high
intrinsic sensitivity of the small surface coil and the re-
duced noise contribution from the patient. However, since
there are now two circuits impedance-matched at the
same frequency in relatively close proximity, there can
be considerable coupling between the two circuits. This
coupling must be minimized, and is normally achieved
using active detuning of the surface coil during transmis-
sion, and the volume coil during signal reception, via PIN
diodes.
An extension of the surface coil concept is the design of
arrays of mutually decoupled surface coils [11,12], often
misleadingly called phased arrays, as shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 11. The use of many coils requires that the
imaging system has multiple receiver channels; as of
2004, most commercial vendors have up to 32 such receiv-
er channels. Each coil in the array is connected to a sep-
arate preamplier and receiver. Using such arrays, much
larger imaging elds of view can be covered than with a
single small coil, while maintaining the high sensitivity of
the individual small surface coils. Image reconstruction is
normally implemented using a simple sum-of-squares al-
gorithm. The major engineering challenge is to reduce the
coupling between individual coils; this coupling introduces
noise correlation into the reconstructed image and reduces
the image SNR. Effective coil decoupling can be achieved
by optimal overlapping of the coils, a process that
minimizes the mutual impedance between neighboring
coils, and also by using high-input impedance preampli-
ers for each of the coils, which minimizes the currents
present in the individual coils, and therefore the intercoil
coupling [11].
3.5. The MRI Receiver
The basic elements of an analog MRI receiver chain are a
preamplier, a one- or two-stage demodulator, a quadrature-
phase-sensitive detector, lowpass lters, two second-stage
audio ampliers with variable gain, and nally two analog-
to-digital converters; the MRI receiver as such is very simi-
lar to a conventional superheterodyne radio receiver.
Figure 12 shows the rst stage of the receiver chain
and the connections to the MRI coil. The purpose of the
transmit/receive (Tx/Rx) switch is to ensure that the high-
power transmitted RF pulse does not leak into the receiv-
er, and also that during signal reception all of the signal
passes to the preamplier. During transmission of the
RF pulse, diodes D
1
and D
2
are turned on and therefore
conduct. Diodes D
3
and D
4
are also in ON state, and the
quarter-wavelength cable to ground provides a high
impedance, preventing current from traveling to the pre-
amplier. The received signal (typically of the order of
millivolts) is several orders of magnitude lower than the
transmitted pulse, and so, during signal reception, all
diodes are OFF. The transmitter chain presents a high
impedance, and all the signal passes through the quar-
ter-wavelength cable to the preamplier. In certain
implementations the quarter-wavelength cable can be
replaced by a lumped-element circuit, typically a pi net-
work with two capacitors and one inductor. Rather than
the single set of diodes shown in the diagram, in practice
many sets of diodes are used.
The second stage of the receiver chain is shown in
Fig. 13. The rst stage demodulates the signal from the
Larmor frequency to an intermediate frequency (IF), typ-
ically B10.7 MHz. A second demodulation stage to base-
band can be used, but most modern scanners directly
sample at the intermediate frequency. The signal enters
a quadrature mixer to produce real and imaginary
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Schematic of a four-element one-dimensional MRI
coil array (a) and an eight-element two-dimensional MRI coil
array (b).
outputs. These pass through lowpass lters, the cutoff fre-
quency of which depends on the particular data acquisition
parameters used in the image. After nal amplication,
the signal is digitized, typically with a resolution of 16 bits.
3.6. Direct Digital Synthesis and Digital Detection
The rapid spread of digital transmission and reception in
the communication industry has recently been mirrored in
the design of MRI systems, in particular the receiver. Us-
ing digital lters, for example, enables a much better lter
shape than for the analog case. In addition, the data can
be oversampled many times, which provides a higher SNR
in the reconstructed image. Direct digital synthesis (DDS)
has the advantage of faster frequency- and phase-contin-
uous switching than does its analog counterpart. A com-
plete DDS unit is available on-chip (e.g., the AD9854 from
Analog Devices, with 48 bit frequency resolution and 14
bit phase resolution). A DDS chip typically consists of an
address counter, a lookup table for production of the sine
wave at the frequency of interest, and a digital-to-analog
converter. Although such chips are currently limited in
the highest frequency that can be produced, the image
frequency output can potentially be used for such appli-
cations.
4. ADVANCED TOPICS
4.1. Parallel Imaging
One of the major limitations of MRI, particularly in
comparison with computed tomography and ultrasonic
imaging, is the relatively slow data acquisition. The fun-
damental limits on imaging speed are the time required
for current switching in the gradient coils, and the rela-
tively large number of phase encoding steps (typically
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
Baluns
Impedance matching networks
MRI coil
Hybrid coupler
Tx/Rx switch
z/4
RF
transmitter
0 90
in out
Preamplifier
Figure 12. A schematic of the rst stage of
the receiver chain with a Tx/Rx switch used to
isolate the receiver from the transmitter.
LPF
Mixer
cos (o
0
- o
IF
)t
Oscillator
Preamplifier
Demodulator
90
(A/D)
1
(A/D)
2
coso
IF
t
LPF
LPF
Mixer
Mixer
Quadrature mixer
Variable-gain
audio amplifiers
Figure 13. A schematic of the second stage of
the receiver chain and analog-to-digital (A/D)
conversion, where o
0
is the Larmor frequency,
o
IF
the intermediate frequency, and LPF a low-
pass lter.
128256) required for reasonable spatial resolution. More
recently, a general class of imaging techniques, termed
parallel imaging, have been developed that use the spatial
information from an array of mutually decoupled coils to
reduce the number of acquired phase encoding steps, and
therefore increase the imaging speed. Acceleration factors
of 4 in one-phase-encoding direction, and up to 10 in two-
phase-encoding directions have been achieved.
The basic principle of parallel imaging is that it is
possible to reconstruct many lines of k space from a single
acquired line. The original method, termed simulta-
neous acquisition of spatial harmonics (SMASH) [13],
achieves this by using combinations of signals from an
array of surface coils to directly mimic the spatial encod-
ing normally performed by phase encoding. In analogy
to Eq. (19), the k-space signal acquired in the pth coil is
given by
S
p
k
x
; k
y
/
_
slice
_
slice
rx; yC
p
x; ye
j2pk
x
x
e
j2pk
y
y
dx dy
33
where C
p
(x,y) is the spatial distribution of the RF sensi-
tivity for the pth coil in the array. If the array is con-
structed appropriately, then a linear combination of the
individual coil sensitivities can be used to produce shifts in
k
y
that are identical to acquiring different phase encoding
steps
p
n
m
p
S
p
k
x
; k
y
%
p
n
0
p
S
p
k
x
; k
y
mDk
y
34
where m is an integer, either positive or negative. For ex-
ample, if m 1, then the even lines in k
y
space could be
acquired, and the odd lines synthesized from the (mea-
sured) coil sensitivity proles, thus reducing the data ac-
quisition time by a factor of 2.
For image reconstruction without artifacts, the SMASH
technique relies on accurate knowledge or a good estimate
of the relative RF sensitivities of the component coils in the
array in order to determine the optimal complex weights
n
m
p
. Many improvements have been made to the original
implementation; for example, the technique known as gen-
eralized autocalibrating partially parallel acquisitions
(GRAPPA) acquires additional autocalibration scan (ACS)
lines. Data from multiple lines fromall the coils are used to
t ACS lines in a single coil. This t gives the weights,
which are then used to generate the missing k-space lines
from that particular coil. After this procedure has been
performed for each coil in the array, the full set of images
can be combined using an optimal sum-of-squares recon-
struction. Using GRAPPA several problems such as sub-
optimal image reconstruction, phase cancellation and
inexact estimates of coil sensitivities are minimized.
An alternative parallel imaging strategy is the sensi-
tivity encoding (SENSE) method [15], which provides an
optimized reconstruction if a perfectly accurate complex
coil sensitivity map can be obtained. If the acquired k-
space data are reduced by a factor of R by skipping certain
k-space lines, then inverse Fourier transformation of the
data leads to aliased images from all the coils in the array.
In order to reconstruct an accurate image of the sample,
the true signals and folded signals have to be separated.
This can be achieved since, in the image from each indi-
vidual coil, signal superposition occurs with different
weights according to the local coil sensitivities. The una-
liased components v of every aliased pixel can be obtained
by an appropriate linear combination of the pixel values in
the various single-coil images
v S
H
C
1
S
1
S
H
C
1
a 35
where vector v contains the unaliased pixel values, a
the aliased values, and S the complex coil sensitivi-
ties; the superscript H represents the transposed com-
plex conjugate, and C noise correlation in the receiver
channels.
In addition to speeding up data acquistion, partial par-
allel imaging can also be used to improve image quality in
single-shot imaging techniques, where short T
2
values
lead to image blurring. An example is shown in Fig. 14.
4.2. Dielectric and Penetration Effects at High Frequencies
As described previously, higher static magnetic elds re-
sult in a higher image SNR, and are particularly advan-
tageous in functional magnetic resonance imaging, for
example. However, as the Larmor frequency increases,
the dimensions of the human patient (head or torso) be-
come a significant fraction of the radiofrequency wave-
length, and the B
1
eld distribution is distorted
significantly by the patient [16,17]. In general, two com-
peting effects arise from the dielectric and conductivity
properties of the patient. Materials with a high dielectric
constant, for instance water with e
r
80, reduce the effec-
tive wavelength within the patient, and can give rise to
dielectric resonances that produce areas of high signal in-
tensity at the center of the object. For a dielectric cylinder
with radius a cm and length L cm, the resonant frequency
of the TE
01d
mode is given by
f
MHz
3400
a

e
r
p
a
L
3:45
_ _
36
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Single-shot inversion recovery HASTE images in the
lungs of a healthy volunteer acquired with an eight-element car-
diac array: (a) conventional acquisition matrix 128 256 (207 ms
imaging time, interecho spacing 2.88ms); (b) GRAPPA acquisition
(acceleration factor 3) with matrix 256 256 (150 ms imaging
time, interecho time 0.96ms). (Reproduced from Ref. 14, copy-
right 2002, with permission from John Wiley & Sons.)
The conductivity of the sample, however, dampens this
effect and reduces the penetration of the RF eld. Since
both effects are highly frequency-dependent, the relative
effects are manifested very differently at different eld
strengths. Specifically, the wavelength is given by
l
2p
o
2
m
0
e
0
e
r
jom
0
s
_ 37
At eld strengths up to 7T, the dominant effect is from the
dielectric focussing, which is typically seen as a bright
areas in the center of the patient, as shown in Fig. 15 [18].
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clear Magnetic Resonance in One and Two Dimensions, Oxford
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C. P. Slichter, Principles of Magnetic Resonance, Springer-Verlag,
1990.
MAGNETIC SHIELDING
DAVID W. FUGATE
Electric Research and
Management, Inc.
FRANK S. YOUNG
Electric Power Research
Institute
Shielding is the use of specific materials in the form of
enclosures of barriers to reduce eld levels in some region
of space. In traditional usage, magnetic shielding refers
specifically to shields made of magnetic materials like iron
and nickel. However, this article is more general because
it covers not just traditional magnetic shielding but also
(a) (b)
Figure 15. Magnetic resonance images acquired at (a) a eld
strength of 4T (proton Larmor frequency 170MHz) and (b) at a
eld strength of 7T (proton Larmor frequency 300MHz). The
presence of a dielectric resonance at the higher eld strength is
clearly visible. (Reproduced from reference 18, copyright (2001),
with permission from John Wiley & Sons.)
MAGNETIC SHIELDING 2473
shielding of alternating magnetic elds with conducting
materials, such as copper and aluminum. In typical
applications, shielding eliminates magnetic eld interfer-
ence with electron microscopes, computer displays (CRTs),
sensitive electronics, or other devices affected by magnetic
elds.
Although shielding of electric elds is relatively effec-
tive with any conducting material, shielding of magnetic
elds is more difcult, especially at extremely low fre-
quencies (ELFs). The ELF range is dened as 3 Hz3kHz
[1]. The selection of proper shield materials, shield geom-
etry, and shield dimensions are all important factors in
achieving a specied level of magnetic eld reduction.
Placing a shield around a magnetic eld source, as shown
in Fig. 1a, reduces the eld magnitude outside the shield,
and placing a shield around sensitive equipment, as
shown in Fig. 1b, reduces the eld magnitude inside the
shield. These two options are often called shielding the
source, or shielding the subject, respectively.
Both examples in Fig. 1 illustrate shield geometry. In
many applications, it is impractical or impossible (due to
physical constraints) to use an enclosure, and open shield
geometries, also called partial shields, are required.
Figure 2 shows two basic partial shield geometries, a
at-plate shield (a), and a channel shield (b). For these
congurations, the region where shielding occurs may be
limited because the shield does not fully enclose the source
or the subject, resulting in edge effects. A discussion of the
geometric aspects of shielding in contained in Ref. 2.
1. ELF SHIELDING VERSUS HIGH-FREQUENCY SHIELDING
Electric and magnetic elds radiate away from a source at
the speed of light c. In the time it takes a source alternat-
ing with frequency f to complete one full cycle, these elds
have traveled a distance l, known as the electromagnetic
wavelength:
l c=f 1
At distances from a eld source on the order of one wave-
length and larger, the dominant parts of the electric and
magnetic elds are coupled as a propagating electromag-
netic wave. If a shield is placed in this region, shielding
involves the interaction of electromagnetic waves with the
shield materials. Any mathematical description must be
based on the full set of Maxwells equations, which in-
volves calculating both electric and magnetic elds.
Shielding of electromagnetic waves is often described in
terms of reection, absorption, and transmission [3]. Be-
cause wavelength decreases with increasing frequency,
shielding at radio frequencies in the FM band
(88108 MHz) and higher typically involves the interac-
tion of electromagnetic waves with shield materials.
At distances much less than one wavelength, the non-
radiating portion of the elds is much larger than the
radiating portion. In this region, called the reactive
near-eld region, the coupling between the electric and
magnetic elds can be ignored, and the elds may be cal-
culated independently. This is called a quasistatic descrip-
tion. At 3 kHz (the upper end of the ELF band), a
wavelength in air is 100km. Thus, for ELF eld sources,
one is in the reactive near-eld region in all practical
cases, and a full electromagnetic solution is not required.
Instead, one need focus only on interaction of the magnetic
eld or the electric eld with the shield material, depend-
ing on which eld is being shielded. In some cases, shield-
ing of the electric eld with metallic enclosures is
required. This article deals specifically with the shielding
of DC and ELF magnetic elds.
2. MAGNETIC FIELDS
Moving electric charges, typically currents in electrical
conductors, produce magnetic elds. Magnetic elds are
dened by the Lorentz equation as the force acting on a
test charge q, moving with velocity v at a point in space
FqvmH 2
in which H is the magnetic eld strength with units of
amperes per meter and m is the permeability of the medi-
um. By definition of the vector cross-product, the force on
a moving charge is at right angles to both the velocity
vector and the magnetic eld vector. Lorentz forces pro-
duce torque in generators and motors and focus electron
beams in imaging devices.
Unwanted, or stray magnetic elds deect electron
beams in the same imaging devices, often causing inter-
ference problems. Sources that use, distribute, or produce
alternating currents, like the 60 Hz currents in a power
system, produce magnetic elds that are time-varying at
the same frequency.
Magnetic elds are vector elds with magnitude and
direction that vary with position relative to their sources.
This spatial variation or eld structure depends on the
Figure 1. (a) Shielding the sourceplacing a shield around a
eld source reduces the elds everywhere outside the shield; (b)
shielding the subjecta shield placed around a sensitive device
reduces the elds from external sources.
Figure 2. Examples of open shield geometries: (a) at plate
shield, (b) inverted channel shield.
2474 MAGNETIC SHIELDING
distribution of sources. Equal and opposite currents pro-
duce a eld structure that can be visualized by plotting
lines of magnetic ux, as show in Fig. 3. The spacing be-
tween ux lines, or line density, indicates relative eld
magnitudes, and the tangent to any ux line represents
eld direction. Another way to visualize eld structure is
through a vector plot, shown in Fig. 4. Lengths of the ar-
rows represent relative eld magnitudes, and the arrows
indicate eld direction.
Shield performance, or eld reduction, is measured by
comparing eld magnitudes before shielding with the eld
magnitudes after shielding. In general, eld reduction
varies with position relative to the source and shield.
The shielding factor s is dened as the ratio of the shield-
ed eld magnitude B to the eld magnitude B
0
without
the shield present at a point in space:
s jBj=jB
0
j 3
The shielding factor represents the fraction of the original
eld magnitude that remains after the shield is in place. A
shielding factor of zero represents perfect shielding. A
shielding factor of one represents no shielding, and shield-
ing factors greater than one occur at locations where the
eld is increased by the shield. It is incorrect to dene the
shielding factor as the ratio of the elds on opposite sides
of a shield. Shielding factor is often called shielding effec-
tiveness (SE), expressed in units of decibels (dB):
SEdB 20 log
10
jBj=jB
0
j 4
Shielding effectiveness is sometimes alternatively dene
as the inverse of the shielding factor, the ratio of unshield-
ed to shielded elds at a point, but it is really a matter of
preference. For example, a shielding effectiveness of two
dened in this manner represents a twofold reduction,
that is, the eld is halved by the shield and the shielding
factor is 0.5. When elds are time-varying, shielding is
typically dened as the ratio of RMS magnitudes.
3. SHIELDING MECHANISMS
Although shielding implies a blocking action, DC and ELF
magnetic eld shielding is more aptly described as alter-
ing or restructuring magnetic elds by the use of shielding
materials. To illustrate this concept, Fig. 5a shows a ux
plot of a uniform, horizontal, magnetic eld altered
(Fig. 5b) by the introduction of a ferromagnetic material.
These are two basic mechanisms by which shield ma-
terials alter the spatial distribution of magnetic elds,
thus providing shielding. They are the ux-shunting
mechanism and the induced-current mechanism [5].
Figure 3. The lines of magnetic ux illustrate the eld structure
associated with one or more sources. The density of ux lines in-
dicates the relative eld strength and the tangent to any line in-
dicates the eld direction at that point.
Figure 4. Avector plot graphically illustrates both eld strength
and direction as a function of position.
Figure 5. (a) Horizontal uniform eld (b) altered by introduction
of a ferromagnetic material; illustrates the concept that shielding
is the result of induced sources in the shield material.
3.1. Flux Shunting
An externally applied magnetic eld induces magnetiza-
tion in ferromagnetic materials. (All materials have mag-
netic properties, but in most materials these properties
are insignificant. Only ferromagnetic materials have
properties that provide shielding of magnetic elds.) Mag-
netization is the result of electrons acting as magnetic
sources at the atomic level. In most matter, these sources
cancel one another, but electrons in atoms with unlled
inner shells make a net contribution, giving the atoms a
magnetic moment [6]. These atoms spontaneously align
into groups called domains. Without an external eld, do-
mains are randomly oriented and cancel each other. When
an external eld is applied, the Lorentz forces align some
of the domains in the same direction, and together, the
domains act as a macroscopic magnetic eld source. A fa-
miliar magnetic eld source is a bar magnet, which ex-
hibits permanent magnetization even without an applied
eld. Unlike a permanent magnet, most of the magneti-
zation in ferromagnetic shielding materials goes away
when the external eld is removed.
Basic ferromagnetic elements are iron, nickel, and co-
balt, and the most typical ferromagnetic shielding mate-
rials are either iron-based or nickel-based alloys (metals).
Less common as shielding materials are ferrites such as
iron oxide.
Induced magnetization in ferromagnetic materials acts
as a secondary magnetic eld source, producing elds that
add vectorially to the existing elds and change the spa-
tial distribution of magnetic elds in some region of space.
The term ux shunting comes from the fact that a ferro-
magnetic shield alters the path of ux lines so that they
appear to be shunted through the shield and away from
the shielded region, as shown by the example in Fig. 6.
Flux-shunting shielding is often described in terms of
magnetic circuits as providing a low-reluctance path for
magnetic ux.
Permeability m is a measure of the induced magnetiza-
tion in a material. Thus, permeability is the key property
for ux-shunting shielding. The constitutive law
BmH 5
relates magnetic ux density B to the magnetic eld
strength H. More typically used, relative permeability is
the ratio of permeability in any medium to the permeabil-
ity of free space, m
r
m/m
0
. Nonferrous materials have a
relative permeability of one, and ferromagnetic materials
have relative permeabilities much greater than one, rang-
ing from hundreds to hundreds of thousands. In these
materials, permeability is not constant but varies with the
applied eld H.
The nonlinear properties of a ferromagnetic material
can be seen by plotting ux density B, as the applied eld
H is cycled. Figure 7 shows a generic BH plot that illus-
trates hysteresis. When the applied eld is decreased from
a maximum, the ux density does not return along the
same curve, and plotting one full cycle forms a hysteretic
loop. A whole family of hysteretic loops exists for any fer-
romagnetic material as the amplitude of eld strength H
is varied. The area of a hysteretic loop represents the en-
ergy required to rotate magnetic domains through one cy-
cle. Known as hysteretic losses, this energy is dissipated as
heat in the shield material.
For effective ux-shunting shielding, the ux density in
a magnetic material should follow the applied eld closely.
However, it is obvious from the hysteretic loop of Fig. 7
that B does not track H. B lags H, as seen by the fact that
there is a residual ux density (nonzero B) when H has
returned to zero and that B does not return to zero until H
increases in the opposite direction. Thus, soft ferromag-
netic materials with narrow hysteretic loops are best for
shielding, in contrast to hard ferromagnetic materials
with wide hysteretic loops, typically used as permanent
magnets and in applications such as data storage.
Hysteretic curves illustrating soft and hard ferromag-
netic materials are shown in Fig. 8.
At very low eld levels relative permeability starts at
some initial value (initial permeability) increases to a
maximum as the applied eld is increased, and then de-
creases, approaching a relative permeability of one as the
material saturates, as shown in Fig. 9. Saturation occurs
because there is a limit to the magnetization that can be
induced in any magnetic material. In Fig. 7, the decreas-
ing slope at the top and bottom of the curves occurs as the
limit of total magnetization is reached. When a material
saturates, it cannot provide additional shielding.
For shielding alternating magnetic elds via ux
shunting, the key property is AC permeability, DB/DH
through one cycle. Although Fig. 7 shows a hysteresis
Figure 6. Example of the ux-shunting mechanism. The region
inside a ferromagnetic duct is shielded from an external, hori-
zontal magnetic eld.
Figure 7. Typical BHcurves showing how nonlinear properties
of ferromagnetic materials result in a hysteretic loop as the ap-
plied eld H is cycled.
curve that swings from near saturation to near saturation
in both directions, a hystersis curve caused by a very small
alternating eld in the presence of a large DC eld might
look like Fig. 10. In this case, the ac permeability is less
than the DC permeability, B=H. In addition, the DC eld
creates a constant magnetization that affects the time-
varying magnetization. Figure 11 shows how AC perme-
ability for a small alternating eld is reduced with in-
creasing DC eld. This plot, called a buttery curve, is
generated by measuring the AC permeability at different
levels of DC eld. The DC eld is increased from zero to a
maximum, reversed to the same maximum in the opposite
direction, and then reduced to zero, and the AC perme-
ability is measured at different points to generate the but-
tery curve. The extent to which the AC permeability is
affected depends on the properties of each ferromagnetic
material. In general, the better ferromagnetic materials
are more sensitive. This type of curve is relevant for shield-
ing small AC elds in the presence of a larger DC eld.
To gain an understanding of how ux shunting varies
with shield parameters, one can look at the analytical
expression for the shielding provided by a ferromagnetic
spherical shell with radius a, shield thickness D (that
is much smaller than the radius), and relative per-
meability m
r
:
s
3a
2m
r
D
6
Equation (6) shows that shielding improves (shielding fac-
tor decreases) with increasing relative permeability and
increasing shield thickness. It also shows that shielding
gets worse with increasing shield radius. From the per-
spective of magnetic circuits, shielding improves as the
reluctance of the ux path through the shield is lowered.
Increasing permeability and thickness reduce the reluc-
tance, improving shielding. Increasing shield radius in-
creases reluctance by increasing the pathlength of the
magnetic circuit, making shielding worse. In short, the
ux-shunting mechanism works best in small, closed-
geometry shields.
Flux-shunting shielding has been studied for a long
time. A journal article [7] dating back to 1899 describes an
effect whereby increased shielding is obtained using nest-
ed shells of ferromagnetic material with nonmagnetic ma-
terials or air gaps between the ferromagnetic shells. In
other words, by changing the shield form a single thick
layer to thinner double or triple layers, one can in some
cases enhance the shielding effectiveness although using
the same amount or even less ferromagnetic material.
This effect occurs mainly with congurations where the
total shield thickness is within an order of magnitude of
the shield radius.
Figure 8. Examples of hysteretic loops for soft and hard ferro-
magnetic materials.
Figure 9. Permeability as a function of applied eld strength.
Figure 10. Hysteretic loop formed by a small AC eld in the
presence of a large DC eld.
Figure 11. Buttery curve illustrates how the AC permeability
changes as a much larger DC eld is applied and removed.
In some cases, a double layer shield is used to avoid
saturation of the layer closest to the eld source where the
elds are strongest. For example, a steel material might be
used as the rst shield layer, whereas a high-performance
nickel alloy is used as the second layer. The steel lowers
the eld enough that the nickel alloy layer is not saturat-
ed. Saturation ux densities of typical shield materials are
listed in Table 1.
3.2. Induced-Current Mechanism
Time-varying magnetic ux passing through a shield ma-
terial induces an electric eld in the material according to
Faradays law:
rE
@B
@t
7
In electrically conducting materials, the induced electric
eld results in circulating currents, or eddy currents, in
the shield according to the constitutive relationship
JsE 8
where J is the current density, s is the material conduc-
tivity, and E is the electric eld induced according to
Eq. (7). The elds from these induced currents oppose
the impinging elds, providing eld reductions. Figure 12
shows a at plate in a uniform eld. Induced-current
shielding appears to exclude ux lines from the shield,
providing eld reductions adjacent to the shield on both
sides. Because the induced currents are proportional to
the time rate of change of the magnetic elds, induced-
current shielding improves with increasing frequency.
Thus, at higher frequencies, magnetic elds are more eas-
ily shielded via the induced-current mechanism. In the
limit of innite conductivity or innite frequency, ux
lines do not penetrate the shield as shown in Fig. 13.
In a conducting shield, the magnetic eld and induced-
current magnitudes decrease exponentially in the direc-
tion of the shields thickness with a decay length called the
skin depth d
d
1
pf sm
9
which involves not only frequency f and conductivity s but
also permeability m because it affects the ux density,
which induces the circulating currents. Because of expo-
nential decay, shield enclosures with thickness on the or-
der of a skin depth or thicker provide good shielding. For
shield thicknesses much less than a skin depth, the in-
duced current densities are constant across a shield thick-
ness. However, significant shielding can still be obtained
from thin conducting shields in some situations where the
shield is sized properly. In these cases the shielding is a
result of induced currents owing over large loops.
The shielding factor equation for a nonferrous, con-
ducting, spherical shield with radius a, thickness D, and
conductivity s provides insight into how these parameters
affect the induced-current mechanism:
s
1
1
2pf m
0
saD
3
_ _
2
10
Because all parameters are in the denominator of Eq. (10),
induced-current shielding improves (shielding factor
Figure 12. Conducting plate in an alternating vertical eld
tends to exclude ux from passing through the plate, thus pro-
viding shielding.
Figure 13. In the limit of zero resistivity or innite frequency, a
conducting shield totally excludes ux lines.
Table 1. Properties of Typical Shielding Materials
Name Material Type
Maximum Relative
Permeability
Saturation Flux
Density (T) Conductivity (S/m) Density (kg/m
3
)
Cold-rolled steel Basic steel 2,000 2.10 1.0 10
7
7880
Silicon iron Electrical steel 7,000 1.97 1.7 10
6
7650
45 Permalloy 45%nickel alloy 50,000 1.60 2.2 10
6
8170
Mumetal 78%nickel alloy 100,000 0.65 1.6 10
6
8580
Copper High conductivity 1 NA 5.8 10
7
8960
Aluminum High conductivity 1 NA 3.7 10
7
2699
From Hoburt (8).
decreases) with increasing frequency f, increasing shield
thickness, and increasing shield radius. The effect of
shield radius is opposite to that for ux shunting shield-
ing, and although ux shunting shields static elds, the
induced-current mechanism does not. In general, induced-
current shielding is more effective for larger source shield
congurations whereas ux shunting is more effective for
smaller shield congurations.
3.3. Combined Shielding Mechanisms
Until now, the shielding mechanisms have been discussed
separately. Equations (6) and (10) are the shielding factor
equations for ux shunting and induced-current shielding
alone. In many shields, both mechanisms are involved. For
example, most ferromagnetic materials, being metals, also
have significant conductivity in addition to high perme-
ability. Or a shield might be constructed using two mate-
rials, one layer of a high permeability material and one
layer of a high conductivity material. In these cases both
shielding mechanisms contribute to the shielding to an
extent that depends on material properties, frequency of
the elds, and details of the shield conguration.
To illustrate the combined effect of both shielding mech-
anisms, Fig. 14 shows the shielding factor, calculated by a
method described in Ref. 8, as a function of shield radius
for a spherical steel shield in a 60-Hz uniform eld. For
these calculations steel is assigned a conductivity of 6.76
10
6
S/m, a relative permeability of 180, and the shield
thickness of 1 mm is held constant as the shield radius is
varied. Flux shunting dominates at the smaller radii, in-
duced-current shielding dominates at the larger radii, and
there is a worst-case radius of about 0.4 m, where a tran-
sition occurs between the dominant shielding mecha-
nisms.
The combined effect of both ux shunting and induced-
current shielding can be exploited with multilayer shields
made from alternating ferromagnetic and high-conductiv-
ity materials. Also using the method described in Ref. 8,
one can explore this type of shield construction. Alternat-
ing thin layers of high permeability and high conductivity
perform like a single-layer shield made with a material
with enhanced properties.
4. SHIELDING MATERIALS
Basic magnetic eld shielding materials can be grouped in
two main categories: ferromagnetic materials and high-
conductivity materials. For DC magnetic elds, ferromag-
netic materials are the only option. They provide shielding
through the ux shunting mechanism. For AC magnetic
elds, both ferromagnetic and high-conductivity materials
may be useful as shielding materials, and both shielding
mechanisms operate to an extent determined by the ma-
terial properties, operating frequency, and shield congu-
ration.
The practical high-conductivity materials are those
commonly used as electrical conductors, aluminum and
copper. Copper is almost twice as conductive as aluminum,
but aluminum is about 3.3 times lighter than copper and
generally costs less than copper on a per pound basis. For
shielding that depends on the induced-current mecha-
nism, conductivity across a shield is paramount and cop-
per has the advantage that it is easily soldered whereas
aluminum is notit should be welded. Mechanical fas-
teners can be used for connecting aluminum or copper
sheets, but the longevity of these connections is question-
able because of corrosion and oxidation.
Although there appears to be a large variety of ferro-
magnetic shielding materials, most t into one of ve basic
types:
*
Basic iron or steeltypically produced as coils and
sheet for structural uses
*
Electrical steelsengineered for good magnetic prop-
erties and low losses when used as cores for trans-
formers, motors, and other components
*
4050% nickel alloysmoderately expensive materi-
als with very good magnetic properties
*
7080% nickel alloyshighest cost materials with
the best magnetic properties, often referred to gener-
ically as mumetal, although this was originally a
trade name.
*
Amorphous metalsnoncrsytalline metallic sheet
formed by an ultrarapid quenching process that so-
lidies the molten metal; the noncrystalline form pro-
vides enhanced ferromagnetic properties.
Different manufacturers produce slightly different com-
positions of these basic materials, and they have different
procedures for heat treating, but the percentages of the
main elements, iron or nickel, are similar. There are only a
few large producers of nickel alloy materials. Shielding
manufacturers typically purchase materials from a large
producer, heat the materials in a hydrogen atmosphere
(hydrogen annealing) to improve the ferromagnetic prop-
erties, and then utilize the metal to fabricate a shield en-
closure or shield panels. Smaller shields are often
annealed after fabrication because the fabrication process
may degrade the magnetic properties.
Figure 14. Calculated 60Hz shielding factor for a spherical steel
shell in a uniform magnetic eld as a function of shield radius.
The shield thickness of one millimeter is held constant.
Important properties for ferromagnetic shield materials
are the initial permeability, the maximum permeability,
and the magnetic eld strength (or ux density) at which
the material saturates and further shielding cannot be ob-
tained. Because the ferromagnetic properties are nonlin-
ear, the operating permeability depends on the magnitude
of the magnetic eld being shielded. In general, increasing
magnetic properties go hand in hand with increasing cost,
lower saturation levels, and lower conductivity. Table 1
shows nominal values of maximum permeability, satura-
tion ux density, conductivity, and density for basic shield-
ing materials including copper and aluminum [9]. Note
that the initial permeabilities of ferromagnetic materials
are often one and two orders of magnitude smaller than
the maximum permeabilities (see Table 1).
5. SHIELDING CALCULATIONS
Because there are an innite variety of shield source con-
gurations and a wide variety of shield materials for build-
ing effective magnetic eld shields, shielding calculations
are a key part of practical shield design. Elaborate exper-
iments need not be made to characterize the performance
of each unique shield design. Extensive experiments are
not only impractical but also unnecessary. However,
closed-form analytical expressions exist only for a limited
set of ideal shield geometries, such as cylindrical shells,
spherical shells, and innite at sheets. Even for these
ideal shield geometries, the expressions can be quite com-
plicated, especially solutions for shields with more than
one material layer. For general shielding calculations, one
must either select a simple approximation to obtain an or-
der-of-magnitude shielding estimate or utilize more com-
plex numerical methods to solve the shielding problem.
In high frequency shielding, calculations for plane
waves propagating through innite sheets are used to ar-
rive at shielding estimates. Because the resulting equa-
tions are analogous to transmission line equations, this
method is often called the transmission-line approach
[10]. As described previously, this approach is not rele-
vant to ELF shielding except for a limited set of condi-
tions. Reference 8 describes a technique similar to the
transmission-line approach, but specifically tailored to
ELF magnetic eld shielding calculations for ideal shield
geometries with multiple layers having different material
properties. This method is well suited for calculations in-
volving nested cylindrical or spherical shields or shields
constructed from alternating layers of conducting and fer-
romagnetic materials.
Another technique found in literature is the circuit ap-
proach [11]. In this method, typically used to calculate
ELF induced-current shielding, the shield enclosure is
viewed as a short-circuited turn that can be characterized
by an inductance and resistance. This method suffers from
the assumption that significant details of eld structure
for the shielding problem are known a priori to properly
set the circuit parameters. This severely limits application
of the method.
General modeling of ELF magnetic eld shielding
amounts to calculating magnetic elds in the presence of
conducting and ferromagnetic materials. The computation
must account for induced currents and magnetization
throughout the shield material. This involves solutions
to the quasistatic form of Maxwells equations for mag-
netic elds over a continuum that represents the problem
region. In differential form the basic equations to be
solved are
rHJ 11
r
.
B0 12
rE
@B
@t
13
along with the constitutive relationships for permeability,
Eq. (5), and conductivity, Eq. (8), which describe the mac-
roscopic properties of shield materials. This quasistatic
description, which ignores the displacement current term
@D=@t, normally on the right-hand side of Eq. (11), is valid
as long as an electromagnetic wavelength is much larger
than the largest dimension of the shield. General solutions
to these equations are often called eddy-current or mag-
netic diffusion solutions. At zero frequency or zero con-
ductivity in the shield, there are no induced currents.
Only permeability restructures the magnetic eld. This
simplication is called the magnetostatic case, and solu-
tions must satisfy only Eqs. (11) and (12), along with the
constitutive relationship that denes permeability, Eq. (5).
In nding exact solutions to the governing magnetic
eld equations previously described, one approach is to
dene a vector potential A that satises Eq. (12):
rAB 14
Substituting Eq. (14) in Eq. (13), we obtain
E
@A
@t
15
Combining Eqs. (8), (11), (14), (15), and using a vector
identity gives the following
r
2
A ms
@A
@t
mJ
s
16
in which J
s
is the known distribution of source currents
producing magnetic elds that require shielding.
When the source currents are sinusoidal, A and J
s
can
be represented as phasors, and the time derivative in Eq.
(16) is replaced by jo:
r
2
A jomsA mJ
s
17
When the shield material has zero conductivity or the
magnetic elds are constant (zero frequency), Eq. (17)
becomes
r
2
A mJ
s
18
Equation (17) can be used for the general case where a
shield provides eld reduction through both ux shunting
and induced-current mechanisms. Equation (18) is only
for ux shunting. The shielding factor for a specific source
shield conguration is determined by rst solving for the
magnetic vector potential A without the shield in the
problem and then solving for A with the shield. Using
Eq. (14), one calculates the ux densities from both vector
potential solutions. Ratios of the eld magnitudes as in
Eq. (2) dene the eld reduction provided by the shield as
a function of position.
6. NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS FOR SHIELDING
Except for the ideal shield geometries mentioned previ-
ously, solving the governing equations requires numerical
methods. Two common numerical techniques are the -
nite-element method and the boundary integral method
[1214].
In the nite-element method, the problem region is
subdivided into elementstypically triangles for two-di-
mensional problems and tetrahedra for three-dimensional
problemsthat form a mesh. The continuous variation of
vector potential A over each element is approximated by a
specied basis function. Then the unknowns become the
coefcients of the basis function for each element. Varia-
tional concepts are used to obtain an approximate solution
to the governing partial-differential equation, for example,
Eq. (17), across all elements. The net result is a system of
algebraic equations that must be solved for the unknowns.
Finite-element software is commercially available, and
features that provide automatic meshing, graphical pre-
processing, and visualization of results make it an acces-
sible and useful general shield calculating tool for some
shield problems, especially problems that can be modeled
in two dimensions or problems with symmetry about an
axis. Figures 3, 5, 6, 12, and 13 were produced with nite-
element software.
However, there are weaknesses to the nite-element
method. Shield geometries typically involve very thin
sheets of materials with much larger length and width
dimensions. This, along with the need to accurately model
significant changes in eld magnitudes across the shield
thickness, requires large numbers of elements in the
shield region. Shielding problems are also characterized
by large regions of air and complicated systems of con-
ductors that are the eld sources for the problem. In terms
of energy density, the elds in the shielded region are
negligible compared with elds near the sources, so one
cannot rely on energy as the criterion for determining
when an adequate solution has been obtained. Finally,
solving the partial-differential equations means that the
problem region must be bounded and a boundary condi-
tion must be specied at the edges. The problem region
must be made large enough that the boundary conditions
do not affect the solution in the region where shielding is
being calculated. This results in more unknowns and a
larger problem to solve.
Instead of differential equations, it is also possible to
use the integral form of the quasistatic equations. For
determining magnetic elds in air due to some distribu-
tion of currents, one can derive an integral equation, often
called the BiotSavart law, which gives the magnetic eld
contribution at a point in space due to a differential piece
of current density
H
1
4p
_
V
0
Jr
0
r r
0
jr r
0
j
3
dv
0
19
in which Jr
0
is the current density in the problem as a
function of position dened by the vector r
0
(from the or-
igin to the integration point) and r denes the point where
the magnetic eld is being evaluated (vector from origin to
the eld evaluation point). Integrating over all of the cur-
rents in the problem gives the total eld at one point in
space. This equation is not valid when shield materials,
that is, conducting and ferromagnetic materials, are in-
troduced into the problem region. The boundary integral
method overcomes this difculty by replacing the effect of
magnetization or induced currents within the materials
with equivalent sources at the surface of the materials
where discontinuities in material properties occur. In con-
trast to the nite-element method, only the surfaces are
divided into elements. Basis functions are used to approx-
imate a continuous distribution of equivalent sources over
these surfaces, and a system of equations is developed in
which the unknowns are the coefcients for the basis func-
tions. After solving for the unknown sources on the shield
surface, one can then calculate the new magnetic eld at
any point by combining the contributions of all sources
the original eld sources and the induced sources in the
shieldto obtain the shielded magnetic eld distribution.
The key advantages of the boundary integral method
are that only the surfaces of the shield need to be subdi-
vided into elements and that the method is ideal for open
boundary problems with a large air region. The method is
also ideally suited for complex systems of currents. Thus,
the boundary-element method is better suited for three-
dimensional problems than the nite-element method. The
main weakness of the boundary integral method is that it
results in a full system of equations that is more difcult to
solve than the sparse system produced by the nite-
element method. An integral method based on surface
elements, developed expressly for solving three-dimension-
al quasistatic shielding problems, is described in Ref. 15.
The underlying theoretical basis for shield calculations
is as old as electricity itself and goes back to Faraday and
Maxwell. Although materials science is a rapidly changing
area with developments in composite materials and ma-
terials processing, the basic materials for shielding of DC
and ELF magnetic elds have, for the most part, remained
unchanged. For basic shield congurations, calculations
are straightforward. However, actual application of
shielding requires practical expertise in addition to theo-
retical knowledge. For example, construction methods
used to fabricate a shield from multiple sheets must en-
sure that conductivity and permeability are maintained
across the entire shield surface, especially in critical di-
rections. Edge effects and holes in shields for conduits,
doors, windows, and so on degrade shield performance and
must be accounted for early in the design process. With
proper shield calculating tools and proper construction
practices, shields can be designed that attenuate magnetic
elds by factors ranging from 10 to 1000 (shielding factors
ranging from 0.100 to 0.001), thus eliminating problems
with stray or unwanted magnetic elds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics
Terms, ANSI Std 100-1997, 6th ed., IEEE, New York, 1997.
2. L. Hasselgren and J. Luomi, Geometrical aspects of magnetic
shielding at extremely low frequencies, IEEE Trans. Elect-
romagn. Compat. 37:409420 (1995).
3. R. B. Schulz, V. C. Plantz, and D. R. Brush, Shielding theory
and practice, IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 30:187201
(1988).
4. J. F. Hoburg, Principles of quasistatic magnetic shielding with
cylindrical and spherical shields, IEEE Trans. Electromagn.
Compat. 37:547579 (1995).
5. T. Rikitake, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Shielding, Reidel,
Boston, 1987.
6. R. M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ,
1993 Reprint.
7. A. P. Wills, On the magnetic shielding effect of trilamellar
spherical and cylindrical shells, Phys. Rev. IX(4):193243 (1899).
8. J. F. Hoburt, A computational methodology and results for
quasistatic multilayered magnetic shielding, IEEE Trans.
Electromagn. Compat. 38:92103 (1996).
9. R. C. Weast, ed., Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 56th
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 19751976.
10. S. A. Schelkunoff, Electromagnetic Waves, Van Nostrand, New
York, 1943.
11. D. A. Miller and J. E. Bridges, Review of circuit approach to
calculate shielding effectiveness, IEEE Trans. Electromagn.
Compat. EMC-10:5262 (1968).
12. P. P. Silvester and R. L. Ferrari, Finite Elements for Electrical
Engineers, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 1983.
13. S. R. Hoole, Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Electro-
magnetic Devices, Elsevier Science, New York, 1989.
14. R. F. Harrington, Field Computation by Moment Methods,
Macmillan, New York, 1968.
15. K. C. Lim et al., Integral law descriptions of quasistatic mag-
netic eld shielding by thin conducting plate, IEEE Trans.
Power Deliv.12:16421650 (1997).
MAGNETRONS
JOHN M. OSEPCHUK
Concord, Massachusetts
THOMAS E. RUDEN
1
Newton Highlands,
Massachusetts
1. INTRODUCTION
The magnetron is an unique surviving example of an elec-
tron tube, or vacuum-electronic device, in the modern age
of RF and microwave semiconductor devices. Its definition
is complicated in historical length (back to 1921) and
breadth, types, and derived devices. In this review the
term magnetron usually connotes a source (oscillator) of
microwave power, where microwave is used to designate
frequencies between roughly 300 MHz and 300GHz. Prac-
tical application is dominated by its use in the microwave
oven, although a significant number of other military and
industrial applications remain.
In the IEEE dictionary (1997 edition), magnetron is
dened as An electron tube characterized by the interac-
tion of electrons with the electric eld of a circuit element
in crossed steady electric and magnetic elds to produce
alternating current power output. If alternating cur-
rent is replaced by RF/microwave, then this definition is
roughly equivalent to the one used here with some further
caveats. The IEEE definition would apply to ampliers as
well as oscillators. Also, a strict reading would allow its
application to a possible class of cyclotron resonance de-
vices, which would not generally be termed as magnet-
rons. If the interaction mechanism is restricted to the
class of velocity synchronism, then the IEEE definition
would be apt. It should be noted that in modern technology
the term magnetron also applies to devices not covered
by the IEEE definition but that demonstrably are derived
from the basic elements of the magnetron, which are de-
picted in Fig. 1. A uniform static magnetic eld B is ap-
plied parallel to a cylindrical (generally) cathode, of radius
r
c
, which is an effective emitter of electrons when a voltage
V
a
is applied between the concentric anode, of radius r
a
,
and the cathode, with conventional polarity. Axial con-
nement of the electrons is achieved by the presence of
end shields or end hats, which are attached to the cathode
as depicted in Fig. 1, where the distance between end
shields is denoted as L. The anode electrode, of height Hin
the axial direction, could be merely a solid (generally cop-
per) block, in which case the term magnetron diode is
used. Alternatively the anode could be made of a circuit, or
periodic structure for the purpose of achieving interaction
of circuit and electron cloud. The cathode is shown as a
uniform cylindrical tube heated by an internal lament
(usually tungsten) and thus dubbed an indirectly heated
cathode. Alternatively, which is the case for most magnet-
rons in power applications, the cathode itself could be
directly heated when it itself consists of a tungsten (or
thoriated tungsten) helix or coil.
r
m
2r
c
(a) (b)
Pole piece
End shield
Anode
structure
2r
a
L H
Figure 1. Basic structure of a magnetron: (a) midplane cross
section; (b) longitudinal cross section through axis.
1
Section 3,5, and 7 were contributed by Thomas E. Ruden.
2482 MAGNETRONS
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MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT

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