DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow

In this approach, we apply our four basic conservation laws to an infinitesimally small control volume.
Thedifferentialapproachprovidespointbypointdetailsofaflowpatternasopposetocontrolvolume
techniquethatprovidegrossaverageinformationabouttheflow.
Accelerationfieldofafluid
TheCartesianvectorformofavelocityfiledcanbewrittenas:
I(r, t) = t u(x, y, z, t) + :(x, y, z, t) + k

w(x, y, z, t)
The flow filed is the most important variable in the fluid mechanics, i.e., knowledge of the velocity
vectorfiledisequivalenttosolvingafluidflowproblem.
Theaccelerationvectorfieldcanbecalculated:
Ju(x, y, z, t)
Jt
=
ou
ot
+
ou
ox
ox
ot
+
ou
oy
oy
ot
+
ou
oz
oz
ot

=
ou
ot
+u
ou
ox
+ :
ou
oy
+ w
ou
oz

=
ou
ot
+ (I. v)u
wherethecompactdotproductsis:
u
o
ox
+:
o
oy
+w
o
oz
= I. v onJ v= i
o
ox
+ ]
o
oy
+ k
o
oz

Withasimilarapproach,weobtainthetotalaccelerationvector:
o =
JI
Jt
=
oI
ot
+ _u
oI
ox
+:
oI
oy
+ w
oI
oz
]
=
oI
ot
+ (I. v)I
ThetermoI ot iscalledthelocalaccelerationandvanishesiftheflowissteady.Thethreetermsinthe
parenthesesarecalledtheconvectiveaccelerationandriseswhentheparticlesmovethroughregionsof
spatiallyvaryingvelocity,e.g.nozzle.
Thetotaltimederivative(d/dt)issometimescalledthesubstantialormaterialderivativecanbeapplied
anyvariablesuchaspressure.ThisoperatorsometimesassignedaspecialsymbolD/Dt.
Thedifferentialequationofmassconservation
All basic equations can be derived by considering an elemental system. Figure 1 shows the control
volume (dx, dy, dz) in which flow through each side of the element is approximately onedimensional.
Since the size of the element is so small, we can assume that all the fluid properties are uniform and
constantwithintheelement.

M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow2

Fig.1:FixedCartesianelementshowinginletandoutletflowsonthexdirection.
Theconservationofmassfortheelementcanbewrittenas:
op
ot
Jx Jy Jz +
o
ox
(pu)Jx Jy Jz +
o
oy
(p:)Jx Jy Jz +
o
oz
(pw)Jx Jy Jz = u
Afterdividingbythevolumeoftheelement:
op
ot
+
opu
ox
+
op:
oy
+
opw
oz

=
op
ot
+ v. (pI) = u

Fig.2:Cylindricalpolarcoordinate.
Thecontinuityequationforthecylindricalpolarcoordinatesis:
op
ot
+
1
r
o
or
(rp:

) +
1
r
o
o0
(p:
0
) +
o
oz
(p:
z
) = u
wherevelocityvectorI = (:

, :
0
, :
z
).
Forsteadycompressibleflow,continuityequationsimplifiesto:
M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow3

`
1
1 Cortcsion,
o
ox
(pu) +
o
oy
(p:) +
o
oz
(pw) = u
CylinJcricol,
1
r
o
or
(rp:

) +
1
r
o
o0
(p:
0
) +
o
oz
(p:
z
) = u

For incompressible flow, continuity equation can be further simplified since density changes are
negligible:
v. I = u
`
1
1 Cortcsion,
ou
ox
+
o:
oy
+
ow
oz
= u
CylinJcricol,
1
r
o
or
(r:

) +
1
r
o
o0
(:
0
) +
o
oz
(:
z
) = u

AflowcanbeconsideredincompressiblewhenHo u.S.
Note:thecontinuityequationisalwaysimportantandmustalwaysbesatisfiedforarationalanalysisof
aflowpattern.
Thedifferentialequationoflinearmomentum
InaCartesiancoordinates,themomentumequationcanbewrittenas:
F = p
JI
Jt
Jx Jy Jz
Therearetypesofforces:bodyforcesandsurfaceforces.
Bodyforcesareduetoexternalfieldssuchasgravityandmagnetismfields.Weonlyconsidergravity
forces:
JF
gu
= pgJx Jy Jz wbcrc g = -gk

Thesurfaceforcesareduetothestressesonthesidesofthecontrolsurface.Thesestressesarethesum
ofhydrostaticpressureplusviscousstresses
]
whicharisefromthemotionofthefluid:
o
]
= _
-p +
xx

x

zx

x
-p +

xz

z
-p +
zz
_
Unlikevelocity,stressesandstrainsareninecomponenttensorsandrequiretwosubscriptstodefine
eachcomponent.
Thenetsurfaceforceduetostressesinthexdirectioncanbefoundas:
JF
x,su]
= _
o
ox
(o
xx
) +
o
oy
(o
x
) +
o
oz
(o
zx
)_ Jx Jy Jz

M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow4

Fig.2:stresstensor.
Similarly we can find the net surface force in y and z direction. After summing them up and dividing
throughbythevolume,weget:
_
JF
JxJyJz
]
vscous
= i _
o
xx
ox
+
o
x
oy
+
o
zx
oz
_ + ] _
o
x
ox
+
o

oy
+
o
z
oz
_ + k _
o
xz
ox
+
o
z
oy
+
o
zz
oz
_
= v.
]

Note: the surface force is the sum of the pressure gradient and the divergence of the viscous stress
tensor.
Thereforethelinearmomentumequationforaninfinitesimalelementbecomes:
pg - vp +v.
]
= p
JI
Jt

where
JI
Jt
=
oI
ot
+ _u
oI
ox
+ :
oI
oy
+w
oI
oz
]
Thisisavectorequation,andcanbewrittenas:
pg
x
-
op
ox
+
o
xx
ox
+
o
x
oy
+
o
zx
oz
= p _
ou
ot
+ u
ou
ox
+ :
ou
oy
+ w
ou
oz
]
pg

-
op
oy
+
o
x
ox
+
o

oy
+
o
z
oz
= p _
o:
ot
+u
o:
ox
+ :
o:
oy
+ w
o:
oz
]
pg
z
-
op
oz
+
o
xz
ox
+
o
z
oy
+
o
zz
oz
= p _
ow
ot
+ u
ow
ox
+:
ow
oy
+w
ow
oz
]

M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow5

Specialcasesofmomentumequation:
Inviscidflow:Eulersequation
Whentheviscoustermsarenegligible,i.e.
]
= u
pg - vp = p
JI
Jt

EulersequationcanbeintegratedalongastreamlinetoyieldthefrictionlessBernoulliequation.
Newtonianfluid:NavierStokesequation
ForaNewtonianfluid,theviscousstressesareproportionaltotheelementstrainratesandthe
coefficientofviscosity.

xx
= 2p
ou
ox

= 2p
o:
oy

zz
= 2p
ow
oz

x
=
x
= p _
ou
oy
+
o:
ox
]
xz
=
zx
= p _
ow
ox
+
ou
oz
]

z
=
z
= p _
o:
oz
+
ow
oy
]

wherepistheviscositycoefficient.Substitutingshearstressesinthemomentumequation,fora
Newtonianfluidwithconstantdensityandviscosity,weget:
pg
x
-
op
ox
+ p _
o
2
u
ox
2
+
o
2
u
oy
2
+
o
2
u
oz
2
_ = p _
ou
ot
+ u
ou
ox
+ :
ou
oy
+ w
ou
oz
]
pg

-
op
oy
+ p _
o
2
:
ox
2
+
o
2
:
oy
2
+
o
2
:
oz
2
_ = p _
o:
ot
+ u
o:
ox
+ :
o:
oy
+ w
o:
oz
]
pg
z
-
op
oz
+ p _
o
2
w
ox
2
+
o
2
w
oy
2
+
o
2
w
oz
2
_ = p _
ow
ot
+ u
ow
ox
+ :
ow
oy
+ w
ow
oz
]
ThesearetheincompressibleflowNavierstokesequations.
Note: NavierStokes equations have four unknowns: p, u, v, and w. They should be combined with the
continuityequationtoformfourequationsforthesesunknowns.
NavierStokes equations have a limited number of analytical solutions; these equations typically are
solvednumericallyusingcomputationalfluiddynamics(CFD)softwareandtechniques.
Thedifferentialequationofangularmomentum
Application of the integral theorem to a differential element gives that the shear stresses are
symmetric:

]
=
]

M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow6

Fig.3:FixedCartesianelementshowingshearstressesthatmaycauseanetangularaccelerationabout
O.
Therefore,thereisnodifferentialangularmomentumequation.
Theboundaryconditionsforthebasicequations
We have 3 differential equations to solve: i) continuity equation, ii) momentum, and iii) energy.
Typically, the density is variable, so the three equations contain 5 unknowns: p, I, p, u onJ I.
Therefore, we need 2 additional relations to complete the system of equations. These are provided by
dataoralgebraicexpressionsforstaterelationsofthermodynamicpropertiessuchasidealgasequation
ofstate:
p = p(p, I) onJ u = u(p, I)
For ideal gas, we have: p = p RI onJ u = c

I. So, we need to set proper, initial and boundary

conditionsforeachvariable.
Someimportantboundaryconditions:
Atsolidwall:V
fluid
=V
wall
(noslipcondition)T
fluid
=T
wall
(notemperaturejump)
Atinletoroutletsectionoftheflow:V,p,Tareknown
At a liquidgas interface: equality of vertical velocity across the interface (kinematic boundary
condition).
Mechanicalequilibriumatliquidgasinterface,(
zx
)
Iq
= (
zx
)
gus
and(
z
)
Iq
= (
z
)
gus

Ataliquidgasinterface:heattransfermustbethesame,(q
z
)
Iq
= (q
z
)
gus
,or
_k
oI
oz
]
Iq
= _k
oI
oz
]
gus

M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow7

Incompressibleflowwithconstantproperties
Flowwithconstantp, p, onJ kisabasicsimplificationthatisverycommoninengineeringproblemthat
leadsto:
Continuityv. I = u
Momentump
dv
dt
= pg - vp + pv
2
I
Forfrictionlessorinviscidflowsinwhichp = u.ThemomentumequationreducestoEulersequation:
p
JI
Jt
= pg - vp

Someillustrativeincompressibleviscousflows
Couetteflowbetweenafixedandamovingplate
Considertwodimensionalincompressibleplaneviscousflowbetweenparallelplates,

z
= u, adistance
2hapart,asshowninFig.4.Weassumethattheplatesareverywideandverylongandthattheflowis
essentiallyaxial.
: = w = u onJ u = u

Fig.4:Incompressibleviscousflowbetweenparallelplates,a)nopressuregradient;b)pressuregradient
withbothplatesfixed.
Fromcontinuityequation,welearn:
ou
ox
+
o:
oy
+
ow
oz
= u -
ou
ox
= u or u = u(y)only
We neglect gravity effects and assume fullydeveloped flow. Substitute u = u(y) in the NavierStokes
equationforxdirection:
M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow8

pg
x
-
op
ox
+ p _
o
2
u
ox
2
+
o
2
u
oy
2
+
o
2
u
oz
2
_ = p _
ou
ot
+ u
ou
ox
+ :
ou
oy
+ w
ou
oz
]
Aftersimplifications,itreducesto:
J
2
u
Jy
2
= u or u = C
1
y + C
2

WeneedtwoboundaryconditionstofindtheconstantsC
1
andC
2
.
Aty=+h,u=V=C
1
h+C
2

Aty=h,u=0=C
1
(h)+C
2

Therefore,thesolutionforflowbetweenplateswithamovingupperwallis:
u =
I
2b
y +
I
2
- b y +b
ThisiscalledCouetteflowduetoamovingwall:alinearvelocityprofilewithnoslipateachwall.
Couetteflowduetopressuregradientbetweentwofixedplates
Lets consider case (b) in Fig. 4, where both plates are fixed but pressure varies in the xdirection. If
: = w = u,thecontinuityequationleadtothesameresult,namely:
u = u(y)
Thexmomentumequationchangesbecausethepressureisvariable:
pg
x
-
op
ox
+ p _
o
2
u
ox
2
+
o
2
u
oy
2
+
o
2
u
oz
2
_ = p _
ou
ot
+ u
ou
ox
+ :
ou
oy
+ w
ou
oz
]
p
J
2
u
Jy
2
=
op
ox

Also,since: = w = uandgravityisneglected,theyandzmomentumequationsleadto:
op
oy
= u onJ
op
oz
= u - p = p(x) only
Thus,thepressuregradientinxdirectionistheonlyandtotalgradient:
p
J
2
u
Jy
2
=
Jp
Jx
= Const < u
Thesolutionisaccomplishedbydoubleintegration:
M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow9

u =
1
p
_
Jp
Jx
]
y
2
2
+ C
1
y + C
2

Theconstantscanbefoundfromthenoslipboundaryconditionatthewalls:
aty = _b: u = uThus,C1=0andC
2
= -
dp
dx
h
2
2
.
Thevelocitydistributioninachannelduetopressuregradientis:
u = -
b
2
2p
Jp
Jx
_1 -
y
2
b
2
_
TheflowformsaPoiseuilleparabolaofconstantnegativecurvature,wherethemaximumvelocityoccurs
atthecenter.
Fullydevelopedlaminarpipeflow
This is one of the most useful exact solutions to the NavierStokes equation: fullydeveloped
incompressibleflowinstraightcircularpipeofradiusR.
Fullydevelopedflow:referstotheflowinaregionfarenoughfromtheentrancethattheflowispurely
axial.Asaresult,thevelocitydistributioninthetubeisfixed(notchangingalongthetube).
Neglecting gravity effects and assuming axial symmetry, i.e.,

0
= u onJ :
0
= u, the continuity
equationincylindricalcoordinates,reducesto:
1
r
o
or
(r:

) +
1
r
o
o0
(:
0
) +
o
oz
(:
z
) = u - :
z
= :
z
(r)
It means that the flow proceeds straight down the pipe without radial motion. The rmomentum
equationincylindricalcoordinates,simplifiesto
p

= u or p = p(z)only.Thezmomentumequationin
cylindricalcoordinates,reducesto:
p _
o:
z
ot
+ :

o:
z
or
+
:
0
r
o:
z
o0
+ :
z
o:
z
oz
] = -
op
oz
+ p _
1
r
o
or
_r
o:
z
or
] +
1
r
2
o
2
:
z
o0
2
+
o
2
:
z
oz
2
_ + pg
z

p
r
J
Jr
_r
J:
z
Jr
] =
Jp
Jz
= Const < u
Thisequationislinearandcanbeintegratedtwice:
:
z
=
Jp
Jz
r
2
4p
+C
1
ln(r) + C
2

Applying,thenoslipboundaryconditionatthewallandfinitevelocityatthecenterline,givesus:
M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow10

Noslipatr=R::
z
= u =
dp
dz
R
2
4
+ C
1
ln(R) + C
2

Finitevelocityatr=0::
z
= initc = u +C
1
ln(u) +C
2
- C
1
= u
ThefinalsolutionforfullydevelopedHagenPoiseuilleflowis:
:
z
= _-
Jp
Jz
]
1
4p
(R
2
-r
2
)
Thevelocityprofileisaparaboloidwithamaximumatthecenterline.
Flowbetweenlongconcentriccylinders
Consideranincompressibleflowbetweentwoconcentriccylinders,asshowninFig.5.Thereisnoaxial
motionorendeffect,:
z
= o oz = u .

Fig.5:Incompressibleviscousflowbetweenlongcylinders.
Thecontinuity,with:
z
= u,reduces:
1
r
o
or
(r:

) +
1
r
o
o0
(:
0
) +
o
oz
(:
z
) = u - r:

= const.
Note that :
0
does not vary with 0. Also since :

= u at both the inner and outer cylinders, it follows

that :

= u everywhere, as a result, the motion will be purely circumferential, :

0
= :
0
(r). The
momentumequationin0directionis:
p(v. I):
0
+
p:
0
:

r
= -
1
r
op
o0
+pg
0
+p [v
2
:
0
-
:
0
r
2

Incylindricalcoordinates,wehave:
M.BahramiFluidMechanics(S09)DifferentialRelationsforFluidFlow11

v
2
:
0
=
1
r
J
Jr
_r
J:
0
Jr
]
Asaresult,themomentumequationbecomes:
u = p [v
2
:
0
-
:
0
r
2
- v
2
:
0
=
:
0
r
2

Thisisalinear2
nd
orderordinarydifferentialequation:
:
0
= C
1
r +
C
2
r

Theconstantscanbefoundbyapplyingboundaryconditions:
Atr=r
o
::
0
= u = C
1
r
o
+ C
2
r
o

Atr=r
i
::
0
= r

= C
1
r

+ C
2
r

Thefinalsolutionforthevelocitydistributionis:
:
0
=

r
0
r
-
r
r
0
r
0
r

-
r

r
0