BLD 307: BUILDING SERVICES AND EQUIPMENT 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
WEEK 1: Course Introduction/Overview
WEEK 2: Cold Water -Sources, Classification and Methods of Providing Cold Water
WEEK 3: Quality of Surface Water
WEEK 4: Water Treatment
WEEK 5: Water Transmission and Distribution Systems
WEEK 6: Cold Water Connection from Mains and Methods of Supply and Distribution in
Buildings
WEEK 7: Cold Water Supply and Distribution to Highrise Buildings
WEEK 8: Private Water Supply
WEEK 9: Materials for Cold Water Supply, Distribution and Controls
WEEK 10: Hot Water Supply
WEEK 11: Drainage System
WEEK 12: Revision

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 MODULE 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION/OVERVIEW
1.0 Introduction
Building Services is a course that deals with the provision of facilities to buildings to
make such buildings comfortable for human use. A building as a basic structure only
offers protection against adverse weather conditions, such as rainfall, snowfall,
sunshine, wind etc.
For the convenience of the users of buildings, more is required of this basic structure;
these requirements include among others toilet facilities, this brings up the need for
collection, transportation, disposal and treatment of waste.
The need for water to make this modern toilet functional also makes it imperative to
provide water.
The waste generated in addition to the collection and disposal of storm water also
brings up the issue of drainage systems in building.
The heat generated by the sun’s radiation causes a lot of inconvenience to building
users in form of raised body temperature; this situation requires adequate ventilation
– a good air circulation/movement. The natural form of circulation might not be
adequate hence the need for means of artificial air circulation that can only be made
possible by the use of energy the most common of which is electricity. Closely linked to
this is the need to provide lighting to a building. Building being basically a boxlike
enclosure usually requires lighting to allow for visibility of the interior, this is only
made possible by either natural lighting – obtained by the creation of openings in
building, or artificial lighting obtained via the use of electricity or any other sources of
energy.
The foregoing basically is what services to a building are all about. Put in a different
form Building services or general services are those provisions in and around buildings
that make the use of the built environment convenient for users.
Some of the facilities provided in around buildings to make them functionally
acceptable are as explained below:

What are building services?

Building services are the systems installed in buildings to make them comfortable,
functional, efficient and safe. Building services might include:

Building management systems

Building management systems are computer-based systems used

to monitor and control building services. They help building managers understand

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how buildings are operating and allow them to control and
adjust systems to optimise their performance.

As well as collating data and allowing ease of control, BMS can help; visualise data,
automatically generate reports and create alarms and alerts when parameters are
exceeded, failures occur, or with prognostic systems, when failures are likely to occur.
They can also allow comparison between spaces, buildings and benchmark data.

Energy generation, distribution and supply

Energy is generated from several different sources and delivered through a

transmission system by distribution network operators to end users. Types
of energy include:

Mechanical Transportation systems in Buildings

Mechanical transportation systems in buildings are the following:

Lifts and Escalators

A lift (or elevator) is a form of vertical

transportation between building floors, levels or decks, commonly used
in offices, public buildings and other types of multi-storey building. Lifts can be
essential for providing vertical circulation, particularly in tall buildings,
for wheelchair and other non-ambulant building users and for the vertical
transportation of goods. Some lifts may also be used
for firefighting and evacuation purposes.

Escalators are mechanical devices used for transporting people vertically between
different levels of buildings. Typically, they take the form of a moving staircase,
consisting of a 'chain' of single-piece aluminum or stainless steel steps guided by
a system of tracks in a continuous loop.

Fire safety, detection and protection

Buildings need to be designed to provide an acceptable level of fire safety and

minimise the risks from heat and smoke. Building services can present a major
ignition risk. Plant rooms, boiler houses and kitchens and so on should be sited where
their threat is minimised.

Once a fire is detected (either by occupants or by automatic means), it is necessary to

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communicate the location of the fire to (other) occupants and to a control and
response centre such as the fire and rescue service. Forms of detection include:

 Optical smoke alarms.

 Ionisation smoke alarms.
 Multi sensor alarms.
 Heat alarms.

There may also be other sorts of detectors, such as carbon monoxide detectors.

Sprinklers are designed to extinguish small fires or contain growing fires until the fire
and rescue service arrives.

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

HVAC can be used in buildings to:

 Maintain internal air quality.

 Regulate internal temperatures.
 Regulate internal humidity.

HVAC systems can be centralised in a building, or local to the space they are serving, or
a combination of both (for example, local air handling units supplied by centrally-
generated cooling). They may also be connected to a wider district heating or cooling
network.

Information and communications technology (ICT) networks

Information and Communications Technology (ICT)

describes technologies and equipment that can be used to communicate as well as
to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data.

Lighting and Illumination

The term ‘lighting’ refers to equipment the primary purpose of which is to produce light.
This is typically some form of lamp. However, lighting can also refer to the use
of natural light to provide illumination.

Lightning protection

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A lightning protection system (LPS) can protect a structure from damage caused by
being struck by lightning by providing a low-resistance path to ground for
the lightning to follow and disperse. Examples include:

 Rods or ‘air terminals’.

 Conductor cables.
 Ground rods.

Security and alarm systems

As well as the security of physical property it is also important to protect equipment,

staff, visitors, and information. Security can also be an
important consideration on construction sites.

The components of a commercial security system might include:

 Access control.
 CCTV.
 Intruder alarms.
 Perimeter security.
 Fire detection systems.
 Integrated systems.

Water supply, drainage and plumbing

Drainage is the removal of surface and sub-surface water. Sustainable urban

drainage systems (SUDS) are systems designed to efficiently manage
the drainage of surface water in the urban environment.

Plumbing refers to any system that allows the movement of fluids, typically involving
pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks and other apparatus.

Plumbing systems might be used for:

 Heating and cooling.

 Waste removal.
 Potable cold and hot water supply.
 Water recovery and treatment systems.
 Rainwater, surface and subsurface water drainage.

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Fuel gas piping

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MODULE 2: COLD WATER SUPPLY - SOURCES, CLASSIFICATION, QUALITY AND METHODS
OF PROVIDING COLD WATER
1.0 Introduction
Water is one of the basic human needs. Water is needed in all aspects of any life and
it remains one of the most valuable natural resources vital to the existence of any
form of life. It is a vital resource for health, development, food security and for the
entire ecological system and hence of direct importance to sustainable development.
That water is needed cannot be over emphasized, and the availability of water on
earth is also not in question. What is usually the problem is the quality, the sources and
the supply of potable water after treatment and the form/convenience by which the
supply gets to the users.
Building services in this respect seek to create an understanding of the real meaning
of water, the sources, the quality, the purification/treatment/ storage and supply to
ensure adequacy and availability all time round.
The understanding of this issue of water revolves round the hydrological cycle of water
(Fig. 1). The hydrological cycle of water is a term used to refer to the journey of water
in the earth system. Because this journey is cyclic in nature, meaning that it starts
from one point and end at another point only to continue on its journey again from
the same starting point. It starts with rainfall from the cloud in the form of
precipitation, turn into run-offs to form stream, river and ground water from where
we obtain both deep and shallow wells. In addition to these, we have spring water,
borehole water that that are obtained from water at the water table point.
The different processes are as follows:
• Precipitation is condensed water vapour that falls to the Earth's surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.
Approximately 505,000 km³ of water fall as precipitation each year, 398,000 km³ of it
over the oceans.
• Canopy interception is the precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage and
eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.
• Snowmelt refers to the runoff produced by melting snow.
• Runoff includes the variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This
includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may infiltrate
into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be
extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
• Infiltration is the flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once
infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
• Subsurface Flow is the flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers.
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Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g., as a spring or by being pumped) or
eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation
than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures.
Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in
aquifers for thousands of years.
• Evaporation is the transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves
from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of
energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly
includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to
as evapo-transpiration. Total annual evapo-transpiration amounts to approximately
505,000 km³ of water, 434,000 km³ of which evaporates from the oceans. Sublimation
is the state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor. Advection is
the movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapour states — through the atmosphere.
Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over
land.
• Condensation is the transformation of water vapour to liquid water droplets in the
air, producing clouds and fog.

Fig. 1 - Hydrological Cycle of water

Sources of Water Supply
Source of water refers to sources of water that provide water to public drinking water
supplies and private wells. They are usually classified by the routes that water has
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taken after rainfall. The foregoing leads to having a list of sources of water classified
as follows:
Surface Water
Surface water sources are streams, rivers, ponds, reservoirs, ocean, stored rain water.
Stream is simply described as a small river: a narrow and shallow river. River is a large
natural channel of water: a natural stream of water that flows through land and
empties into a body of water such as an ocean or lake. Ocean is a large sea: a large
expanse of salt water, especially any of the Earth's five main such areas, the Atlantic,
Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic oceans. The oceans occupy huge regions of the
Earth's surface, and their boundaries are usually established by continental land
masses and ridges in the ocean floor.
Groundwater
Underground water sources are springs, wells and boreholes.
Fig. 2 shows surface/underground water.

Fig. 2 - Surface/Underground water

Methods of Providing Cold Water
There are two basic ways of making/providing cold water to citizens of any country:
(i) Public water supply- In this method water supply networks are provided and run by
public utility companies. Most public water supply schemes are supplied from surface
water sources, though there are instances when both surface water and underground
(through boreholes) sources are utilised.

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A public water supply scheme is a system of engineering hydrologic and hydraulic
components that provides cold water to the consumer. A public water supply scheme
consists of three basic components: Source of water, treatment of water and
distribution of water to the users. Most public water supply schemes are supplied from
surface water sources. Although there are instances when both surface water and
underground (through boreholes) sources are utilised. Fig. 1 shows the schematic
diagram of typical public water supply scheme.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of public water supply scheme

(ii) Private water supply: Individual households are responsible for the supply mainly
from the underground water. Underground is normally obtained by sinking wells and
boreholes into the saturated zone located beneath the water table.

1.0 Quality of surface water

That water is needed cannot be over emphasized, and the availability of water on
earth is also not in question. What is usually the problem is the quality, the sources and
the supply of potable water after treatment and the form/convenience by which the
supply gets to the users.
Water by definition is said to be any liquid substance that is ordourless and colourless
and generally free of impurities. Chemically, pure water is the one which contains two
parts of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Characteristically, pure water has no colour, no
taste or smell, and in neither acidic nor alkaline.
The following are important quality requirements of water for domestic use:
(i) It should be colourless, and sparkling clear. It must be free from solids in
suspension and must not deposit a sediment on standing.
(ii) It should be of good taste, free from odour
(iii) It should be reasonably soft
(iv) It should be plentiful and cheap
(v) It should be free from disease producing bacteria or organisms
(vi) It should be free from objectionable dissolves gases, such as sulphuretted
hydrogen. It should, however, have sufficient quantity of dissolved oxygen.
(vii) It should be free from harmful salts
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(viii) It should be free from objectionable minerals, such as iron, manganese, lead,
arsenic, and other poisonous metals
(ix) It should be free from radio-active substance such as radium, strontium etc
(x) It should be reasonably free from phenolic compounds, chlorides, fluorides and
iodine.
(xi) It should not lead to scale formation and should be non-corrosive.
However, it is rare for surface water to be chemically pure. Even rainwater is
chemically and characteristically not pure as it dissolves carbondioxide as it falls
through the air. Why?
During the hydrological cycle, water being a universal solvent, can dissolve many
substances. Surface water, which flows over the surface of the land or through the
ground, comes into contact with many substances and takes some of these substances
into solution or into suspension. Surface water may also be subjected to contamination
by sewage from cities, industrial, agricultural runoff, and wastes from animals and
birds. It may contain disease producing micro-organisms called pathogens. They may
also have an undesirable colour, taste, and odour.
As noted above, water is said to be defined chemically as a chemical compound that is
made up of two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen. However, the
addition of other chemicals such as Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn) etc. to
water, could lead to its hardness or softness. Hardness of water can in part be said to
be the state of water that make it impossible for soap to lather, hence compromising its
ability to clean. Sodium Chloride (NaCl), that is contained in soap, is usually rendered
ineffective in the presence of such dissolve chemicals as Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn) etc. Softness on the other hand, is a state of water that make it wash
or soap friendly.
The factors that make water to be otherwise are usually referred to as impurities,
these impurities are responsible for the compromise in water quality. They can be
classified as follows:
Suspended impurities: Those impurities which normally remain in suspension. They are
microscopic and make water turbid.
Dissolved impurities: Those impurities are not visible, but they are large since water is
good solvent. They cause bad taste, hardness and alkalinity. Sometimes, they are
harmful. Some common water-borne diseases are typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever,
cholera, diarrhoeal, dysentery etc.
Colloidal impurities: Those impurities that are electrically charged. Due to this, the
colloidal particles, usually very small in size, remain in constant motion and do not
settle.
Table 1: Typical impurities/contaminants found in raw water
Contaminants Reason for importance
Suspended Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge
solids deposits and anaerobic conditions when untreated water is

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 drinked.
Pathogen Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria
and viruses that can be deposited in water through human or
animal wastes. Communicable diseases can be transmitted by
the pathogen. Example of diseases caused by pathogens that
may be found in surface water include typhoid, cholera,
Pollutants dysentery, polio, hepatitis.
The presence of these compounds in water must be minimised
Dissolved for public health reasons.
inorganic Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium, and sulphate
are added to the original domestic water supply as a result of
water use and may have to be removed from the water. They
Organic provide nutrients necessary for microorganism to live. odour,
contaminants turbidity
Organic contaminants are derived from animals and plants,
and may be
Manufactured chemical compounds. Dissolved oxygen
depletion, odour

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 MODULE 3: WATER PURIFICATION AND TREATMENT 1
Water purification is the removal of contaminants from untreated water to produce
drinking water that is pure enough for its intended use, most commonly human
consumption. Substances that are removed during purification include bacteria, algae,
viruses, fungi, minerals such as iron and sulphur, and man-made chemical pollutants.
Water treatment describes those processes used to make water more acceptable for a
desired end-use. These can include use as drinking water, industrial processes,
medical and many other uses. The processes involved in treating water included
physical such as settling, chemical such as disinfection or coagulation, or biological
such as lagooning, slow sand filtration or activated sludge. The following are the
purposes of water treatment:
(i) To remove colour, dissolve gas and murkiness of water
(ii) To remove objectionable tastes and odour
(iii) To remove the disease producing micro-organisms so that water is safe for
drinking purposes
(iv) To remove hardness of water
(v) To make it suitable for a wide variety of industrial purposes such as steam
generation, brewing, dyeing, etc.
Collection of surface water
The treatment of surface water in public water schemes begins with the construction of
collection works. The collection works included the following.
Dam
Dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river to store water on its upstream
side for the purpose of water supply. It is an impervious or fairly impervious barrier
put across a natural stream so that a reservoir is formed. Due to the construction of
the dam, water level in the river at its upstream side is very much increased, and a
large area may be submerged depending upon the water spread of the reservoir so
formed. Apart from water supply, dams are significant for flood control,
recreational, avigation, irrigation, electricity generation, fish and wildlife protection
and development etc.
Classification of dams
Dams may be classified into different categories, depending upon the purpose or basis
of the classification.
(i) Storage dam
A storage dam is the most common type of dam, and is constructed to impound water
to its upstream side during periods of excess supply in the river.
(ii) Diversion dam
A diversion dam simply raises water level slightly in the river, and thus provides head
for carrying or diverting water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems to the
place of use.
(iii) Detention dam
A detention dam is constructed to store water during floods and release it gradually
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at a safe rate, when the flood recedes.
(iv) Overflow dam
An overflow dam is designed to carry surplus discharge (including floods) over its crest.
(v) Non-flow dam
A non-flow dam is the one in which the top of the dam is kept at a higher elevation
than the maximum expected high water level.
(vi) Rigid dam
A rigid dam is constructed of rigid materials such as masonry, concrete, steel or timber.
Rigid dams may be further classified as follows: (a) solid masonry or concrete gravity
dam (b) arched masonry or concrete dam (c) concrete buttress dam (d) steel dam
and (e) timber dam.
(vii) Gravity dam
A gravity dam is the one in which the external forces (such as water pressure, wave
pressure, silt pressure, uplift pressure etc) are resisted by the weight of the dam itself.
Thus, the forces disturbing the stability of the dam are resisted by the gravity forces
of the mass of the dam. Table 1 gives a summary of various types of dams.

Table 1: Types of dams

Basis of classification Types Common examples
(a) Classification according (i) Storage dam Gravity dam, earth dam,
to use rockfill dam, Arch dam
etc
(ii) Diversion dam
Weir, barrage
(iii) Detention dam
Dike, water spreading
dam, debris dam
(b) Classification by (i) Overflow dam Spillway
hydraulic design
(ii) Non-overflow type Gravity dam, earth dam,
rockfill dam
(c) Classification by (i) Rigid dam Gravity dam, arch dam,
materials buttress dam. Steel dam,
timber dam

(Non-rigid dams Earth dam, rockfill dam

Intake Chamber
Within the dam itself is located intake chamber. Intake chamber is used for admitting
water from the surface sources (i.e., river, reservoirs or lakes), and conveying it
further to the treatment plant. Intake is a masonry or concrete structure with an aim
of providing relatively clean water, free from pollution, sand and objectionable
floating material.
Types of intake chamber

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(i) Submerged intake
Submerged intake is the one which is constructed entirely under water. Such an intake
is commonly used to obtain supply from a lake (Fig.1).

Figure 1: Submerged Intake Crib

(ii) Exposed intake
An exposed intake is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of river,
or in some cases even away from the river banks. Exposed intakes are more common
due to ease in operation (Fig.2).

Figure 2: Exposed River intake

(iii) Wet intake
A wet intake (Fig. 3), is that type of intake tower in which the water level is practically
the same as the water level of the sources of supply. Such an intake is sometimes known
as jack well and is most commonly used.

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 Figure 3: A wet intake
(iv) Dry intake
In the case of dry intake (Fig.4), there is no water in the water tower. Water enters
through entry port directly into the conveying pipes. The dry tower is simply used for
the operation of valves etc.

Figure 4: Intake with dry well

(v) River intake
A river intake is located to the upstream of the city so that pollution is minimised. They
are either located sufficiently inside the river so that demands of water are met with
in all the seasons of the year, or they may be located near the river bank where a
sufficient depth is available. Sometimes, an approach channel is constructed and
water is led to the intake tower. If the water level in the river is low, a weir may be
constructed across it to raise the water level and divert it to the intake tower. Fig. 5
shows a wet type river intake well found on river bed.

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 Figure 5: River intake
(vi) Reservoir intake
Reservoir intake is constructed when the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout
the year- a dam is constructed across it to store water in the reservoir so formed. The
reservoir intakes are practically similar to the river intake, except that these are
located near the upstream faces of the dam where maximum depth of water is
available. Their design depends upon the type of dam. Fig.6 (a) – (c) shows a typical
intake for an earth dam with several entry ports.

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 Figure 6: Reservoir Intakes

(vii) Lake intakes

Lake intakes are similar to reservoir intakes if the depth of water near the banks is
reasonable. If, however, the depth of the water near the banks is shallow, and greater
depth is available only as its centre, a submerged intake is provided, as shown in Fig. 7.

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 Figure 7: Submerged Lake Intake Crib

Canal intakes
Sometimes, the source of water supply to a small town may be an irrigation canal
passing near the town. In this case Canal intakes may be constructed. The canal
intake is shown in Fig. 8. It essentially consists of concrete or masonry intake chamber
of regular shape, admitting water through a coarse screen.

Figure 8: Canal Intake

Inlets/entry port
Within the intake chamber are inlets/entry ports. The intake structure admits raw
water through inlets/entry ports which have trash rack structures to check the entry of
debris and other floating objects. Water enters through entry port directly into the
conveyance pipes. The conveyance pipes convey the raw water to the treatment plant,
either by pressure through intake chambers.
Screening
Intake structure also includes screen and strainers. Screening is adopted to remove
all the floating matters from surface waters. They are fixed in the intake works or at
the entrance of treatment plant so as to remove the floating matters such as leaves,
dead animals etc. Screens are of two types: (i) Coarse screens or Bar screens (Fig. 9)
and (ii) Fine screen.

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 Figure 9: Racks and Screen of water intakes

Micro-strainers are useful for screening stored waters which do not contain a large
amount of suspended matter but which contain plankton, algae and other microscopic
sized particles. They are inclined to the upstream of rapid gravity or slow sand filters
whose output may thereby increase by as much as 50%. Fig. 10 shows a rotary drum
strainer, while Fig. 11 depicted the band screen strainer.

Figure 10: Rotary drum strainer

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 Figure 11: Band or Travelling Screen Strainer

Pumping Facilities
Pumping is required to lift the raw water from a river, lake or reservoir to the
treatment plant. Thus, away from the intake structure and before the treatment
plant is located raw water pumping facilities. These pumps, called low-lift pumps,
installed in pump house, lift surface water from the dam through the intake structure
and move it to a nearby treatment plant. They are called low-lift pumps because they
move large volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures. Besides, they are
located at a low level compare to the location of the treatment plant.

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 MODULE 4: WATER PURIFICATION AND TREATMENT II
For processing of raw water, several treatment facilities/units are constructed and
installed to carry out this stage in water supply schemes. The various ttreatment units
include the following:
Aeration
Aeration is a physical treatment process used for taste and odour control and for
removal of dissolved iron and manganese. It consists of spraying water into the air or
cascading it downward through stacks or perforated trays. This is the exposure of
water to air to dissolve the chemical impurities in the surrounding air, this is done to
reduce the cost of artificial purification that involve the addition of chemical for
stabilization and biological purification. This also involves ion exchange and chemical
precipitation.

(a) cascade aerator) (b) Inclined apron aerator with riffle plates

Figure 1
(2) Sedimentation
Sedimentation is a physical water treatment process and the purpose is to remove
suspended particles by gravitational settling. To achieve this, sedimentation tanks are
designed to reduce the velocity of flow of water so as to permit suspended solids to
settle out of the water by gravity. It provides the following benefits:
(i) Fewer chemicals are required for subsequent water treatment
(ii) It makes any subsequent process easier
(iii) The cost is lower than some other methods
(iv) There is less variation in the quality of water that goes through the process
Sedimentation can be categorised into:
Plain sedimentation- When the impurities are separated from suspending fluid by
action of natural forces alone, i.e., by gravitation and natural aggregation of the
settling particles, the operation is called plain sedimentation. With the help of plain
sedimentation, silt, sand etc can be removed.
Sedimentation with coagulation (Clarification): When chemicals or other substances
are added to induce or hasten aggregation and settling of finely divided suspended
matter, colloidal substances, and large molecules, the operation is called
sedimentation with coagulation or simply, clarification. Coagulants are added based
on pH of water. Alum or aluminum sulphate is common and cheaper coagulants added
in the process. They are added in powder or solution form to raw water through some
mechanical means. With the help of sedimentation with coagulation, very fine
suspended particles and some bacteria can be removed. This process is used when raw
water contains fine clay and colloidal impurities and needs extra chemical treatment
for them to settle unlike plain sedimentation. This process is useful in removal of
colour, odour and taste from water. Turbidity and bacteria can also be removed to
certain extent. Fig.2shows typical shape of sedimentation tank.

Figure 2: A typical shape of sedimentation tank

(3) Filtration
This is the process of straining out something: the process of passing or putting
something through a filter. Water is passed through a special filter to remove
suspended and dissolved impurities.
Filtration
Filtration is a physical separation process that separates solid matter and fluid from
a mixture using a filter medium that has a complex structure through which only the
fluid can pass. The basic requirements for filtration are (a) a filter medium (b) a
fluid with suspended solids (c) a driving forces (d) a mechanical device that holds the
filter medium. Filtration removes very fine suspended impurities and colloidal
impurities that may have escaped the sedimentation tanks. In addition to this, the
micro-organisms present in water are largely removed. Coarse and fine sand
filtration removes most debris and impurities before a minute amount of chlorine is
added to classify the water drinkable.
Slow sand filter bed
Slow sand filter bed - rate of filtration 0.2 to 1.15 m3 per m2 per hour. Filter beds can
occupy large areas and the top layer of sand will require removal and cleaning at
periodic intervals.
 Figure 3: Slow Sand Filter
Pressure Filter
Pressure filter - rate of filtration 4 to 12 m3 per m2 per hour. To backwash, valve A is
closed and valves B and C opened. Compressed air clears the sand of dirt. Diameter =
2.4 m.

Figure 4: Pressure Filter

Small domestic filter
Small domestic filter -
the unglazed porcelain
cylinder will arrest very
fine particles of dirt and
even micro-organisms.
The cylinder can be
removed and sterilised in
boiling water for 10
minutes.
 Figure 5: Small domestic Filter
(4) Chlorination/Disinfection/Sterilization
When water comes out of filter plants, it may contain bacteria and other micro-
organisms, some of which may be pathogenic. To prevent contamination with germs,
water companies add a disinfectant that kills disease-causing germs such as
salmonella, campylobacter and norovirus. Disinfectant is a substance that is used for
disinfection of water. Disinfection is carried out to eliminate or reduce to a safe limit,
the remaining micro-organisms, and to prevent the contamination of water during its
transit from the treatment plant to the place of its consumption. The aim of
disinfection is to reduce the number of micro-organisms to a safe limit. However, when
the aim is to kill all the micro-organism in water so as to make it sterile, the process is
known as sterilization.
Chlorination is the most widely used method of disinfection of public water supplies.
The addition of chlorine or chlorine compound to drinking water is called chlorination.
This method is used to kill bacteria, viruses, and other microbes in water. In particular,
chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera,
dysentery, and typhoid. This removes one of the major routes for transmission of
diarrhoeal disease. Taste or odour problems are minimised with proper dosages of
chlorine at the treatment plant, and a residual concentration can be maintained
throughout the distribution system to ensure a safe level at the points of use.
Sometimes chlorination may also be used to oxidize certain unwanted chemicals.

When chlorine gas is added to the water, it hydrolyses rapidly to produce hypochlorous
(HOCL) and the hypochlorous acid will then dissociate into hypochlorite ions (OCL-) and
hydrogen ions (H+).
Cl2 + H2O = HOCL + H+ + OCL-
However, chlorine should not be used in excessive amounts in drinking water as it may
lead to health problems. Table 7 shows the relationship between the quantity of water
to be used and quantity of chlorine to be added.
Equipment for Chlorination at Cluster/Village/Town Level are Differential Pressure
Type Chlorinator (with use of bleaching powder), Drip type equipment and Gas
Chlorinator.
 Figure 6: Drip chlorinator

Figure 7: Sterilization equipment

Softening
Softening of hard water is by base exchange process - sodium zeolites exchange their
sodium base for calcium (chalk) or magnesium bases in the water. Sodium zeolite plus
calcium carbonate or sulphate becomes calcium zeolite plus sodium carbonate or
sulphate. To regenerate, salt is added; calcium zeolite plus sodium chloride (salt)
becomes sodium zeolite plus calcium chloride which is flushed away.
 Figure 8: Softening equipment
Ozone
Ozone gas may be used for disinfection of drinking water. However, since ozone is
unstable, it cannot be stored and must be produced on-site, making the process more
expensive than chlorine. Ozone has the advantage of not causing taste or odour
problems; it leaves no residual in the disinfected water. The lack of an ozone residual,
however, makes it difficult to monitor its continued effective as water flows through
the distribution system.
Figure 9 is a process diagram for a conventional water treatment plant. The
combination of the first 3 steps primarily removes colloids (including some
microorganisms) and natural organic matter (NOM). Step 4 (rapid sand filtration) is a
polishing step that removes much of the colloidal material remaining after step 3
(sedimentation). Systems of the type outlined in Figure 1 can provide good quality,
potable water and their design and operation are well understood.
 Fig. 9: Flow diagram of a public potable water treatment plant.

Figure 10 is the flow chart of the process of drinking water supply.

Figure 10: Flow chart of the process of drinking water supply

 MODULE 5: WATER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
1.0 Water Transmission
Following treatment, the water enters the distribution system either directly or is
transported to it via supply conduits. Typically, treated water is pumped directly into
the distribution system. High-service pumps are used to discharge or deliver water
under pressure to the point of gravity distribution through conduits or pipes such as
iron or uPVC. The pumps are normally located at the treatment plant.

Hydraulics
The flow of water through pipelines is governed by certain theories and equations or
formula as study in hydraulics. Hydraulics is the experimental science concerning the
study of energy in fluid flow. That is, the force of pressure required to overcome the
resistance to fluid flowing through pipes, caused by the friction between the pipe and
liquid movement. The total energy of the liquid flowing in a pipe decline as the pipe
length increases, mainly due to friction between the fluid and the pipe wall. The
amount of energy or pressure loss will depend on:
● Smoothness/roughness of the internal pipe wall.
● Diameter of pipe or circumference of internal pipe wall.
● Length of pipe.
● Velocity of fluid flow.
● Amount of turbulence in the flow.
● Viscosity and temperature of fluid.
Theories relating to pressure loss by fluids flowing in pipes are diverse, but an
established relationship is that the pressure losses (h) caused by friction are
proportional to the square of the velocity of flow (v):
2
h∝V (1)
From this, for a pipe of constant size it can be seen that by developing the
proportional relationship, a doubling (or more) of pressure will increase the velocity
accordingly

H (m) V (m/s)
4 1.5
8 2.12 (1.5 × 2 )
12 2.60 (1.5 × 3)
16 3.00(1.5 × 4 ) or (2.12× 2 )
24 3.66(1.5 × 6 ) or (2.60 × 2 )
32 4.24(1.5 × 8 ) or (3.00 × 2 ) etc, etc

Also, it can be shown that if the condition (temperature and viscosity) of a fluid in a
pipe remains constant, the discharge through that pipe is directly proportional to the
square root of the fifth power of its diameter:

1
 Discharge (Q) = d5 (2)
This relationship can be identified in the Thomas Box pipe sizing formula

Bernoulli's theorem - the theoretical basis for fluid flow, established with the
assumption that there is no fluid flow energy loss due to friction. It therefore applies
to the steady motion where a fluid moves in streamlines as depicted in the diagram
below. Theoretically, the fixed path of fluid movement passes through given points of
known small cross-sectional area (a1, a2), pressure (hi, h2) and velocity (vi, v2).

Figure 1: Datum for measurement

The total energy of unit weight of a fluid in flow can be expressed by the following
summation:
Potential energy (z) + Pressure energy (h) + Kinetic energy (v2/2g) = Constant, i.e: If
there is a loss of energy in any category there must be gain in the others for the
balance to remain constant.
By formula –
z1 + h1 + v12/2g = z2 + h2 + v22/2g (3)
Note: g represents gravitational acceleration of 9.81m/s2
Bernoulli's theory is approximately true for liquid movement in a short length of
straight pipe, but with pipework installations the pressure head decreases over
distance due to frictional resistance between the fluid conveyed and the pipe wall.
Nevertheless, Bernoulli's principles of pressure differentials have become an
established basis for development of numerous other liquid flow calculations.

2
Reynolds number - a coefficient of friction based on the criteria for similarity of
motion for all fluids. Relevant factors are related by formula:

density ×velocity ×linear parameter (diameter)

R=
viscosity
This is more conveniently expressed as
ρvd
R= (4)
μ
Where: R = Reynolds number
ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)
v = velocity (m/s)
d = diameter of pipe (m)
μ = viscosity of the fluid (Pas) or (Ns/m2)
Whatever the fluid type or temperature, an R value of less than 2000 is considered
streamline or laminar. A value greater than 2000 indicates that the fluid movement is
turbulent.

Example 1
A 12 mm diameter pipe conveying fluid of density 1000 kg/m3 and viscosity of 0.013
Pa s at 2m/s flow velocity has a Reynolds number of:

1000 ×2 ×0.012
R= = 1846 (streamline flow)
0.013

D'Arcy formula - used for calculating the pressure head loss of a fluid flowing full
bore in a pipe, due to friction between fluid and pipe surface.

2
4 fLv
h= (5)
2gd
Where: h - head loss due to friction(m)
f - coefficient of friction
L - length of pipe (m)
v - average velocity of flow (m/s)
g - gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

3
 d - internal diameter of pipe (m)
Note: ` f ‘- the D'Arcy coefficient, ranges from about 0.005 (smooth pipe surfaces and
streamline flow) to 0.010 (rough pipe surfaces and turbulent flow). Tables can be
consulted, although a mid-value of 0.0075 is appropriate for most problem solving.

Example 2
A 12 mm diameter pipe, 10 m long, conveying a fluid at a velocity of flow of 2 m/s.
2
4 ×0.0075 ×10 × 2
Head loss = = 5.09 m
2 ×9.81 ×0.012
Depending on the data available, it is possible to transpose the D'Arcy formula for
other purposes. For example, it may be used to calculate pipe diameter in this format:

2
4 fLv
d= (6)
2gh
Flow rate (Q) - the discharge rate or flow rate of a fluid in a pipe is expressed as the
volume in cubic metres (V) flowing per second (s). Q (m3/s) is dependent on the pipe
cross-sectional area dimensions (m2) and the velocity of fluid flow (m/s). Q may also
be expressed in litres per second, where 1 m3/s = 1000 l/s. A liquid flowing at an
average velocity (v) in a pipe of constant area (A) discharging a length (L) of liquid
every second (s), has the following relationship:

Q=V÷s where V = L × A and v=L÷s

So, Q = L × A ÷ s where v = L ÷ s, ∴ Q=v×A
Q = flow (m3/s), v = velocity of flow (m/s) and A = cross-sectional area of pipe
(m2)

Example 3:
The quantity of water flowing through a 12 mm diameter pipe at 2 m/s will be:
2
Q = v × A, where A = πr
Q = 2 ×0.000113 = 0.000226 m3 or 0.226 l/s

Relative discharge of pipes - this formula may be used to estimate the number of
smaller branch pipes that can be successfully supplied by one main pipe:

N = (D ÷d)5

4
where N - number of short branch pipes
D - diameter of main pipe (mm)
d - diameter of short branch pipes (mm)

Example 4
The number of 32 mm short branch pipes that can be served from one 150 mm main
will be:
N = (150 ÷32)5 = 47

Example 5
The size of water main required to supply 15, 20 mm short branch pipes will be by
formula transposition:
5 2
D=d N
5 2
D = 20 15 = 59 (65 mm nearest standard)

2.0 Water Distribution

Water Distribution involves the transportation of treated water to end user’s building.
This aspect of services is what is referred to as pipe-work in plumbing, in this case for
domestic cold and hot water supply originally water is treated at a central place –
treatment station, and then transported to various locations with boosters and
reservoirs along the distribution lines. From the reservoir in a given location it is finally
distributed to each household or building. Each building connects to the distribution
network via the water mains.
Water Distribution
Distribution system is that portion of public water supply network with components that
carry potable water from a centralised treatment plant to consumers to satisfy
residential, commercial, industrial and firefighting requirements. The facilities
consist of a network of interconnecting mains or pipes, pipelines, storage facilities
(reservoirs or storage tank), valves, fire hydrants, service connections to user facilities,
other appurtenances and perhaps pumping facilities.

Pipelines
The pipeline system of a public water distributing network consists of arterial water
mains or primary feeders, which convey water from the treatment plant to areas of
major water use in the community, and smaller-diameter pipelines called secondary
feeders, which tied into the mains. Usually not less than 150 mm (6 inches) in
diameter, these pipelines are placed 2within the public right-of-way so that service
connections can be made for all potential water users.
The pipelines are usually arranged in a gridiron pattern that allows water to circulate

5
in interconnected loops; this permits any broken-sections of pipe to be isolated for
repair without disrupting service to large areas of the community. The following are
four major ways of arranging the water distribution system pipeline: Dead-end or
Tree Distribution system, Gridiron Distribution System, Circular or ring Distribution
System and Radial Distribution System. “Dead-end” patterns do not permit circulation,
and the water they provide is more susceptible to taste and odour problems because of
stagnation.

Figure 3: Layout of public water distribution pipeline

Materials for mains

Materials for mains (pipes) are usually made of cast iron, ductile iron, steel,
reinforced concrete, plastic, or asbestos cement. The type of pipe used is dictated by
cost considerations, local conditions, and the size pipe required.

Fittings
Piping used in the water distribution system is manufactured in different lengths,
depending upon the material and size, and must be joined together. In order to
function properly, several types of fittings, including hydrants, shutoff valves, and
other appurtenances are required and used.

Valves
Many types of valves are also used to control the quantity and direction of water flow
– Gate valves, Butterfly valves, Pressure – reducing valves, Check valves, Air-release
valves. Gate valves are usually installed throughout the pipe network. They allow
sections to be shut off and isolated during the repair of broken mains, pumps, or
hydrants. Butterfly valve is a type of valve commonly used for throttling and
controlling the rate of flow. Pressure-regulating valves may be installed to reduce
pressures levels in low-lying service areas.

Installation
Water mains must are placed roughly 1 to 2 metres (3 to 6 feet) below the ground
surface in order to protect against traffic loads and to prevent freezing. Since the
water in a distribution system is under pressure, pipelines can follow the shape of the

6
land, uphill as well as downhill. They must be installed with proper bedding and
backfill. Compaction of soil layers under the pipe (bedding) as well as above the pipe
(backfilling) is necessary to provide proper support. A water main should never be
installed in the same trench with a sewer line. Where the two must cross the water main
should be placed above the sewer line.

Service Distribution Reservoirs

This is a large water tank sited in a strategic place within the town to give ideal range
of static head where possible (30m-70m) height (Fig. 4)

Figure 4: Location of Service Reservoir Relative to Community

Function of Service Reservoirs/Distribution storage tanks
Service Reservoirs/Distribution storage tanks serve two basic purposes: equalizing
storage and emergency storage. Equalizing storage is the volume of water needed to
satisfy peak hourly demands in the community. During the late hours, and very early
morning hours, when water demand is lower, high-lift pumps fill the tank. During the
day, when water demand is higher, water flows out of the tank to help satisfy the peak
hourly water needs. This allows for a uniform flow rate at the treatment plant and
pumping station. Water in a distribution storage tank may also be needed for fighting
fires, cleaning up accidental spills of hazardous materials, or other community
emergencies. The capacity of a distribution storage tank is designed to be about equal
to the storage daily water demand of the community.
Classification of distribution storage tank
The reservoirs may be classified as follows:
(i) Underground reservoir or basin
An underground reservoir or basin, either open or covered, may be at or below grade
level and formed either by excavation or embankment. It is customary to line such
reservoirs with concrete, Gunite, asphalt or an asphalt membrane, or butyl rubber.

(ii) Standpipe
A standpipe consists of a cylindrical shell with a flat bottom resting on a foundation

7
at ground level. Steel and wood have been used in the construction of elevated tanks,
which are normally covered.

(iii) Elevated reservoir

In areas with flat topography, the tanks may be elevated above ground on towers in
order to provide adequate water pressures. An elevated reservoir is a tank supported
above ground by a structural framework. Steel and wood have been used in the
construction of standpipes, which are normally covered. It is preferable to use covered
reservoirs for treated water because water in open reservoirs is subject to falling dust,
dust-borne microorganisms, and soot; to contamination by animals, including birds
and human beings; and to algal growth.

Figure 5: Ground surface and Elevated Reservoir

(iv) Sump
Sump is used as additional storage at village/town level or cluster level. It is not used
for direct distribution of water. Rather, it is used as intermediate or contingency
storage, to store water before it is pumped to Elevated Surface Reservoirs/Ground
Surface Reservoir. The underground storage tank in circular shape with dome line
covering is called sump. Generally, the capacity of sump is more (one and half to two
times) than ESR or GSR or two to five days water requirement, so that if the supply is
disturbed for that time, the water is available for the people.

8
 Figure 6: Sump

Location of Reservoirs Storage tanks

Reservoirs may be located at the beginning of a distribution system, i.e., immediately
following water treatment, or at an intermediate point in the system.

Distribution System Used in Water Supply System

For efficient distribution, it is required that water should reach end use with required
flow rate with needed pressure in the piping system. There are three main types of
distribution system that can be adopted in villages/towns:
(i) Gravity systems
In gravity systems, water is impounded at strategic locations sufficiently elevated to
create the working pressure required to move the water to the points of demand. The
water from upland gathering grounds is impounded in a reservoir. From this point the
water is filtered and chlorinated before serving an inhabited area at lower level.
There are no pumping costs.

(ii) Pumping System

In such system, water is supplied by continuous pumping. Treated water is directly
pumped into the distribution main with constant pressure without intermediate storing.
Supply can be affected during power failure and breakdown of pumps. Hence, diesel
pumps also in addition to electrical pumps as stand by to be maintained. Such system
works only in condition where there is continuous power supply, reliable water source
and where intermediate storage system cannot be installed.
(iii) Combined systems
In combined systems, facilities for water storage are often provided along with
provision for pumping. This type of system provides for the storage of water during
times of least demand while assuring that a sufficient quantity is available to meet
the peak demand.

9
 MODULE 6: CONNECTION OF WATER FROM WATER AND METHODS OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION IN BUILDINGS
1.0 Connection
Figure 1 shows a typical connection from the water main to the building. The water
main is drilled and tapped by a special apparatus with the water left on. The brass or
bronze ferrule is inserted into the mains which is under pressure. A plug valve is left on
the main and a communication pipe connected to it. A goose neck is formed on the
pipe to relieve stresses on the pipe and valve. The pipe is laid on a bed of sand and 50
mm thick. A stop valve is fitted on the pipe inside a box with a hinged cover. The
communication and supply pipe should be snaked to allow for settlement in the ground.
During warm weather, plastic pipes in particular should be snaked to accommodate
contraction after backfilling.

(a) Tapping of water main (b) View of water main connection

(c) Details of supply to building

Figure 1: Tapping and connection of water main

2.0 Methods of Cold Water Supply and Distribution in Buildings
There are two main methods of cold-water system used to distribute water around the
home: direct and indirect. The names connote how each of these systems works to

1
supply water to a variety of appliances.

Direct water supply

Generally, from the main a decision is required as to whether the supply to the house is
direct or indirect. By direct supply to the house, we mean that the plumbing/sanitary
fittings in the house, draws water from the main directly without reservoir – water
tank. It means that the water used in the house comes directly from the area reservoir
by gravity or pumping.
In this system water is supplied at mains pressure to all cold water taps/faucets, WC
(toilets) cisterns and a cold water storage cistern/tank if hot water is to be supplied
from an open vented (low pressure) hot water cylinder.
With a direct cold water system, you have the advantage of being able to draw
drinking water from any cold water taps/faucets in the house.

Figure 2: Direct system of cold water supply

Indirect System
As for the Indirect supply, the water from the mains is first connected to a water tank
in the house before finally getting into the plumbing and sanitary fittings. In this
system, water is supplied to the house at mains pressure but this water is fed directly
to a cold water storage cistern via the supply pipe called the 'rising main'.

2
A branch pipe off the rising main delivers drinking water to the kitchen and garden
tap/faucet, cold water to all other taps/faucets and appliances is provided indirectly
from the cold water storage cistern (not for drinking) under gravity pressure not
mains pressure. The hot water storage cylinder is also supplied with cold water from
the same cistern.
With an indirect cold water system there is always a temporary back up of stored water
in the event of a mains failure. Also, because it is a low pressure system it is generally
quieter therefore eliminating noise like 'water hammer' which can occur when high
pressure water tries to negotiate tight bends in the pipe work.
Indirect cold water systems do slightly reduce the risk of impure water being siphoned
back into the mains water supply by having fewer outlets (taps/faucets and
appliances) connected to the mains supply.
However, this can easily be protected against in both the direct and indirect cold water
system by installing a non-return valve or check valve immediately after the main
stop-valve supplying water to the house. This would be good practice. A non-return or
check valve only permits water to flow through it in one direction.
Note: Fitting a drain valve after (downstream) the non-return valve after the main
stop-valve will enable draining of the rising main pipe.
Garden taps/faucets should also have a non-return valve to prevent back siphoning
which can contaminate the distributed water within the house and the mains supply.

Figure 3: Indirect cold water supply

3
Table 1: Merits and Demerits of the two methods
Disadvantages Advantages
Direct cold water
Guaranteed quality Supply interruption
If cold main fail there is no emergency Can be cheaper to install than a storage
backup supply system
Cannot always supply cold water even if No chance of water growing harmful
main water pressure is low bacteria
More system noise as water is under Can deal with large demand more
high pressure easily
Indirect

Can be more expensive to install Water supplied even if main stops

working
Cannot deal easily with large demand Can supply cold water even if mains
water pressure is low
Greater chance of the water growing Less system noise as water is under less
harmful bacteria pressure

3.0 Water Supply to High Rise Buildings (Boosted Water Supply)

For medium and highrise buildings, there is often insufficient mains pressure to
supply water directly to the upper floors. This could be that these highrise apartment
blocks and offices ascend beyond the natural level of water in adjacent service
reservoirs and water towers. Figure 1 illustrates this situation and problem of serving
the upper floor in highrise buildings. Boosting by pump is therefore usually necessary.

4
 Figure 1: Water Supply
Methods of busting by pumps vary. The methods of boosting can be by:
1. Direct boosting:
(a) by pumps on the incoming supply pipe (Fig.2)
(b) as (a) but to storage header (Fig.3)
2. Indirect boosting from a break tank
(a) to a storage header (Fig.4)
(b) using a pneumatic vessel (Fig.5)
(c) using a continuous running pump (Fig. 6)

Direct Boosting
Where mains pressure is relatively high, the water authorities may permit direct
boosting, but elsewhere it could impose irregular and uncontrollable demands on mains
supply pressure and flow conditions, the worst circumstances being negative pressure
or a vacuum and the risk of back siphonage. When direct boosting is permitted, pump
activity is regulated to prevent excessive wear due to frequent and intermittent use by
attaching a float switch to the side of the storage cistern. This starts the pump at a
predetermined low water level and disconnects it when the water is within about 50 mm
of the float valve. Figure 2 shows the principle of installation.

5
 Figure 2: Direct boosting to drinking water cistern
Figure 3 shows an improved variation over direct pumping to drinking water cistern.
The system provides drinking water from a header vessel. Water for other purposes –
bath, WC, etc – is drawn from the elevated cisterns. The header permits controlled
water storage and supply, refilling as the pump replenishes the cisterns. If the header
empties before the pump is engaged by the cistern float switch, a pipeline switch
detects the low water level in the header and starts the pump. A time delay
mechanism or a pressure switch disconnects the pump. Headers are sized at about
5litres capacity per dwelling per day.

6
 Figure 3: Direct pumping to drinking water header
Indirect boosting from a break tank
Tank interruption prevents interaction of the boosting pump and main supply. A
typical installation is shown in Figure 4 to a drinking water header and cisterns. The
break tank is manufactured from a non-corrosive materials such as polypropylene or
stainless steel and should be designed and installed to preserve the quality of
drinking water. Capacity should equate to approximately 15 min pump output and a
low-level float switch is provided to disconnect the pump should the water supply be
interrupted.

7
 Figure 4: Indirect boosting from a break tank
As an alternative to the drinking water header pipe, an auto-pneumatic cylinder may
be used. Compressed air in the cylinder forces water up to the float valves and
drinking water outlets on the upper floors. As the cylinder empties a low pressure
switch engages the duty pump. When the pump has replenished the cylinder, a high
pressure switch disengages the pump. In time, some air is absorbed by the water. As
this occurs, a float switch detects the high water level in the cylinder and activates
an air compressor to regulate the correct volume of air. Break pressure cisterns may
be supplied either from the storage cisterns at roof level or from the rising main. A
pressure reducing valve is sometimes used instead of a break pressure cistern.
The use of a pressure or pneumatic vessel is often preferred to the header system, as
all the wiring and controls can be contained in a low-level plant room. Air
permanently pressurizes the water system, until a low-level or pressure switch in the
vessel starts the pump to continue and to repressure the vessel. A high-level or
pressure switch disconnects the pump and the ‘air cushion’ re-establishes pressure to
supply the upper floors. Air is eventually lost by absorption into the water and can be
replenish by air compressor until the correct water level and pressure are recorded in
the sight gauge attached to the pressure vessel.
In addition, to regulate activity and deliveries to the cistern, a delayed action float
valve mechanism is fitted to the storage cistern. The reason is that if normal float
valves are used to regulate cistern water supply from an auto-pneumatic cylinder,
then cylinder and pump activity will be frequent and uneconomic. With action delay

8
valve, the float valve is restrained until a predetermined low water level effects
refilling of the cistern.

Figure 5: Auto-pneumatic cylinder

In modest rise buildings of several storeys where water is in fairly constant demand,
water can be boosted from a break tank by a continuously running pump. The
installation is much simpler and less costly than the previous two systems as there is
less need for specialised items of equipment (Figure 7). But care must be taken when
sizing the pump. Sizing of the pump and its delivery rating are critical, otherwise it
could persistently overrun, or at the other extreme be inadequate. Modern pumps have
variable settings allowing considerable scope around the design criteria. The pump is
normally scheduled to run on a timed programme, e.g. in an office block it may
commence an hour before normal occupancy and run on for a couple of hours after.
Water delivery should be just enough to meet demand. When demand is low a pressure
regulated motorised bleed valve opens to recirculate water back to the break tank. It

9
runs through a timed-programme, e.g. 07.00-19.00 hours in an office block, and is
designed to supply just water to meet demand. When demand is low, a pressure-
controlled motorised bleed valve opens to allow water to circulate through the break
tank.

Figure 6: Continously running system

Private or Individual Arrangements for Cold Water Supply

Groundwater Supply
Groundwater is water obtained from the underground soil layers. The main source of
groundwater is precipitation. A portion of rain falling on the earth’s surface infiltrate
into ground, travels down and when checked by impervious layer to travel further
down, forms groundwater. The ground water reservoir consists of water held in voids
within a geological stratum (aquifer). Other sources of ground water include water

10
from deep in the earth which is carries upward intrusive rocks and water which is
trapped in sedimentary rocks during their formation. The quantities of such waters
are small and they are often so highly mineralized as to be unsuited for use.
The aquifer (water bearing formation of the earth’s crust), act as conduits for
transmission and as reservoirs for storage of ground water. Ground water storage or
reservoirs (aquifers) are mainly of two types:

Confined aquifer
Confined aquifer or artesian aquifer is the one in which ground water is confined
under pressure greater than atmospheric by overlying relatively impermeable strata.
Artesian aquifers are analogous to pipeline. Artesian aquifers usually have relatively
small recharge areas compared with unconfined aquifers. When water is withdrawn
from an artesian well, a local depression of the piezometric surface results. The
decrease in pressure permits a slight expansion of the water and in some cases a
compaction of the aquifer.
Unconfined aquifer
Unconfine aquifer, or water table aquifer is the one in which a water table serves as
the upper surface of the zone of saturation. It is also known as free, phreatic or non-
artesian aquifer. In such an aquifer, the water table varies in undulating form and in
slope. Rises and falls in the water table correspond to changes in the volume of water
in storage within the unconfined aquifer.

Figure 7: Confined and unconfined aquifer

Discharge from Ground Water

The discharge from ground water occurs in two ways:
Natural way
The natural discharge occurs as flows in lakes, reservoirs, rivers, oceans and springs.
Spring, in hydrology, opening at or near the surface of the Earth for the discharge of
water from underground sources. Spring water (Fig. 8), is a natural discharge point of
subterranean water at the surface of the ground or directly into the bed of a stream,
lake, or sea. Water that emerges at the surface without a perceptible current is called
seep.

11
 Figure 8: A spring box
Artificial way
Pumping from wells and boreholes constitutes the major artificial discharge of ground
water.

Well
Wells are holes excavated to bring water and other underground fluids to the surface.
Types of wells include hand pump, open well, shallow dug well, borehole.
Hand dug well is used where safe ground water is available up to 60 m depth, hand
pump is ideal choice for a cluster or habitation (Fig.9). Open well can be installed
where ground water is available at low depth (less than 15 meters and water is
available all year round, open well is used (Fig.10). Fig. 11 shows shallow dug well.
Borehole (Fig.12), is installed and resulted to where ground water is at greater depth
and open wells or hand pumps are not viable. Well pumps are used to lift water from
wells.

12
 Figure 9: Hand-dug well

Figure 10: Open Well

Figure 11: Shallow dug well

13
Figure 12: A borehole

14
 MODULE 7: COMPONENTS OF COLD WATER SYSTEM INSTALLATION IN BUILDINGS
The following components are common to most domestic cold water systems:

Water main
The purpose of a public water main is to carry water for community use. Mains are
usually made of cast iron, ductile iron, steel, reinforced concrete, plastic, or asbestos
cement. The type of pipe used is dictated by cost considerations, local conditions, and
the size pipe required. Usually not less than 150 mm (6 inches) in diameter, these
pipelines are placed within the public right-of-way so that service connections can be
made for all potential water users. The water main line is usually located
underground and connects your home to your community's water supply source.

Communication pipe
Communication pipe means a pipe leading from a main to the premises of a consumer
as far as that street boundary of the premises which is situated nearest to the main or,
where a meter is installed inside the premises, as far as the inlet of the meter. The
minimum diameter shall be 25 mm (1 inch).

Service pipe
A service pipe is a pipeline connecting a building to a main pipe, allowing the building
to access municipal services. It is a small diameter pipe used to connect from a water
main through a small tap to a water meter at user's location. The minimum diameter
of water service pipe shall be 25 mm (1 inch).

Rising main pipe

The rising main is a pipe in the home water supply which delivers water to highest part
of plumbing system or overhead storage tank. The minimum diameter pipe shall be 18
- 25 mm (3/4 to 1 inch).

Figure 1: Diagram showing rising mains

Distribution pipe

1
The pipe that carries water from the water storage tank to the plumbing fixtures and
other outlets are called the water distributing pipes. A water-distribution pipe is
located inside a building and delivers potable water to the fixtures.

Warning pipe
This is commonly referred to as the overflow. Overflow or warning pipe will advise the
occupier that a cistern is full and the valve is not turning off water and ‘warning’ that
it could spill over the cistern sides. It needs to be positioned so that any water flow is
immediately noticed.
Materials for pipelines
The piping material for service household connections may be any of the following:
(i) Galvanised Iron (GI) Pipes
Galvanized Iron (G.I) pipes are made of mild steel sheet. (GI) Pipes is cheap in cost
and light in weight, light in weight and easy to join, affected by acidic or alkaline
water and are highly suitable for distribution system; can be used in non-corrosive
water with pH value greater than 6.5 and rising main as well as distribution. GI pipes
are normally joined with lead putty on threaded end. Normally, 15-150 mm size pipes
(nominal internal diameter) are used for distribution system. They are available in
length of 3 m.

(ii) Galvanized Steel Pipes

Galvanized steel is coated with zinc to prevent rust. This type of pipe has been popular
in houses built before 1960 – replaced lead pipes for water lines. The problem with
galvanized steel pipes would be eventually the zinc coating erodes which then results in
rust

(iii) Steel Pipes

Steel pipes are used to carry gas, water, or certain other liquid from one place to
another under pressure. These pipes are made from steel sheets. Acidic water and
alkaline water may rust these pipes. The repair of this kind of pipe is difficult. They
may also be pressed by external pressure because of their less wall thickness.

(iv) Mild Steel Pipes

Durable and can resist high internal water pressure and highly suitable for long-
distance high-pressure piping; flexible to lay in certain curves; light weight and easy to
transport. Damage in transportation is minimal; prone to rust and require higher
maintenance; require more time for repairs and not very suitable for distribution
piping. Available in diameter of 150-250 mm for water supply and cut lengths of 4 - 7
m (2.6-4.5 mm wall thickness).

(v) Copper pipes

Pipes for cold water systems can be produced in copper and come in many sizes from
8mm to 35mm in diameter. Copper appears to be the most widely used pipe. Copper
pipes are usually used to carry hot water or steam. They don’t bend or sag even in high
temperatures. Copper doesn’t admit rust and durable. The most common sizes for cold

2
water pipes are 15mm and 22mm.

(vi) PVC Pipes/Plastic pipes

These days, plastic pipes dominate the others by some advantages as follows: ease of
installation, do not require threading, resistant to bacterial scale, do not corrode,
cheap in cost, less weight. But they’re limited to cold water supplies. They don’t sustain
high temperatures. PVC pipes for cold water systems come in many sizes from 8mm to
35mm in diameter. The most common sizes for cold water pipes are 15mm and 22mm.

(vii) Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC Unplasticized) Pipes

Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride pipes, also known as rigid uPVC, Pipes & Fittings are
used for all plumbing purposes in residential & commercial buildings. Ideally suited
for looping at each floor level, outdoor installations & concealed pipelines for cold
water distribution. UPVC is called having strong resistance against chemicals, sunlight
& oxidation from water. UPVC is widely used in construction because it is durable,
cheap, and easily worked, cheap in cost and light in weight, economical in laying and
jointing, they are rigid pipes, suitable for distribution network, free from corrosion
and tough against chemical attack, highly suitable for distribution piping and branch
pipes, less resistance to heat and direct exposure to sun. Hence, not very suitable for
piping above the ground. Available in size 20-315 mm (nominal internal diameter).

(viii) High Density Poly Ethylene Pipes (HDPE)

Light in weight, flexible than PVC pipes. HDPE pipes are black in colour, suitable for
underground piping and can withstand movement of heavy traffic, allows free
flowing of water, highly durable and suitable for distribution network, free from
corrosion, good electric insulation, useful for water conveyance as they do not
constitute toxic hazard and does not support microbial growth. They come in various
thicknesses and may be used in demanding pressure environments. This type of pipe
may bend into a 90-degree angle. Roots may never grow into this type of pipe, and
that is why they are best recommended for water lines and sewer lines in different
applications.

(ix) Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Pipes

For plumbing purposes, this tubing can be used for water softening lines. It is resistant
to many solvents, acids, alkalis, and gases. It is very stress crack resistant, flexible,
and durable.

(x) Polypropylene Pipes

The pipe is flexible, can be bent and run around different objects. It is ideal for
transferring hot liquids and gases in beverage and food handling applications. It may
be used for small fluid system support structures, or as a liner in metal piping systems.
Use in manufacturing operations where extreme resistance to acids and alkalis is
required.

(xi) Vinyl Pipes

This type of tubing is widely used in laboratory settings and in-home for applications

3
such as home brewing. It is not widely used for plumbing applications, but we included
it because it is sometimes a useful tubing option to run liquids through.

(xii) Cross-Linked Polyethylene Pipes (PEX)

This tubing can be used for residential radiant heating applications. It retains oxygen
and other elements from infiltrating and corrupting the key mechanical components
from heating systems. It may also be used to transport potable water. It bends easily
and is lightweight, making it an easy plumbing material to use.

(xiii) Chlorinated Poly Vinyl Chloride Pipes (CPVC)

This type of non-corrosive pipe can be used for cold and hot (around 180°F). It is
durable and easy to use. CPVC is different than PVC because it is altered with a free
radical chlorination reaction that effectively increases the chlorine content of the
material. CPVC can also be a thermoplastic that is molded into many of the same
products as PVC. This process makes it possible to withstand a greater range of
temperatures. Because CPVC has more applications than PVC, it is more expensive.

(xiv) Lead pipes

Very old cold water systems used lead pipes to run water around homes. Lead pipes are
also very commonly used between the water company stop tap and the mains stop tap
in your home. A lead pipe has high corrosion resistance, flexibility, and hydraulic
coefficient of flow. But lead content in water can lead to poisoning effects that are
harmful to people. Thus, it is not preferred.

(xv) Cast Iron Pipe

Cast Iron pipe is popular for city water-distribution systems due to its high resistance
to corrosion and consequent long life. Cast iron pipe is made of pig iron. Such pipes are
generally made from 5 cm to 120 cm in diameter. Under normal conditions, a cast-
iron pipe could be expected to last 100 years. The usual length of a pipe section is 12
feet, but lengths up to 20 feet may be obtained. Cast iron pipe is made in several wall
thickness classes for various pressures up to a maximum of 350 psi. Cast iron pipes will
also be cheap and economical. These pipes can be joined easily and may be cut and
bored easily too.

(xvi) Ductile Iron Pipes

Ductile Iron (DI) pipes are better version of cast iron pipes with better tensile strength.
DI pipes have high impact resistance, high wear and tear resistance, high tensile
strength, ductility and good internal and external corrosion resistance. DI pipes
reduce water contamination. DI pressure pipes are available in range from 80-1000
mm diameter in lengths from 5.5-6 m,

(xvii) Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Pipes (ABS)

ABS Pipes is resistant to corrosive chemicals and has a low melting temperature. While
used for pipes, it is well-known for Lego toys, computer keyboards, and wall socket
faceguards. This type of pipe can be used for draining sewage and wastewater from
households. It is good for DWV (drain waste vent) systems. It is not flexible. In other

4
words, it is solid.

(xix) Brass Pipes

Brass pipe is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is widely utilized in and for many
household items like locks, bearings, doorknobs and plumbing applications such as
tubes. While brass may be used for plumbing pipes, it is rarely because of it being very
expensive. Brass fittings are more common.

(xx) Asbestos Cement Pipes

The asbestos pipe is made from silica, asbestos, and cement converted under pressure
into a dense, homogeneous material possessing considerable strength. This type of pipe
is available in diameter of 4 to 36 inches in 13 feet lengths.

(xxi) Stoneware Pipes

These are manufactured in ceramic industries by burning soft soil at high
temperatures. These are used for carrying drainage in the underground. For the
installation of a stoneware pipe, skilled workers are required.

(xxii) Concrete Pipes

These pipes use for heavy drainage water disposal, concrete pipes of large diameters
are used.
Smaller diameter pipes are used for small flows. These are made from concrete only;
no reinforcement is provided. These are pre-casted pipes.

Fittings
Pipe fittings (Fig.5), also known as pipe connectors, attach one pipe to another in
order to lengthen the run or change the flow direction in a plumbing system. These are
used to combine, divert or reduce/increase the flow of water supply, and they come in
a variety of sizes to fit the pipe they will connect. Some of the most common types are

Elbow- Elbow fitting is for changing the direction of flow. It connects two pipes of same
diameter at an angle, normally 90 degrees.

Tee- Tee is a type of pipe fitting which is T-shaped having two outlets, at 90o to the
connection to the main line. It is a short piece of pipe with a lateral outlet. It is used
to connect pipelines with a pipe at right angle with the line. It will fit two straight pipes
and will have an outlet at right angle.

Socket or coupling - It is used to connect two straight lengths of pipes. The outer
diameter of pipe will be equal to inner diameter of socket after threading.

Union - It is used for joining the ends of two pipes which cannot be rotated. They are
used in long stretches of straight pipes in the beginning of a pipe system and near all
5
appliances along stop valves.

Reducer - It is used to connect two pipes with different size (diameter) to reduce the
size of pipe. Reducer can be a socket, elbow or a tee as per required distribution
network requirement.

Nipple - It is tubular pipe fitting, mainly in 300 mm length. It is used for extending
pipeline.

Plug - It is used to plug the flow of water at dead ends.

Common materials for construction of pipe fittings include metals like aluminum,
brass, bronze, carbon, stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, zirconium, rubber and
plastic like EPDM, CPVC, elastomer, nylon, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), PTFE
or PTFE lined, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and other materials.

Figure 2: Pipe fittings

Valves
Valves are mechanical devices used to control, direct, and regulate the flow of water
by opening, closing, or partially obstructing the flow. Valves are employed in
residential and commercial buildings, water supply systems, wastewater treatment
plants, and chemical plants to direct the flow, shut off water access, prevent backflow,
and adjust water pressure within a system. There are different types of valves and
can be made up of different materials like bronze, PVC, brass, etc.

Sluice Valve
It is used for control on water flow in pipeline. It is fixed in main line and at start of
branch line. It is also used as scour valve for cleaning of pipeline. They are provided in
straight pipeline at 150-200 m intervals.

6
 Figure 3: Sluice valve
Air Valve
Air valve are fixed in order to allow air circulation in pipeline. It is placed in pumping
main line and distribution line mainly which are at higher levels. Air valves may be
placed at every 1000 m for pipe lines up to 600 mm dia.

Figure 4: Air valve

Butterfly Valve
This valve has a rotating metal disc that allows and inhibits the water flow, creating an
image similar to that of a butterfly due to which is called a butterfly valve. These
valves are very compact, light, and relatively short, making them, significantly lighter
than the other types.

Ball Valve
Ball valves, also known as float operated valve are the most reliable and common type
of valves used to regulate the flow of water into storage cistern. It is a mechanical
valve that automatically opens and closes as water is removed and added to a cistern,
and they come in all shapes and sizes and materials.

Figure 5: Ball valve

7
Various types of ball valve in use are
Diaphragm type
The diaphragm type is the least noisy as there is less friction between moving parts.

Figure 6: Diaphragm type ball valve

Portsmouth and Croydon-type
The Portsmouth and Croydon-type valves have a piston moving horizontally or
vertically respectively, although the latter is obsolete and only likely to be found in
very old installations. Water outlets must be well above the highest water level to
prevent back siphonage of cistern water into the main supply. Nozzle diameters reduce
as the pressure increases. High, medium and low pressure valves must be capable of
closing against pressures of 1380, 690 and 275 kPa respectively.

(a) Portsmouth/piston float (b) Croydon float valve

Figure 7: Portsmouth and Croydon-type ball valve

Stop valve
Stop valve is a valve closed or opened at will (as by hand) for preventing or regulating
flow (as of a liquid in a pipe). This can also be called a stopcock or stop valve. This is
the tap which turns off the cold water into your house, from the water coming in from
the street.

8
 Figure 8: Stop valve

There are two types of stop valve. They are

(i) Globe Valve
The Globe valve is commonly used to regulate or limit the water flow in plumbing
applications, where the flow needs to be adjusted regularly. The globe-type stop valve
is used to control the flow of water at high pressure.The interior design features
contain a stopper on the end of a valve stem that is raised and lowered by the valve's
twist knob. Globe valves get their name due to the globe-like or ball-like appearance of
their body. The globe valves are suitable for regulating flow; they are often used for
outdoor faucets (hose bibs) and similar utility faucets.
To close the flow of water the crutch head handle is rotated slowly in a clockwise
direction gradually reducing the flow, thus preventing sudden impact and the
possibility of vibration and water hammer.

Figure 9: Globe type stop valve

(ii) Gate Valve(Sluice valve)

Gate valve is the most widely used type of valve in plumbing systems. It includes a
wedge-shaped metal gate that can be lowered (with the use of a twist-type handle or
knob) to stop the flow of water or raised to allow the flow to continue. Gate valves
cannot control the water flow as they are designed to be fully opened or fully closed.
If used to adjust the water flow, it can wear out the valves. Gate valves can be used
for the circulation of all types of fluids, such as air, fuel gas, feedwater, steam, lube
oil, and hydrocarbons.
The gate or sluice valve is used to control the flow of water on low pressure installations.
The wheel head is rotated clockwise to control the flow of water, but this valve will

9
offer far less resistance to flow than a globe valve. With use the metallic gate will wear
and on high pressure installations would vibrate.

Figure 10: Gate valve

Pressure relief valve
A relief valve or pressure relief valve (PRV) is a type of safety valve used to control or
limit the pressure in a system. Pressure relief valves are used in the plumbing system to
reduce water pressure to the desired limit and protect equipment or piping systems
from bursting. The mechanism consists of a spring and diaphragm adjusted to a
specific limit, depending on the pressure of the water supply. The pressure relief
valves are also known as pressure-reducing valves, pressure safety valves, and
pressure balance valves.

Drain valve
The drain valve has several applications and is found at the lowest point in pipe
systems, boilers and storage vessels.

Figure 11: Drain valve

10
Note: For temperatures up to 100oC valves are usually made from brass. For higher
temperatures gun metal is used. Brass contains 50% zinc and 50% copper. Gun metal
contains 85% copper, 5% zinc and 10% tin.

Non-Return Valve
A non-return valve also known as check valve, clack valve, reflux valve, or one-way
valve is valve that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one
direction and automatically prevents backflow (reverse flow) when fluid in line
reverses direction. This essential fitting will prevent reversal of the flow by gravitation
when the pump is inactive. Water flow reversal into the break tank would be wasteful,
potentially damaging to the plant room and with a significant head of water, the
pressure could burst pump seals, gaskets and other joints. When the pump stops its
delivery, the head of water above it will attempt to reverse and gravitate.

Figure 12: Non-Return Valve

Pressure Reducing Valve

Pressure reducing valves are otherwise known as pressure regulators. PRV's can be
applied to many different piped services including gas, compressed air, water and
steam. These applications may range from relatively simple installations such as mains
water supplied domestic unvented hot water storage systems, to larger scale industrial
steam and district heating schemes. High pressure is needed to overcome the
resistances of long lengths of pipe distribution, changes in direction, valves, etc. For
local distribution, the pressure must be reduced to:
(i) Prevent undue wear and damage to the lighter gauge fittings and fixtures at the
end use.
(ii) Provide a maximum safe working pressure to prevent injury to end users.
(iii) Regulate supplies at a constant value or desirable secondary pressure, irrespective
of inlet pressure variations and changes in demand.

11
 Figure 13: Pressure reducing valve

Figure 14: Pressure reducing valve installation

Taps Used for Water

Tap (also spigot or faucet) is a valve controlling the release of a liquid or gas. The
types include (i) Pillar type
The pillar tap is used to supply water to basins, baths, bidets and sinks. Combined hot
and cold pillar taps are available with fixed or swivel outlet. The outlet of these taps
must be bi-flow, i.e. separate waterways for hot and cold water to prevent crossflow of
water within the pipework.

Figure 15: Pillar tap

12
 Figure 16: Quarter-turn ceramic disc pillar tap

(ii) Bib tap

The bib tap is for wall fixing, normally about 150 mm above a sanitary appliance.

Figure 17: Conventional bib tap

(iii) Supatap
The `Supatap' bib tap permits a change of washer without shutting off the water supply.
It is also available in pillar format. Quarter-turn taps are easy to operate by hand or
elbow, therefore are suitable for use by the disabled and medical practitioner.

13
 Figure 18: Supatap
Mixer/Combination Taps
The blending of two supplies of water at different temperature using a combination
tap with a common outlet can be effected within the body of the tap, or through
separate waterways to the spout as shown below.

Figure 19: Mixer/Combination Taps

Where there is an imbalance of pressures, typical of blending high pressure mains
supplied cold water with lower pressure cistern supplied hot water in the body of a
combination tap, a check valve should be provided on each supply. These are required
to prevent cross contamination by the higher pressure cold flowing into the hot water
supply system and, under fault or vacuum conditions, the hot flowing into the cold
water supply.

Figure 20: Mixer/Combination Taps where there is imbalance of pressure

Strainers
A strainer is used to filter out and trap fluid suspended debris, pipe scale and
carbonate deposits from hard water. This facility is essential to prevent component
wear by erosion and abrasion, and interference with the efficient operation of pipe
system controls. Strainers are a standard installation on processing plant and other
industrial applications. There has been little need for strainers in domestic systems,
until the use of items such as thermostatic mixing valves, shower mixers, check valves
and pressure reducing valves have become standard. To protect the sensitivity of these
units, most manufacturers integrate a means of filtering within the casting. Otherwise,
an independent pipeline strainer of the type shown can be installed upstream of the

14
unit. Typical pipeline strainers

Figure 21: Strainers

The Storage Cistern
This is the reservoir of cold water used to supply either the hot water cylinder or the
central heating system. The cistern should be located in the highest place to maintain
reasonable pressures throughout the building. But care should be exercised to ensure that the
water is not affected by dust, debris and frost. A typical installation is shown in Fig. 26, which
will provide a reserve if the mains supply is interrupted. Also, it will reduce demand on the
main and provide constant pressure to all outlets. The low-pressure supply will also limit wear
on taps and fittings, reduce water wastage and noise transmission.
It can be manufactured from galvanised mild steel, polypropylene or glass reinforced
plastics. They must be well insulated and supported on adequate bearers to spread the
concentrated load. Plastic cisterns will require uniform support on boarding over
bearers. A dustproof cover is essential to prevent contamination.

15
 Figure 22: Cold water storage cistern

Where storage demand exceeds 4500 litres, cisterns must be duplicated and
interconnected. In the interests of load distribution this should be provided at much
lower capacities. For maintenance and repairs each cistern must be capable of
isolation and independent operation.

Figure 23: Duplicated cistern

Cistern should comply with the following:

(i) Use of non-corrosive, shatter-proof materials (ii) Provide a close-fitting lid with a
vent
(iii) Adequate insulation (iv) Substantial support with a level plat form (v) Fitting of a
warning (overflow) pipe larger in diameter than the inlet (vi) Provide valves on every
outlet (except warning pipe) (vii) On large cisterns, the outlet to be opposite the inlet to
encourage thorough flow of water (viii) Fitting of a float valve to regulate and control
the water level.

Cold Water Storage Calculations

16
Cold water storage data is provided to allow for up to 24 hour interruption of mains
water supply.

Notes:
(1) 115 or 230 litres min. see pages 40 and 41 (2) Variable depending on classification.
(3) Allow for additional storage for public toilets and restaurants.
At the design stage the occupancy of a building may be unknown. Therefore the
following can be used as a guide:

Pump
A pump is a mechanical device that lifts liquids from a lower level or low-pressure area
to a higher level or high-pressure area. It is a heavy-duty equipment with low suction
and high discharge pressure. This makes it easier to pump a fluid from a certain depth
and push the fluid to the desired height The function of pump is to transfer water to
higher elevation or at higher pressure. Pumps are driven by electricity or diesel or even
solar power.

Types/classification of Pumps
Many kinds of pumps are used in cold water supply scheme. Pumps are classified on
the basis of the following:
(a) Mechanical principle of operation
Based on the principle of operation, pumps can be broadly classified into following
four types (i) Displacement pumps
17
(ii) Centrifugal pumps
(iii) Air lift pump
(iv) Miscellaneous pumps
(b) Type of power required
Based on type of power required, pumps can be broadly classified into following:
(i) Steam engine pumps
(ii) Diesel engine pumps
(iii) Electricity driven pumps
(c) Type of service called for
Based on type of power required, pumps can be broadly classified into following:
(i) Low lift pumps
Pumps that lift surface water and move it to a nearby treatment plant are low-lift-
pumps. These move large volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures.
(ii) High lift pumps
Pumps that discharge treated water into arterial mains are called high-lift-pumps.
These operate under higher pressures.
(iii) Deep well pumps
Well pumps lift water from underground and discharge it directly into a distribution
system.
(iv) Booster pumps
Pumps that increase the pressure within the distribution system or raise water into an
elevated storage tank, are called booster pumps.
Installation of a typical pump (Centrifugal Pump)
Centrifugal pump is used for pumping water from well/sump. It is a type of velocity
pump where water is moved through continuous application of power. This type of
pumps is used widely in water supply schemes containing sand, silt etc. Centrifugal
force is made use of in lifting water. Electrical energy is converted to potential or
pressure energy of water. The pump consists of the following parts: Casing, delivery
pipe, delivery valve, impeller, prime mover, suction pipe and strainer and foot Valve
Usage-Centrifugal pumps are well suited to pump under steady low head, though the
water may be even turbid. They are therefore mostly used for lifting raw water from
the river to the treatment plants, and then lifting treated water to the distribution
reservoirs.

18
 Figure 24: Centrifugal Pump

Installation
Fig.25 shows a typical installation for centrifugal pump used for pumping out water
from a sump. The installation consists of the following:
(i) Strainers/screen
A strainer or screen is provided at the entrance of the suction pipe to prevent the
entry of debris etc, which will otherwise clog the pump and damage it.
(ii) Foot valve
A foot valve is provided at the end of the suction pipe. The foot valve prevents water
from leaving the pump when the pump is stopped. A foot valve helps avoid the
necessity of outside priming every time the pump is started. It serves as a self -
priming device.
(iii) Suction pipe (inlet) and Delivery pipe (outlet)
The suction pipe and the delivery pipe are provided of the same diameter. However,
for economy, the diameter of pump casing at the inlet end as well as the discharge
end are often kept smaller.
(iv) Accentric reducer
An accentric reducer is provided to prevent air accumulation when the pump is
stopped.
Non-return valve (check valve)
Non-return valve is provided at the beginning of the delivery pipe, to prevent back
flow through the pump, if there is a power failure.
(v) Gate valve or discharge valve
A gate valve is also provided in the beginning of the delivery pipe. The gate valve is
initially kept closed, and is then gradually opened as the pump picks up the speed, so
that the discharge pipe is filled with water and full back pressure exists on the pump.
If this is not done, and if the pump is started with the discharge valve open, with the
discharge pipe empty, the motor may be overloaded, resulting in its burning out.

19
 Figure 25: Centrifugal Pump Installation

Criteria for pump selection for water supply

There are certain criteria to consider when specifying a pump, whether for a new
system or replacing an old one. The selection of a particular type of pump depends
upon the following:
(i) Capacity of the pump (ii) Suction conditions (iii) Lift (total head) (iv) Discharge
conditions, and variations in the load (v) Starting and priming characteristics (vi)
Initial cost and running cost
Table 2 also provides guidelines on pump selection
Table 2: Guideline on pump selection
Site condition Preferable Pump Type
Inside river Submersible pump
Low lift raw water pumping, dry well built in the Centrifugal pump
river/dam bank with suction head not to
exceed 6 m
Low lift raw water pumping, dry well built, in Turbine pump
the river/dam bank with suction head more
than 6 m
Ground level reservoir/sump Centrifugal pump/Turbine
Line booster (small discharge less than Centrifugal pump
1000lpm)
Open well with suction head less than 6 m in the Centrifugal pump/Submersible pump
lean period
Open well with the water level goes down and Submersible pump
the discharge is less than 50 lpm
Open well when water level is more than 15 m Turbine
and discharge is more than 50 lpm
Pump from the well Submersible/Turbine

Tools used for pipe cutting

For pipe sizes greater than 25 mm, powered tools are used. And for pipe sizes below 25
mm following tools are used:

20
Pipe Vice
It is used for holding pipes in position rigidly for cutting and threading. Pipe vices are
available in market in various sizes for holding pipes starting from 37 mm diameter.

Pipe Wrench
It is used for screwing and unscrewing small pipes. It is also used for tightening of nut
and bolts, fixing of small taps, valves etc in pipelines. Pipe wrench size should be
selected such that its opening exactly pits the pipe. Pipe wrench should not be used for
bending, raising or lifting pipe.
Chain Wrench
It is used for turning and fixing large diameter threaded pipes. Chain wrenches are
commonly available for holding pipes of 50 mm - 300 mm diameter.
Pipe Cutter
It is used for cutting of pipes. It is placed around pipes and tightens so that it holds
the pipe tight. However, over tightening may damage pipe. The cutter is rotated
around the pipe one to two times and then the pipe is tightened again. The process is
repeated unless the pipe is cut. Pipe cutters are available for cutting of pipes from 25-
150 mm.
Hack Saw with Blades
It is used for cutting pipes of smaller diameters (15-25 mm). It consists of frame,
handle, prongs, tightening screw and nut. The frame may be fixed type or adjustable
type. Blade is fixed in position by means of tightening screw. The direction of the
cutting teeth of the blade is to be in the forward direction.
Pipe Reamer
It is used for chamfering on pipes. When the pipes are cut of threaded, burr or metal
parts remain which are removed with pipe reamer. Various sizes are available in
market. It should be selected based on the pipe diameter.
Pipe Bending Machine
It is used for bending pipes. Fix wooden stopper to one end of the pipe. Fill the pipe
with sand completely. Fix wooden stopper from other side of pipe. Fix the pipe in the
machine. Location of the bend should be in centre of pulley. Tight the screw. Bend the
pipe with help of lever till required bend. Remove stopper and sand from pipe.
Spanner
Spanner is used for fixing and opening nuts and bolts. Different types of spanners
and size are available as per requirement of pipe size.
Chisel and Hammer
Chisel is meant for cutting metal pipes when very smooth surface is not required. Chisel
is blown with hammer for cutting.
Pipe Threading Die Set
It is used for threading external taper threaded of pipe. Pipe is fixed in the pipe vice
and threading is done with help of the die set as per pipe size requirement.

21
 Figure 26: Tools used for pipe cutting

Line and Levelling Instruments for Laying of Pipelines

Plumb bob
It is used for determining straight vertical lines/plumb lines. It is most basic tool for
measuring vertical lines while laying pipelines. It consists of string attached to pointed
weight which swings and halts to give perfect vertical line.

Figure 27: Plumb bob

Spirit level
It is used for levelling as it helps is maintaining horizontal lines. It helps in slope
adjustment while laying pipes.

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Water Tube Level
It is used for levelling while laying pipes. It consists of a plastic tube, where water is
filled for levelling of tubes.

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 MODULE 8: HOT WATER SUPPLY
Individual localised units
Hot water may be provided by individual localised units mounted over sinks, basins, etc.
and fuel by gas burner or an electrical immersion heater. These are cheap installation
for small cloakroom or similar facility.
Electric Water Heaters –Immersion-type
An electric immersion heater may be used within a conventional hot water storage
cylinder. Alternatively, individual or self-contained open outlet heaters may be
located over basins, baths or sinks. Combined cistern-type heaters can be used to
supply hot water to several sanitary appliances. The immersion heater must be
electrically earth bonded and the cable supplying the heating element must be
adequate for the power load. A cable specification of 2.5 mm2 is normally adequate
with a 20 amp double pole control switch supplied direct from the consumer's unit or
fuse box. Overload protection at the consumers unit is a 16 amp fuse or circuit breaker
for a 3 kW element and 20 amp for a 4 kW element. The cistern-type immersion heater
should be located with the water level at least 1.5 m above the water draw-off taps.

Immersion heaters - safety cut-out. Immersion heater manufacturers are required

to incorporate an additional integral safety device, independent of the main
thermostat.
Function – If the main thermostat fails, water will boil, with considerable damage
potential to personnel, the installation and premises. The manufacturer's pre-set
safety cut-out is designed to prevent water in a hot water storage vessel exceeding
98oC. It must not re-set automatically.
Methods - either:
(i) A `one-shot' thermal cut-out or thermostat. This is principally a fusible link which
melts or ruptures at a pre-determined temperature, or
(ii) A manually re-settable cut-out or thermostat which responds to critical
temperature change to break electrical contact.

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 Figure 1: Cistern-type electric immersion heater

Pressure-type Electric Water Heaters

Pressure-type electric water heaters are fitted where there is insufficient space to
accommodate this combination unit. These are small enough to locate under the sink or
elsewhere in the kitchen. They have two immersion heaters, the upper element of 500
watts rating is for general use supplying hot water to the basin, sink and other small
appliances. The lower element of 2500 watts may be on a timed control to provide
sufficient hot water for baths. The pressure heater is supplied with cold water from a
high level cistern.

Figure 2: Pressure-type electric water heater

Instantaneous-type Electric Water Heaters

Instantaneous water heaters are relatively compact non-storage units suitable for use
with individual sinks, basins and showers. For user safety they are fitted with a

2
pressure switch to disconnect the electricity if the water supply is interrupted and a
thermal cut-out to prevent the water overheating. Mains pressure to these units
should be maintained below 400 kPa (4 bar). In some high pressure supply areas this
will require a pressure reducing valve to be installed on the service pipe. Some
expansion of hot water will occur whilst the unit is in use. This can be contained if there
is at least 3 metres of pipework before the unit and the closest cold water drawoff. If
this is impractical, an expansion vessel may be used.

Figure 3: Instantaneous-type electric water heaters

Immersion-type water heater

This type of water heater is installed in industrial, commercial and domestic buildings
to considerably reduce electricity usage. To conserve energy, standard capacity hot
water storage cylinders of 162 or 190 litres are recommended. To conserve energy,
these cylinders must be thoroughly insulated and the immersion heaters fitted with
integral thermostatic control. If supplementary hot water is required during the day,
this can be provided by a secondary immersion heater at standard supply tariff. The
secondary immersion heater or boost heater is close to the top of the cylinder to ensure
that only a limited quantity of water is heated at standard tariff. To maximise
economy, the off-peak thermostat is set at 60oC and the boost thermostat at 60oC.

3
 Figure 4: Immersion-type water heater

Instantaneous Gas Water Heaters

When the hot water outlet is opened, cold water flows through a venturi fitting. The
venturi contains a diaphragm which responds to the flow differential pressure and
this opens the gas valve. A pilot flame ignites gas flowing through the burner which
heats the water as it passes through the heat exchanger. Installation can be direct
from the water main or from a cold water storage cistern.

A multi-point system has the hot water outlet supplying several appliances. A gas
circulator can be used to heat water in a storage cylinder. They are usually fitted with
an economy or three-way valve. This gives optional use of water circulation through a
high or low return pipe for variable hot water storage volume. Domestic installations
may be in the kitchen, with vertical flow and return pipes to a storage cylinder in the
airing cupboard.

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 Figure 5: Immersion-type water heater

Gas Storage-type Water Heaters

The storage type of gas water heater is a self-contained unit and is therefore simpler
and quicker to install than a gas circulator. Capacities range from 75 to 285 litres. The
smaller units are singlepoint heaters for supplying hot water to an individual sink or
basin. Larger, higher rated storage heaters can be used to supply hot water to a bath,
basin, sink and shower. These are called multi-point heaters. They may also be
installed in flats up to three storeys, with cold water supplied from one cistern. A vent
pipe on the cold feed will prevent siphonage. To prevent hot water from the heaters on
the upper floors flowing down to the heater on the ground floor, the branch
connection on the cold feed pipe must be above the heaters.

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 (a) Detail of Gas storage water heater

(b) Installation of gas storage heater for a house (c) Installation of gas storage heaters for three-storey
flats

Figure 5: Gas storage-type water heater

Condensing water heater

Condensing water heater - a variation on the multipoint type heater. The condensing
heater is a hot water storage vessel, capable of very rapid heat recovery.
Application - typical examples include small hotels, schools, residential homes, student
halls of residence, camp sites and sports centres.
Function - a fanned gas burner discharges into a stainless steel combustion chamber
within a cylindrical water storage vessel. From the combustion chamber the burnt gases
descend into a stainless steel spiral to exit at low level through a flue. Condensate
from the flue is trapped and discharged to a drain.
Controls – Automatic electric ignition in response to a water temperature thermostat.
Limit thermostat.
Overheat safety thermostat and warning light.

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Fan failure device and warning light.
Manual on/off switch.
Water supply - either:
(i) Cistern, gravity feed pipe and atmospheric vent and expansion pipe, or
(ii) Direct connection to an unvented mains supply. Unvented supplies require
backflow prevention (check valve), an expansion vessel and an expansion valve.
A pressure and temperature relief valve must also be fitted to the hot water outlet to
discharge safely into a tundish.

Figure 6: Mains connected condensing water heater

Solar heating of water

With ‘green’ issues very topical, it is appropriate to consider the use of solar power to
supplement conventionally fuelled hot water supplies. Solar collectors may be fitted to
roofs ideally pitched at about 40o and facing south. They may linked to the
conventional indirect hot water system in the manner shown in Fig. 7, but space will be
needed for an additional heat exchanger.
For domestic application, the collector should be 4 to 6 m2 in area, secured at an angle
of 40 per cent to the horizontal and facing south. The solar cylinder capacity of about
200 litres is heated to 60oC. The cylinder and associated pipework must be very well
insulated and the solar part of the system should contain a blend of water and non-
toxic anti-freeze. The pump is switched on when the temperature of water at point X
exceeds that at point Y by 2 to 3oC. The solar cylinder and the conventional cylinder
may be fitted on the same level, or to save space a combined solar/conventional
cylinder can be obtained from specialist suppliers.

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 Figure 7: Solar hot water supply
Centralised systems
If it would be uneconomical to provide several of these throughout a house, it is usually
to provide a centralised heat source to provide sufficient hot water and circulate
through several radiators. Centralised systems have a boiler, a hot water storage
cylinder and cold water cistern linked by supply and circulatory pipework. Ideally
the boiler is close to the hot water storage vessel, to reduce pipework heat losses and to
encourage circulation of hot water where gravity or convection is used.
Boiler may be floor-standing or wall hung with balanced flue through the wall. Fuel
possibilities are conventionally flued solid fuel (coal), gas (mains supply or liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) or oil. Solid fuel is a popular application for ranges (combined
boiler and cooker), but required regular attention, and therefore has limited
automatic control. Gas is very popular and economic where mains supply is possible. It
is clean and very adaptable to programmed control and required little maintenance.
Remote situations can also enjoy these facilities with LPG in bottled or delivered
supplies. However, these are comparatively expensive. Oil has been the cheapest
domestic fuel for many years, but historically has suffered political interference and
price fluctuations. Like solid fuel and LPG, oil required space, but is readily adaptable
to automatic control. There are several arrangements for centralised systems. Some of
the arrangements are:
Direct System of Hot Water Supply
These are only suited to ‘soft’ water areas, otherwise the chalk or limestone found in

8
borehole water supplies will precipitate when heated and eventually ‘fur up’ the boiler
and adjacent pipework. As well as rendering the system inefficient, it could lead to a
boiler explosion and considerable damage. Furthermore, these systems are not suited
to hot water central heating, so are now virtually obsolete. If used in a `soft' water
area the boiler must be rust-proofed. The hot water from the boiler mixes directly with
the water in the cylinder. The storage cylinder and associated pipework should be well
insulated to reduce energy losses. If a towel rail is fitted, this may be supplied from
the primary flow and return pipes.

Figure 8: Direct hot water system

Note: All pipe sizes shown are for copper outside diameter.
Indirect System of Hot Water Supply
This system is used in `hard' water areas to prevent scaling or `furring' of the boiler
and primary pipework. With this system an expansion and feed cistern is incorporated
to supply the boiler, primary flow and return. The hot water storage cylinder or
calorifier shown in Fig. 9, differs from that in the direct system by incorporating a coil
attached to the primary pipework. The resulting system shown in Fig. 10 enables water
to circulate between boiler and coil without being drawn off, therefore the same water

9
circulates persistently/circulates continuously throughout the boiler, primary circuit
and heat exchange coil inside the storage cylinder, transferring its heat energy into
the coil in the surrounding water. Unlike the direct system, water in the boiler and
primary circuit is not drawn off through the taps. Fresh water cannot gain access to
the higher temperature areas where precipitation of calcium would occur. Also, water
in the calorifier does mix with the water in the primary flow and return, so radiators
can be supplied from these pipes or from separate connections on the same boiler. The
expansion cistern merely tops up the boiler and associated pipework should any
evaporation occurs.The system is also used in combination with central heating, with
flow and return pipes to radiators connected to the boiler. Boiler water temperature
may be set by thermostat at about 80oC.

Figure 9: Indirect hot water system

Note: A safety valve is not normally required on indirect open vent systems, as in the
unlikely occurrence of the primary flow and vent becoming obstructed, water
expansion would be accommodated up the cold feed pipe.

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