DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PRAGATI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AFFILIATED TO JNT UNIVERSITY)

SURAMPALEM, ANDHRA PRADESH

Energy Efficient Transmission And Utilization By Power Electronic Controllers

AUTHORS:
POORNIMA VISALAKSHI.V DOLLY .R.JAIN III B.Tech III B.Tech

Email:

Poornima_518@rediffmail.com dollyjaindj@gmail.com

CONTACT:

9949402512

Abstract: It is amazing that less than 50 per cent of the power produced in India is billed, the rest being lost due to theft, technical losses, and unmetered power connections to farmers. T & D losses in India are very high, almost around 26 percent compared to international norms of 6-7 percent. Technical losses, that is, energy losses in conductors and equipment (e.g., transformers) in a power T&D system, cannot be reduced to zero but substantially lowered by identifying system components responsible for inefficiency and replacing them with energy efficient systems. This paper presents the energy efficient techniques for transmission and utilization of electrical energy. Attributes under investigations include,

1. HVDC Transmission 2. FACTS Technology

3. Efficient Utilization
Key words- Energy efficiency, FACTS, HVDC, Induction motor. I. Introduction In 1901, Emile Zola, the French novelist and social reformer wrote: The day must come when electricity will be for everyone, as the waters of the rivers and the winds of heaven. It should not merely be supplied, but lavished, that men may use it at their will, as the air they breathe. Earlier, on April 26, 1894 Col R E B Crompton, the inventor-entrepreneur in his Presidential Address at the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London expressed:

When electrical supply to small tenements it will have a very powerful influence in
increasing the material comfort of the poor. In 1995, the Government of India set up a National Committee on Distribution Transformers under the Ministry of Power (MoP) and Rural Electrification Corporation (REC). The Committee, headed by the Chairman of REC, studied why Distribution Transformers failed and the measure needed to reduce failure rates. The Committee found the following: High failure rates coupled with poor efficiency led to wastage of 400 million kWh energy per year. A potential saving of Rs. 1000 crore could have been achieved by year 2000 if energy efficient transformers were installed both as addition as well as in replacements. Adopting a strict Total Owning Cost (TOC) based Purchase Policy to support reliable and energy efficient Distribution Transformers will substantially improve utilities performance in the near year. The electrical energy demand-supply gap in India is substantial and is increasing. Bridging the gap through an increase in supply is an expensive option. Cheaper and more practical is the energy conservation, particularly for industrial consumers who account for more than 50 per cent of the total energy consumption. The simplest way to reduce energy demand is to use energy efficiently. II.HVDC Transmission Why do we even consider the use of dc when, for more than one hundred years, the generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electric energy has been based principally on alternating current (ac). HVDC came alive some 40 years ago for a combination of technical and economic considerations. Early years of HVDC: The incremental of dc transmission over a given distance is less than that of ac, because a maximum of two conductors is required for dc compared to three for ac. The drawback lies in the need for conversion equipment at the sending and receiving end of the dc transmission to convert from ac used for generation and back to ac for utilization. Such conversion equipment is more costly than the relatively simple ac transmission terminal

equipment. However, if the transmission distance is of sufficient length, the savings eventually overcome the initial conversion costs. For overhead line transmission, the break-even distance of the order of 800-1000 km, whereas, for underground (or submarine) cable transmission, because of relatively more costly cable medium, the break-even distance reduces to approximately 50 km (Figure 1). Moreover, for the same power and operating current, the dc transmission losses and consequently their capitalized cost are only two-third those of ac transmission, because of the reduced number of conductors. HVDC solved the problem for long ac submarine (or land) cables, whereby their thermal capacity is entirely used up by the charging current. It also solved the problem of long distance ac transmission stability. Got land and Sardinia, and long-distance transmission lines, Pacific Inertia, and the Nelson River scheme.

Figure 1 Break-Even Distance for HVDC One Line Diagram of HVDC: Figure 2 shows a typical one-line diagram of HVDC transmission system for interconnecting two ac systems (where each ac system may include its own generation and load) by an HVDC transmission line. Power flow over the transmission line can be reversed. If we assume the power flow to be from system A to B, the system A voltage, in the range of 69-230 kV, is transformed up to the transmission level, and then rectified by means of the converter terminal A and applied to the HVDC transmission line. At the receiving end, the dc power is inverted by means of the converter terminal B, and the voltage is transformed down to match the ac voltage of the system B. the power received over the HVDC transmission line is then transmitted over ac transmission and distribution lines to wherever it is needed in system B. Each converter terminal in figure consists of a positive pole and a negative pole. Each pole consists of two 6-pulse, line-frequency bridge converters connected through a Y-Y and a Y transformer to yield a 12-pulse converter arrangement. On the ac side of the converter, the filters are required to reduce the current harmonics generated by the converters from entering the ac system. Moreover, the power factor correction capacitors are included along with the ac filter banks to supply the lagging reactive power (or the inductive vars) required by the converter in the rectifier as well as in the dc voltage is prevented from causing excessive ripple in the dc transmission line current by means of smoothing inductors Ld and the dc side filter banks, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. One line diagram for HVDC HVDC Inter Connection: The economical advantages of large interconnections are also lower, because, during an outage in the system, the support from distant generators is very limited. However, in such cases, a hybrid or an HVDC interconnection could improve the economical advantages of the interconnection without the disadvantage of having to completely upgrade in the system. These options provide more freedom for development of the different parts of the system. Light Triggered Thyristors: A potentially more significant development in thyristor technology is the advent of the light triggered thyristor (LTT). Conventional electrically triggered thyristor (ETT) require a local electronics unit for the generation of trigger pulses and the provision of protection and monitoring functions at each thyristor level. Signals are exchanged with electronic controllers at ground level via optical fibers that provide the necessary electrical instruction .The elimination of these local electronics units, with their high component counts and potential need for maintenance and repair has long been be objective of HVDC designers. Such elimination presents the possibility of even more compact values packaged fro-outdoor construction with simple exterior insulation and reduced civil works. Thyristor that can be directly triggered by light pulses are now a practical reality, thereby providing the prospect of eliminating the local electronic units. However, it is the additional functions of monitoring and protection that complicate the issue. The development of a simple LTT is relatively straightforward. The incorporation within the device itself of the various protection functions adds significantly to the complexity and cost. Self-protecting LTTs are now becoming available and demonstration values employing LTTs are in service. It remains to be seen, however, whether these will prove to be competitive in the short to medium term compared to ETTs. III.FACTS The goal of modern power quality management is to provide stable, distortion-free voltage. As power transfer grows, the operation of the interconnected power system becomes more complex and insecure. The reason for this lies in the systems inability to control and utilize the full potential of transmission interconnections. To overcome this problem and to

increase the transmission line loading close to their thermal and stability limits, flexibility of power system operation becomes very important. One technology offering fast and reliable control is the flexible AC transmission system (FACTS). This is an alternate current transmission system incorporating power electronics-based and other static controllers. FACTS increases the flexibility of power systems, makes them more controllable and allows increased utilization of the existing network closer to its thermal loading capability without jeopardizing the stability. Transmission Inter Connection: Most if not all of worlds electric power supply systems are widely interconnected, involving connections inside utilities own territories which extend to inter-utility interconnections and then to inter-regional and international connections. This is done for economic reasons, to reduce the cost of electricity and to improve reliability of power supply. Opportunities for FACTS: What is most interesting for transmission planners is that FACTS technology opens new opportunities for controlling power and enhancing the usable capacity of present, as well as new and upgraded lines. The possibility that current through a line can be controlled at a reasonable cost enables a large potential of increasing the capacity of existing lines with larger conductors, and use of one of the FACTS controllers to enable corresponding power to flow through such lines under normal and contingency conditions. Types of FACTS Controllers: Series controllers: The series controller [Figure3.1] could be variable impedance, such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or power electronics based variable source of main frequency sub synchronous and harmonic frequencies (or a combination) to serve the desired need. In practice, all series controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even a variable Impedance multiplied by the current flow through it represents an injected series voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well. Shunt Controllers: As in the case of series controllers, the shunt controllers [Figure 3.2] may be variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt controllers inject current into the system at the point connection. Even variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes a variable current flow and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well. Combined Series-Series controllers:

This could be a combination of separate series controllers [Figure 3.3], which are controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multiline transmission system. Or it could be a unified controller, figure 3.3, in which controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for each line but also transfer real power among the lines via the power link. The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series controller, referred to as interline power flow controller, makes it possible to balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximize the utilization of the transmission system. Note that the term unified here means that the dc terminals of all controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer. Combined series-shunt Controllers: This could be a combination of separate shunt and series controllers [Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5], which are controlled in a coordinated manner [Figure 3.4], or a unified power flow controller with series and shunt elements [Figure 3.5]. In principle, combined shunt and series controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of the controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the controller.

Fig 3.1

Fig 3.2

Fig 3.3

Fig 3.4

Fig 3.5

IV.ENERGY EFFICIENT UTILIZATION Increasingly, Indian Industry is paying one of the highest power tariffs in the world. The sharp rise in energy costs hit corporate bottom-lines in 2000-01. Corporate find that the constant escalation in the cost of power, is rapidly making electricity the single largest cost of production. That, despite reduction in specific energy consumption. Variable Speed Drives: Several drives are driven at constant speeds by induction motors, although operation at variable speed could lead to saving of substantial of energy. Such practice was adapted in the past because of non-availability of efficient methods of speed control of induction motors. One prominent example of such a case is pump drives where fluid flow control is required. These pump drives have applications in several industries such as chemical plants, photochemical plants, refineries, boilers and so on. The drives ratings range up to several megawatts. Earlier the pumps were run at a constant speed by induction motor and control the fluid flow was obtained by adjustment of opening of valves (by throttling) or by absorbing or by passing excess output

1. Constant- speed drive (b) adjustable - speed drive.

Fig. 4 Centrifugal Pump

Such an arrangement is highly inefficient. Fig 5 (a) shows pump and load characteristics, which represent the opposition offered to the flow of fluid through pipes. Load curve has two components: one to lift the fluid to the required height and other to overcome friction. The steady state operating point is obtained where the two curves are intersected. The operating point P corresponds to maximum opening of the valve, and therefore, provides maximum flow of fluid. When openings of the valves are reduced, friction component is increased and load curve is increased and load curve modifies to that shown by dotted line. Pump and load curve now meet at Q, which is the new operating point. Note that the flow has reduced but pump head has somewhat increased.

(a) valve opening (b) pump speed. Fig 5Control of flow in a pump by con trol of valve opening and pump speed When variable speed drive is employed, valve opening is kept at the maximum. As shown in fig 5(b), the operating point P is obtained at full speed; which is same as shown in fig 5(a).when the drive speed is reduced, pump characteristic is shifted down (shown by chain dotted line) but load characteristic is not altered because the valve has not changed. The new operating point is Q', which gives the same fluid flow as point Q (fig 5(a)) but at substantially reduced head. In a pump, the output power is product of the head and fluid flow. Since head is substantially lower at Q' compared to that at Q, power to be supplied to pump by the drives is substantially lower. Thus, use of variable speed drive can lead to large saving of energy. Studies have shown that the energy saving ranges from 20 to 40% and extra cost incurred in providing speed control can be recovered in a period of 2-5 years. Considering that a number of these drives have ratings in megawatt range, large amount of energy can be saved by the use of variable speed drives. Energy Efficient Operation of Drives: In many applications constant speed operation, induction motors operate under no load or light load for prolonged periods, such as in pressing machine, conveyors, rock crushers, centrifuges, drill presses, wood saw and, some machine tools. In such applications, saving in energy can be achieved by operating the motors at low voltages while running at no load and light loads. When a motor operates at full voltages at no load, core loss has a large value. Reduction in voltage increases copper loss but reduces core loss by a larger amount. Therefore, net loss is reduced. At some voltage when core loss becomes equal to copper loss; the loss has minimum value and efficiency is maximum. Any increase or decrease of voltage from this value increases the loss. Therefore, for each loading, there is an optimum value of voltage for which the loss is minimum. Energy saving is achieved by operating the induction motor at optimum voltage values.

The energy saving depends on following factors: Duty cycle of motor: Energy saving occurs mainly during no load and light load operation. Therefore, energy saving is larger in drives which operate at low duty cycles. Operation with over voltages: When motor is located in the area where over voltages are common, larger amount of energy can be saved. At over voltages, because of saturation of magnetic circuit of motor, the core loss becomes larger than its full voltage value. Operation at the optimum voltage gives rise to larger reduction in loss and greater saving in energy. Quality of motor design: Badly designed motors use inferior core material and operate with saturation even at full voltage. Therefore, they have larger core loss at full voltage and over voltages than the motors with good design. Operation of badly designed motors at the optimum voltages reduces the loss by a larger amount than in a motor with good design. Over sizing of motor: Often a motor of power rating higher than necessary is employed. Optimum voltage control gives rise to greater saving of energy in oversized motors. As explained above, for each loading there is an optimum voltage. The loss minimization requires that the motor voltage be continuously varied with the load. Therefore, an ac voltage controller must be incorporated between motor and the source. When an ac voltage controller is used to get variable voltage, harmonics are present in the motor terminal voltage. These harmonics produce losses, and therefore, the energy saving is reduced. The economic benefits of the net energy saved should be compared with the increase in cost due to the addition of an ac voltage controller to arrive at a decision about the desirability of using this energy saving scheme. In several applications requiring soft start, ac voltage controller is always there, and therefore, no additional cost is incurred in implementation of energy saving scheme. Energy saving scheme is particularly beneficial in single-phase motors. High Frequency Electronic Ballast: The high frequency fluorescent lighting system is shown in a block diagram form in Fig.6. The high frequency electronic ballast converts the 50 Hz input to a high frequency out put, usually in a range of 25- 40 kHz. Fig. 6 consists of a diode rectifier bridge and a dc to high frequency ac inverter. The inversion of the dc to high frequency ac can be obtained in one of several ways: for example, a class E resonant converter can be used to produce sinusoidal lamb voltage and current; another possibility is to use a switch mode converter, but without the isolation transformer and the output rectifying stage. An EMI filter is used before the rectifier bridge to suppress the conducted EMI. As in most power electronic equipment, the current drawn by the ballast from the utility system will contain significant harmonics can be remedied efficiency by the input current wave shaping circuit. Because a large electronic ballast associated with a standard 50 Hz fluorescent system is not required, the electronic ballast in general are more energy efficient compared to the magnetic ballasts. A dimming control can be incorporated in the 50 Hz as well as the high frequency lighting system to compensate for the daylight coming in through the windows. In addition, a dimming control can lead to significant energy saving in the following manner: the lumen capacity of a lamb diminishes with time. Therefore the new lambs are selected to have a lumen capacity that approximately 30% higher than the nominal requirement. With a dimming control, new lamps

can be operated at a reduced power to deliver the nominal requirement, thus resulting in energy savings during the period while the lamps have a high lumen capacity.

Fig 6 High Frequency Electronic ballast. Thyristor Switched Automatic Power Factor Correction: In addition to not being able to achieve the desired power factor it is also possible that the use of fixed compensation can also result in leading power factor under certain load conditions. This is also unhealthy for the installation as it can result in over voltage, saturation of transformers, etc. It is therefore necessary to automatically vary without manual intervention, the compensation to suit the load requirements. Some loads (such as welding equipments, injection moulding equipment, starting of large induction motors, traction loads) which demand, under certain operating conditions, large amount of reactive power for very short duration of time. Thyristor switched automatic power factor correction system (Fig.7) is used in this application, which have a response time in milliseconds.

Fig 7 Block Diagram of Thyristor switched APFC System. In this system, it is possible to switch in capacitors such that the inrush transient currents are totally eliminated. In addition the capacitors can be switched repetitively intent any limits since, there is no need for allowing discharge of the capacitor before it is switched in. Energy Recovery from Motor Drives: In wound rotor induction motor, the total resistance in the rotor phases can be varied by adding an external resistance through slip rings. For the load torque versus speed is quite apparent that the speed of operation can be continuously varied by controlling the external resistance in the rotor circuit (the steady state speed is given by the intersection of the load and the motor torque-speed curves as in all motor drives). However, high rotor losses (due to high slips) may be unacceptable. The static slip power recovery scheme provides an alternative to the historical Scherbius and Kramer drives, both of which require a second rotating machine to recover the rotor circuit electrical power. In the static slip power

recovery system, rather than dissipating the slip power in the rotor external resistances, these resistances are simulated by means of a diode rectifier and the energy recovered is fed back to the ac source by a means a line-voltage commutated inverter. In many industrial applications, braking is repeatedly required to quickly reduce the motor speed or to bring it to a halt. One of the advantages of using power electronics controller (variable frequency) for speed control is that it can accomplish this in a controlled manner. To understand regenerative braking in induction motors, it should be realized that if it possible to operate an induction machine as a generator by mechanically driving it above the synchronous speed. In practice, the stator frequency (keeping flux constant) is reduced slowly to avoid large current through the variable frequency power electronics controller.

V.CONCLUSION In order to avoid harmonic current amplification due to power electronics load detuned filter circuits must be used Adoption of energy conservation measures is necessary to reduce effective demand. This would not only save huge investments required in building new capacity, but would also help in abatement of greenhouse gasses and other environmental pollutants. Achieving energy conservation targets of 95000 Mkwh (as envisaged during the Tenth plan in India) would avoid generation of 25 million tones per annum (MTPA) of greenhouse gasses, 40MTPA of SO2 and 55 MTPA of coal ash. There is growing awareness about importance of energy conservation and its benefits in reducing demand-supply gap of energy. With the Electricity Act 2003, industrial consumers have the benefit of cheaper power through a bettermanaged grid, removal of controls to set up captive power plants, and enhanced power trading. The increase in competition and the need to eliminate cross-subsidy will result in rationalization of HT tariffs for grid consumers. The future power situation for the HT industrial category looks bright. VI.REFERENCES

conservation Electrical Engineering Update Magazine, Jan-Feb 2005. 2. Mohan, Undeland, Robbins, Power Electronics- Converters, Applications, and design, John Wiley and Sons Publications- Third Edition. 3. Gopal K.Dubey, Fundamentals of Electrical Drives, Narosa Publication House, Second Edition. 4. S.Y Ron Hui, Leung Ming Lee, Henry Shu-Hung Chung, Y.K Ho, An Electronic Ballast with Wide Dimming Range, High PF, and low EMI, IEEE transactions on power electronics, vol-16 No. 4, July 2001 5. S.R Chaudhary, MEDAs Energy Conservation Programme in the Context of Energy Conservation Act 2001, Electrical India magazine, pg 56-61, Oct 2003. 6. Narin G. Hingorani, Understanding FACTS, IEEE Press.

1. C.Thanga Raj, S.C.Ramesh, Role of Power Electronics in Electrical Energy