Cavitation in centrifugal pump

1.1 Concept of Cavitation

1.1.1 Meaning of the Term "Cavitation" in the Context of the Centrifugal Pump.
The term cavitation comes from the Latin word cavus, which means a hollow space or a cavity. Websters Dictionary defines the word cavitation as the rapid formation and collapse of cavities in a flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure. In any discussion on centrifugal pumps various terms like vapor pockets, gas pockets, holes, bubbles, etc. are used in place of the term cavities. These are one and the same thing and need not be confused. The term bubble shall be used hereafter in the discussion. In the context of centrifugal pumps, the term cavitation implies a dynamic process of formation of bubbles inside the liquid, their growth and subsequent collapse as the liquid flows through the pump. Generally, the bubbles that form inside the liquid are of two types: Vapor bubbles or Gas bubbles. 1. Vapor bubbles are formed due to the vaporisation of a process liquid that is being pumped. The cavitation condition induced by formation and collapse of vapor bubbles is commonly referred to as Vaporous Cavitation. 2. Gas bubbles are formed due to the presence of dissolved gases in the liquid that is being pumped (generally air but may be any gas in the system). The cavitation condition induced by the formation and collapse of gas bubbles is commonly referred to as Gaseous Cavitation.

1.2.2 Important Definitions: To enable a clear understanding of mechanism of cavitation, definitions of following important terms are explored. Static pressure, Dynamic pressure, Total pressure, Static pressure head, Velocity head, and Vapour pressure.
1.1.2.1 Static Pressure, ps
The static pressure in a fluid stream is the normal force per unit area on a solid boundary moving with the fluid. It describes the difference between the pressure inside and outside a system, disregarding any motion in the system. For instance, when referring to an air duct, static pressure is the difference between the pressure inside the duct and outside the duct, disregarding any airflow inside the duct. In energy terms, the static pressure is a measure of the potential energy of the fluid.

1.1.2.2 Dynamic pressure, pd

A moving fluid stream exerts a pressure higher than the static pressure due to the kinetic energy ( mv2) of the fluid. This additional pressure is defined as the dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure can be measured by converting the kinetic energy of the fluid stream into the potential energy. In other words, it is pressure that would exist in a fluid stream that has been decelerated from its velocity v to zero velocity.

1.1.2.3 Total pressure, pt

The sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure is defined as the total pressure. It is a measure of total energy of the moving fluid stream. i.e. both potential and kinetic energy.

1.1.2.4 Velocity head

The head corresponding to dynamic pressure is called the velocity head. Velocity head = pd / g = ( v2 / 2) / g = v2/2g From the reading hm, of the manometer velocity of flow can be calculated and thus velocity head can be calculated. The pressure difference, dP (pt ps) indicated by the manometer is the dynamic pressure. dP = hm (m - ) g = v2 /2

Velocity head = dP / g = hm (m - ) / 1.1.2.5 Vapor pressure, pv Vapor pressure is the pressure required to keep a liquid in a liquid state. If the pressure applied to the surface of the liquid is not enough to keep the molecules pretty close together, the molecules will be free to separate and roam around as a gas or vapor. The vapor pressure is dependent upon the temperature of the liquid. Higher the temperature, higher will be the vapor pressure.

1.2 Types of Pump Cavitation

The classification of cavitation or division it into types is very different from scientist to another..Some scientists are division the cavitation phenomenon according to the position into: Suction and discharge cavitation And another scientists are division the cavitation phenomenon according to causes the cavitation into: a. Vaporous cavitation I. Classic cavitation II. Internal re-circulation cavitation b. Gaseous cavitation I. Air ingestion induced cavitation

And other group are division the cavitation phenomenon to five types, this division is inclusive all the last or indicate it. As
1. Suction Cavitation 2. Re-circulation Cavitation (Suction Recirculation Cavitation and Discharge
Recirculation Cavitation.)

3. Incipient Cavitation 4. Vane Passing Syndrome Cavitation. 5. Flow turbulence

There are 5 causes or types of cavitation in centrifugal pumps as follows:

1.2.1 Suction Cavitation (Due to Low NPSH)

Suction Cavitation occurs when the Net Positive Suction Head Available to the pump is less than what is Required ------------ NPSHA < NPSHR. By other words:

when water enters a pump, its velocity increases causing a reduction in pressure within the pumping unit. If this pressure falls too low, the water will vaporise, forming bubbles entrained in the liquid. These bubbles collapse violently as they move to areas of higher pressure. The pressure required to operate a pump satisfactorily and avoid cavitation is called Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH). You must ensure that the head available at the pump inlet exceeds the NPSH required. The NPSH required is specified by the pump manufacturer, and is a function of the pump design. we know more information about (NPSH) calculation in section 2.6 1.2.1.1 Symptoms
1. The pump sounds like it is pumping rocks! 2. High Vacuum reading on suction line. 3. Low discharge pressure/High flow

1.2.1.2 Causes
1. Clogged suction pipe. 4. Suction lift too high. 2. Suction line too long 3. Suction line diameter too small 5. Valve on Suction Line only partially open

1.2.2 Recirculation Cavitation

Caused by low flow rate through the pump. There are two types which may occur together or separately: Suction Side and Discharge Side. Both types of recirculation work by the same phenomena of reverse fluid flows in close proximity to each other. When a fluid has two flow paths moving in opposing directions and in close proximity to each other, vortices form between the two directions of flow, causing high fluid velocities and turbulence, resulting in localized pockets of low pressure where cavitation can occur. How recirculation cavitation occurs within a pump at low flow rates is an inherent function of pump type and design. In general

however, pumps with lower pump specific speed (Ns) and lower suction specific speed (Nss), are more resistant to recirculation cavitation.

1.2.2.1 Suction Recirculation Cavitation

Fluid entering the pump suction nozzle is reversed, resulting in high velocity vortexes either in or near the impeller eye, in the suction nozzle, or in the pipe close to the suction nozzle. High velocities result in low localized pressures, local pressures may drop below the vapor pressure of the fluid, resulting in cavitation. Cavitation damage observed on the pressure side of the inlet vanes, near the impeller eye, are a sign of suction recirculation, and therefore this observation is diagnostic. When looking into the eye of the impeller, the pressure side of the inlet vanes is on the underside of the vane, and therefore may only be observed using a mirror. Noise due to suction recirculation cavitation can be distinctive from other cavitation noise, and is therefore diagnostic. Suction recirculation cavitation noise is reported to be a loud popping, crackling, hammering, or knocking sound, with highest intensity detected at the suction nozzle.

1.2.2.2 Discharge Recirculation Cavitation

At low flow rates fluid leaving the impeller discharge side or the pump discharge nozzle, reverses, resulting in high velocity vortexes between the two flow directions, causing localized low pressure areas. Pressures may drop below the vapor pressure of the fluid resulting in cavitation. Recirculation cavitation damage also occurs on the discharge side of the impeller periphery, at the cutwater(s), inside the discharge nozzle, or in the pipe close to the discharge nozzle. Noise due to discharge recirculation cavitation is generally less noisy than suction side recirculation. Discharge recirculation cavitation noise is heard mostly at the pump discharge nozzle, and there will not be the loud popping or crackling noise heard when suction recirculation is occurring.
The two photographs above illustrate the type and location of damage caused by Discharge Recirculation Cavitation.

1.2.3 Incipient Cavitation

First, to understand incipient cavitation one must know the definition of NPSHi (Net Positive Suction Head Inception), and NPSHR . NPSHi - That Fluid pressure, as measured at the pump suction nozzle, at which all cavitation inside the pump is suppressed.

NPSHR - The fluid pressure, as measured at the pump suction nozzle, at which a 3% drop in dP occurs (Presuming the 3% drop in dP is caused by cavitation). Incipient Cavitation is commonly used to describe that cavitation occurring inside a pump from the NPSHR 3% value, up to the incipient point. However, it must be pointed out that incipient cavitation occurs at all points below the incipient point, including pressure values below the NPSHR 3% value. Incipient cavitation occurs in most pumps at all times. The cause is turbulence created by the impeller, resulting in localized pressure below the vapor pressure of the pumpage. In the general pump market, the ubiquitous presence of incipient cavitation appears to cause little damage and little loss of performance, therefore the concept is not commonly discussed. Although this fact may partially be due to under-reporting, the fact remains that incipient cavitation damage is not a common topic except in specific markets. The topic is interesting to those markets where high energy suction pumps are used. HVAC cooling towers and chilled water systems are well known to have incipient cavitation problems. High margins of NPSHA over NPSHR can result in increasingly severe incipient cavitation damage, the higher the margin, the more damage that will occur, until the NPSHi value is reached, which is usually unachievable. The Hydraulic Institute and others have established general recommended margins of NPSHA to address this problem.

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Factors indicating incipient cavitation may be a problem are: Heavy weight liquids such as water, and especially when these liquids are at cooler temperatures, for water this would be 1500 F. or less. Actually water is one of the worst actors in regards to cavitation damage in general. Certain ranges of Pump Specific Speed. High Suction Specific Speeds (Nss > 9500). Systems with high dP values. Systems with high margins of NPSHA over NPSHR . Incipient cavitation is strongly linked to the Suction Specific Speed of a pump, the higher the suction specific speed, the more likely that incipient cavitation may become a problem. High Suction Energy pumps require larger margins of NPSHA over NPSHR, some report this margin as 2-5 times NPSHA over NPSHR , some authorities report values up to 20 times NPSHA over NPSHR . Confused? There are no well defined simple ways to understand and know how to apply these pumps except by experience. You need extra margin of NPSH, and yet if you supply too much NPSH then incipient cavitation becomes a problem. For some pumps, a small margin works well, for other pumps higher margins are required. The reason for this confusion involves the test methods for NPSHR. This test sets NPSHR at a point when a 3% drop in dP across the pump occurs as pump inlet pressure is reduced. For low suction energy pumps and low suction specific speed pumps, that 3% drop in dP represents a small but detectable amount of cavitation. But high suction energy and high suction specific speed pumps are much more efficient at moving water through the impeller, so that a 3% dP

drop represents a large amount of cavitation that can damage the pump severely and quickly. In conclusion, NPSHR 3% does not mean the same thing for all pumps.

1.2.4 Vane Passing Syndrome Cavitation

Cavitation resulting when the impeller vane tip to cutwater clearance is too small, resulting in excessive turbulence each time a vane passes the cutwater, resulting in cavitation and also pulsation. The location of cavitation damage is diagnostic. Typical cavitation type damage may be observed on the center of the cutwater, impeller vane tips, discharge edge of the impeller shroud, and possibly to the pump casing downstream of the cutwater, and directly behind the cutwater. Engineering specifications may attempt to preclude this problem by not allowing pump manufacturers to supply pumps with the largest impeller diameter available for a given pump family. This is not a recommended practice for engineers because it presumes that a pump manufacturer will provide a pump with vane passing syndrome without the manufacturer knowing of the problem, or if they know, they are not telling the customer. Perhaps the practice is understandable in view of the behavior of some pump manufacturers.

1.2.5 Turbulence Flow

We would prefer to have liquid flowing through the piping at a constant velocity. Corrosion or obstructions can change the velocity of the liquid and any time you change the velocity of a liquid you change its pressure. Good piping layouts would include :

Ten diameters of pipe between the pump suction and the first elbow. In multiple pump arrangements we would prefer to have the suction bells in separate bays so that one pump suction will not interfere with another. If this is not practical a number of units can be installed in a single large sump provided that : The pumps are located in a line perpendicular to the approaching flow. There must be a minimum spacing of at least two suction diameters between pump center lines. All pumps are running. The upstream conditions should have a minimum straight run of ten pipe diameters to provide uniform flow to the suction bells. Each pump capacity must be less than 15,000 gpm.. Back wall clearance distance to the centerline of the pump must be at least 0.75 of the suction diameter. Bottom clearance should be approximately 0.30 (30%) of the suction diameter The minimum submergence should be as follows:
FLOW 20,000 GPM 100,000 GPM 180,000 GPM 200,000 GPM MINIMUM SUBMERGENCE 4 FEET 8 FEET 10 FEET 11 FEET

250,000 GPM

12 FEET MINIMUM SUBMERGENCE 1.2 METERS 2.5 METERS 3.0 METERS 3.4 METERS 3.7 METERS

The metric numbers are :

FLOW 4,500 M3/HR 22,500 M3/HR 40,000 M3/HR 45,000 M3/HR 55,000 M3/HR

1.3 Diagnosing Cavitation

1.3.1 Diagnose Cavitation by Sound
Low level cavitation in pumps may be inaudible, but higher levels generate distinctive sounds that we hear and call cavitation. This sound can be a diagnostic clue to the experienced practitioner. Cavitation makes different sounds depending on the equipment and conditions, and according to the type of cavitation. Following are some of the descriptions of cavitation sounds: Pumps (water or similar weight liquids) 1. Crackling or sizzling 2. Small steel shot rapidly striking against metal. 3. Hissing, rushing, swishing, or a static like sound similar to radio or television static. 4. Recirculation cavitation can produce loud knocking, hammering, or crackling sounds. Valves (Valve disc riding close to seat) 1. High pitch squeal 2. High pitch singing Valves (High Flow) The sound of high flow rate through a full open valve such that there is a very high pressure differential (dP) across the valve, and regardless if there is cavitation occurring or not, can be similar to the sound of cavitation in a pump, or the sound may be described as a swishing, rushing, or hissing sound. 1.3.1.1 General Sound Levels If there is no pattern or distinctive sound, or if the person listening cannot distinguish a specific type of sound, the general sound level can be diagnostic as follows: 1. If the sound lessens or disappears as the flow rate is reduced, suction cavitation is probably occurring in the pump. 2. If the sound lessens or disappears as the flow rate is increased, then recirculation cavitation may be the cause. 3. If the sound disappears as suction pressure is increased, suction cavitation may be occurring. One pump with suction cavitation due to clogged intake screens, produced 86 decibels in the key of C. After the intake screens were cleared, the sound level dropped to 66 decibels in the key of C. NOTE: The key of C is commonly used to measure general noise.

Experienced persons may be able to diagnose cavitation by its unique sound qualities. Cavity collapse has specific sound qualities that distinguish cavitation from sounds made by entrained gas bubbles, and also from the sound of failed bearings and other machinery noises. 1. The trained ear may be able to distinguish just by the sound if cavitation is the source or not. 2. Cavitation sounds can start and stop quickly in response to changes in flow rate. 3. Cavitation sounds exhibit precise repeatability, the noise is always the same under identical conditions. Gas bubbles entrained in the flow and not originating from cavitation, moving through a pump or valve, make a softer and lower frequency sound than cavitation because of the immense difference in energy levels. Sound from entrained gasses may not react to variations in flow rate quickly or with precise repeatability as cavitation sounds do.

1.3.2 Diagnose Cavitation by Visual Examination of Damage

Visual examination of supposed cavitation damage to pump components is often the best way to determine exact cause. The key observation is usually the location of the damage. The photographs below are a guide to diagnosing cavitation damage by location.

Discharge Recirculation Cavitation

Severe discharge recirculation cavitation has damaged the discharge side of the impeller, specifically the vane tips and the outer edges of the front and rear vane shrouds. Moreover, discharge recirculation creates cyclic axial thrust loads that can fatigue the shaft, and in this case, the impeller attaching bolt, causing fatigue failure of the bolt. The impeller bolt can be the weakest axial component in overhung end suction pumps such as the one in the photographs, so the bolt failed instead of the shaft.
This close up photograph of an enclosed impeller, shows discharge recirculation cavitation damage to the vane tips and the outer edges of the front and back vane shrouds.

Suction cavitation has damaged the leading edge and suction side of the vane, and also damage is observed on "corner" surfaces leading into the vane. The suction side of the vane is the side facing the viewer. Suction cavitation on this pump was severe enough that cavities formed in the fluid before the fluid reached the impeller. When the fluid reached the leading edge of the vanes and surrounding areas, the cavities collapsed onto the vane and surrounding areas eroding the impeller material. If the pressure side of the vanes were damaged, (back side of the vane that can only be seen with a mirror), then suction recirculation cavitation would have been the cause. Again, the suction cavitation was severe enough that cavities occurred in the pumpage before the pumpage reached the pump. When pressure increased in the area just ahead of the vane leading edge the cavities collapsed onto the vane causing the observed damage.

1.3.3 A reduction in pump capacity.

This happens because bubbles take up space and you cannot have bubbles and liquid in the same place at the same time. If the bubble gets big enough at the eye of the impeller, the pump will lose its suction and will require priming.

1.3.4 A reduction in the head of the pump

Bubbles unlike liquid are compressible. It is this compression that can change the head. The bubbles form in a lower pressure area because they cannot form in a high pressure area. You should keep in mind that as the velocity of a fluid increase, the pressure of the fluid decreases. This means that high velocity liquid is by definition a lower pressure area. This can be a problem any time a liquid flows through a restriction in the piping, volute, or changes direction suddenly. The fluid will accelerate as it changes direction. The same acceleration takes place as the fluid flows in the small area between the tip of the impeller and the volute cut water.

1.4 Cavitation Damage

Cavitation can destroy pumps and valves, and cavitation causes a loss of efficiency in pumps immediately, and also a continuously increasing loss of efficiency as the equipment degrades due to erosion of the pump components by cavitation. Therefore It is important to understand the phenomena sufficiently to predict and therefore reduce cavitation and damage from cavitation, and also to diagnose and find practical solutions to cavitation problems.

1.4.1 Cavitation Enhanced Chemical Erosion

Pumps operating under cavitation conditions become more vulnerable to corrosion and chemical attack. Metals commonly develop an oxide layer or passivated layer which protects the metal from further corrosion. Cavitation can remove this oxide or passive layer on a continuous basis and expose unprotected metal to further oxidation. The two processes (cavitation & oxidation) then work together to rapidly remove metal from the pump casing and impeller. Stainless steels are not invulnerable to this process.

1.4.2 Materials Selection

There is no metal, plastic, or any other material known to man, that can withstand the high levels of energy released by cavitation in the forms of heat and pressure. In practice however, materials can be selected that result in longer life and customer value in their ability to withstand cavitation energies, so that attention to pump construction materials is valuable and productive. Where cavitation is not a problem or not predicted to be a problem, common materials such as cast iron and bronze are

suitable for pump construction. There are millions of cast iron and bronze pumps that work fine for 20 years or more without any problem even though many of those pumps experience some cavitation.

1.4.2.1 Factors indicating use of materials with higher resistance to cavitation are:
1. Corrosive Pumpage - Water with chlorine, salt water, or other oxidizers. A
metal that normally has no problem with erosion by a specific chemical can become vulnerable to that chemical If cavitation occurs. Cavitation can eat away the protective surface oxide layers of a metal that protect the metal from corrosion. Even stainless steel can experience chemical erosion if the passivated surface layer of the stainless steel is continuously removed by cavitation thus exposing unprotected metal to the oxidizing agent. Low Flow Rate - Long term operation at low flow rates can result in both types of Recirculation Cavitation. Low NPSHA - Long term operation with marginal or insufficient NPSHA. Heavy Weight (High Density) Liquids - Heavy liquids such as water cause more damage in cavitation situations. Water molecules are small and dense, water weights 8.33 lbs./gallon. Since density is highest at cooler temperatures, water and similar liquids are more of a problem at temperatures below 1500 F. High Specific Speed Pumps (Ns>9000) High Suction Specific Speeds (Nss>9500) Systems with high dP values across the pump. Systems with high margins of NPSHA over NPSHR . In these situations reducing NPSH may reduce or practically eliminate the cavitation damage.

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1.4.2.2 Material Resistance

The Materials below are listed in the order of their ability to withstand Cavitation Erosion, Cast Iron having the lowest resistance and Stellite the highest resistance to cavitation damage. 1. Cast Iron 2. Leaded Bronze 3. Cast Carbon Steel 4. Manganese Bronze 5. Monel 6. Cast Iron - CA-15, CA6-NM, CF-8M 7. Stainless Steel (Cast Precipitation, Cast Duplex) 8. Cast Nickel Aluminum Bronze 9. Titanium

10. Cast Carburized 12% Chromium Stainless, Chromemanganese austenitic Stainless. 11. Stellite

2.5 Mechanism of Cavitation

The phenomenon of cavitation is a stepwise process as shown in Figure (below).

2.5.1 Step One, Formation of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped.
The bubbles form inside the liquid when it vaporises i.e. phase change from liquid to vapor. But how does vaporization of the liquid occur during a pumping operation? Vaporization of any liquid inside a closed container can occur if either pressure on the liquid surface decreases such that it becomes equal to or less than the liquid vapor pressure at the operating temperature, or the temperature of the liquid rises, raising the vapor pressure such that it becomes equal to or greater than the operating pressure at the liquid surface. For example, if water at room temperature (about 77 F) is kept in a closed Phenomenon of Cavitation container and the system pressure is reduced to its vapor pressure (about 0.52 psia), the water quickly changes to a vapor. Also, if the operating pressure is to remain constant at about 0.52 psia and the temperature is allowed to rise above 77 F, then the water quickly changes to a vapor. Just like in a closed container, vaporization of the liquid can occur in centrifugal pumps when the local static pressure reduces below that of the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature. NOTE: The vaporisation accomplished by addition of heat or the reduction of static pressure without dynamic action of the liquid is excluded from the definition of cavitation. For the purposes of this article, only pressure variations that cause cavitation shall be explored. Temperature changes must be considered only when dealing with systems that introduce or remove heat from the fluid being pumped. To understand vaporization, two important points to remember are: 1. We consider only the static pressure and not the total pressure when determining if the system pressure is less than or greater than the liquid vapor pressure. The total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and dynamic pressure (due to velocity). 2. The terms pressure and head have different meanings and they should not be confused. As a convention in this article, the term pressure shall be used to understand the concept of cavitation whereas the term head shall be used in equations. Thus, the key concept is - vapor bubbles form due to vaporization of the liquid being pumped when the local static pressure at any point inside the pump becomes equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature. How does pressure reduction occur in a pump system? The reduction in local static pressure at any point inside the pump can occur under two conditions: 1. The actual pressure drop in the external suction system is greater than that considered during design. As a result, the pressure available at pump suction is not sufficiently high enough to overcome the design pressure drop inside the pump.

2.

The actual pressure drop inside the pump is greater than that considered during the pump design.
In summary, vaporization of the liquid (bubble formation) occurs due to the reduction of the static pressure to a value below that of the liquid vapor pressure. The reduction of static pressure in the external suction system occurs mainly due to friction in suction piping. The reduction of static pressure in the internal suction system occurs mainly due to the rise in the velocity at the impeller eye.

1.5.2 Step Two, Growth of bubbles

Unless there is no change in the operating conditions, new bubbles continue to form and old bubbles grow in size. The bubbles then get carried in the liquid as it flows from the impeller eye to the impeller exit tip along the vane trailing edge. Due to impeller rotating action, the bubbles attain very high velocity and eventually reach the regions of high pressure within the impeller where they start collapsing. The life cycle of a bubble has been estimated to be in the order of 0.003 seconds.

1.5.3 Step Three, Collapse of bubbles

As the vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes, the pressure around the bubbles begins to increase until a point is reached where the pressure on the outside of the bubble is greater than the pressure inside the bubble. The bubble collapses. The process is not an explosion but rather an implosion (inward bursting). Hundreds of bubbles collapse at approximately the same point on each impeller vane. Bubbles collapse non-symmetrically such that the Collapse of a Vapor Bubble surrounding liquid rushes to fill the void forming a liquid microjet. The micro jet subsequently ruptures the bubble with such force that a hammering action occurs. Bubble collapse pressures greater than 1 GPa (145x106 psi) have been reported. The highly localized hammering effect can pit the pump impeller. The pitting effect is illustrated schematically in this the figure. After the bubble collapses, a shock wave emanates outward from the point of collapse. This shock wave is what we actually hear and what we call "cavitation". The implosion of bubbles and emanation of shock waves (red color) . In nutshell, the mechanism of cavitation is all about formation, growth and collapse of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. But how can the knowledge of mechanism of cavitation can really help in troubleshooting a cavitation problem. The concept of mechanism can help in identifying the type of bubbles and the cause of their formation and collapse.

1.6 calculation 1.6.1 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation
The Hydraulic Institute defines NPSH as the total suction head in feet absolute, determined at the suction nozzle and corrected to datum, less the vapour pressure of the liquid in feet absolute. Simply stated, it is an analysis of energy conditions on the suction side of a pump to determine if the liquid will vaporize at the lowest pressure point in the pump. The pressure, which a liquid exerts on its surroundings, is dependent upon its temperature. This pressure, called vapour pressure, is a unique characteristic of every fluid and increased with increasing temperature. When the vapour pressure within the fluid reaches the pressure of the

surrounding medium, the fluid begins to vaporize or boil. The temperature at which this vaporization occurs will decrease as the pressure of the surrounding medium decreases. A liquid increases greatly in volume when it vaporizes. One cubic foot of water at room temperature becomes 1700 cu. ft. of vapour at the same temperature. It is obvious from the above that if we are to pump a fluid effectively, we must keep it in liquid form. NPSH is simply a measure of the amount of suction head present to prevent this vaporization at the lowest pressure point in the pump. NPSH Required is a function of the pump design. As the liquid passes from the pump suction to the eye of the impeller, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases. There are also pressure losses due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes the impeller. The centrifugal force of the impeller vanes further increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of the liquid. The NPSH Required is the positive head in feet absolute required at the pump suction to overcome these pressure drops in the pump and maintain the majority of the liquid above its vapor pressure. The NPSH Required varies with speed and capacity within any particular pump. Pump manufacturer's curves normally provide this information.

1.6.2

NPSH and Suction Specific Speed

In designing a pumping system, it is essential to provide adequate NPSH available for proper pump operation. Insufficient NPSH available may seriously restrict pump selection, or even force an expensive system redesign. On the other hand, providing excessive NPSH available may needlessly increase system cost. Suction specific speed may provide help in this situation. Suction specific speed (S) is defined as:

Where N = Pump speed RPM GPM = Pump flow at best efficiency point at impeller inlet (for double suction impellers divide total pump flow by two). NPSHR = Pump NPSH required at best efficiency point. For a given pump, the suction specific speed is generally a constant - it does not change when the pump speed is changed. Experience has shown that 9000 is a reasonable value of suction specific speed. Pumps with a minimum suction specific speed of 9000 are readily available, and are not normally subject to severe operating restrictions, unless the pump speed pushes the pump into high or very high suction energy. An example: Flow 2,000 GPM; head 600 ft. What NPSHA will be required? Assume: at 600 ft., 3500 RPM operation will be required.

A related problem is in selecting a new pump, especially at higher flow, for an existing system. Suction specific speed will highlight applications where NPSHA may restrict pump selection. An example: Existing system: Flow 2000 GPM; head 600 ft.; NPSHA 30 ft.; Specific Gravity 1.0; Suction Nozzle 6 in. - What is the maximum speed at which a pump can be run without exceeding NPSH available? (NPSHMargin Ratio = 1.5 from above @ S.E. = 173 x 106)

Running a pump at this speed would require a gear and at this speed, the pump might not develop the required head. At a mini-mum, existing NPSH A is constraining pump selection. Same system as 1. Is a double suction pump practical? For a double suction pump De = .75 x 6" = 4.5 S.E. = 4.5 x 3550 x 9000 x 1.0 S.E. = 136 x 106 (High S.E.) For a double suction pump, flow is divided by two.

Using a double suction pump is one way of meeting system NPSH and obtaining a higher head.

The amount of energy in a pumped fluid, that flashes into vapor and then collapses back to a liquid in the higher pressure area of the impeller inlet, determines the extent of the noise and/or damage from cavitation. Suction Energy is defined as:
Suction Energy = De x N x S x Sg Where D e = Impeller eye diameter (inches) Sg = Specific gravity of liquid (Sg - 1.0 for cold water)

High Suction Energy starts at 160 x 10 6 for end suctabtion pumps and 120 x 10 6 for horizontal split case pumps. Very high suction energy starts at 1.5 times the High Suction Energy values. For estimating purposes you can normally assume that the impeller eye diameter is approximately 90% of the suction nozzle size, for an end suction pump, and 75% of the suction size for a double suction split case pump. According to the Hydraulic Institute, and NPSH margin is required above the NPSHR of the pump to supress incipient cavitation. The amount of margin is a function of Suction Energy and the critical nature of the application as follows: Suction Energy NPSH Margin Ratio (NPSHA/NPSHR) Low 1.1 - 1.3 High 1.2 - 1.7 Very High 1.7 - 2.5 Suction specific speed 9,000, pump speed 3550 RPM, suction nozzle size 6 inch, specific gravity 1.0, and the pump type is end suction.
De ~ .9 x 6" = 5.4" Suction Energy = De x N x S x Sg = 5.4 x 3550 x 9,000 x 1.0 = 173 x 106

Since 173 x 106 > 160 x 106 , this is a High Suction Energy pump.

1.6.3.a How you are calculate the net positive suction head (NPSH) of your pump and determine if you are going to have a cavitation problem?
To calculate the net positive suction head (NPSH) of your pump and determine if you are going to have a cavitation problem, you will need access to several additional pieces of information:

The curve for your pump. This pump curve is supplied by the pump manufacturer. Someone in your plant should have a copy. The curve is going to show you the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) required for your pump at a given capacity. Each pump is different so make sure you have the correct pump curve and use the numbers for the impeller diameter on your pump. Keep in mind that this NPSH required was for cold, fresh water. A chart or some type of publication that will give you the vapor pressure of the fluid you are pumping. You can find a typical vapor pressure chart in the "charts you can use" section in the home page of this web site

If you would like to be a little more exact, you can use a chart to show the possible reduction in NPSH required if you are pumping hot water or light hydrocarbons. I will cover this subject in great detail in another paper. You need to know the specific gravity of your fluid. Keep in mind that the number is temperature sensitive. You can get this number from a published chart, ask some knowledgeable person at your plant, or take a reading on the fluid using a hydrometer. Charts showing the head loss through the size of piping you are using between the source and the suction eye of your pump. You will also need charts to calculate the loss in any fittings, valves, or other hardware that might have been installed in the suction piping. You can find these charts in the "charts you can use" section in the home page of this web site Is the tank you are pumping from at atmospheric pressure or is it pressurized in some manner? Maybe it is under a vacuum ? You need to know the atmospheric pressure at the time you are making your calculation. We all know atmospheric pressure changes through out the day, but you have to start somewhere. The formulas for converting pressure to head and head back to pressure in the imperial system are as follows: head sg . 2.31 pressure 2.31 Head = sg . pressure = sg. = specific gravity pressure = pounds per square inch head = feet You also need to know the formulas that show you how to convert vacuum readings to feet of head. Here are a few of them:
o o o

To convert surface pressure to feet of liquid; use one of the following formulas:

Inches of mercury x 1.133 / specific gravity = feet of liquid Pounds per square inch x 2.31 / specific gravity = feet of liquid Millimeters of mercury / (22.4 x specific gravity) = feet of liquid

There are different ways to think about net positive suction head (NPSH) but they all have two terms in common.

NPSHA (net positive suction head available) NPSHR (net positive suction head required)

NPSHR (net positive suction head required) is defined as the NPSH at which the pump total head (first stage head in multi stage pumps) has decreased by three percent (3%) due to low suction head and resultant cavitation within the pump. This number is shown on your pump curve, but it is going to be too low if you are pumping hydrocarbon liquids or hot water. Cavitation begins as small harmless bubbles before you get any indication of loss of head or capacity. This is called the point of incipient cavitation. Testing has shown that it takes from

two to twenty times the NPSHR (net positive suction head required) to fully suppress incipient cavitation, depending on the impeller shape (specific speed number) and operating conditions. To stop a product from vaporizing or boiling at the low pressure side of the pump the NPSHA (net positive suction head available) must be equal to or greater than the NPSHR (net positive suction head required). As I mentioned at the beginning, NPSHA is defined as static head + surface pressure head the vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings . In the following paragraphs you will be using the above formulas to determine if you have a problem with NPSHA. Here is where you locate the numbers to put into the formula:

Static head. Measure it from the centerline of the pump suction to the top of the liquid level. If the level is below the centerline of the pump it will be a negative or minus number. Surface pressure head. Convert the gage absolute pressure to feet of liquid using the formula: o Pressure = head x specific gravity / 2.31 Vapor pressure of your product . Look at the vapor pressure chart in the "charts you can use" section in the home page of this web site. You will have to convert the pressure to head. If you use the absolute pressure shown on the left side of the chart, you can use the above formula Specific gravity of your product. You can measure it with a hydrometer if no one in your facility has the correct chart or knows the number. Loss of pressure in the piping, fittings and valves. Use the three charts in the "charts you can use" section in the home page of this web site o Find the chart for the proper pipe size, go down to the gpm and read across to the loss through one hundred feet of pipe directly from the last column in the chart. As an example: two inch pipe, 65 gpm = 7.69 feet of loss for each 100 feet of pipe. o For valves and fittings look up the resistance coefficient numbers (K numbers) for all the valves and fittings, add them together and multiply the total by the V2/2g number shown in the fourth column of the friction loss piping chart. Example: A 2 inch long radius screwed elbow has a K number of 0.4 and a 2 inch globe valve has a K number of 8. Adding them together (8 + 0.4) = 8.4 x 0.6 (for 65 gpm) = 5 feet of loss.

In the following examples we will be looking only at the suction side of the pump. If we were calculating the pump's total head we would look at both the suction and discharge sides. First example:

given:

Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi Gage pressure =The tank is at sea level and open to atmospheric pressure. Liquid level above pump centerline = 5 feet

Piping = a total of 10 feet of 2 inch pipe plus one 90 long radius screwed elbow. Pumping =100 gpm. 68F. fresh water with a specific gravity of one (1). Vapor pressure of 68F. Water = 0.27 psia from the vapor chart. Specific gravity = 1 NPSHR (net positive suction head required, from the pump curve) = 9 feet
Static Suction Head

Static Discharge Head

Now for the calculations: NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure (converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings

Static head = 5 feet Atmospheric pressure = pressure x 2.31/sg. = 14.7 x 2.31/1 = 34 feet absolute Gage pressure = 0 Vapor pressure of 68F. water converted to head = pressure x 2.31/sg = 0.27 x 2.31/1 = 0.62 feet Looking at the friction charts: o 100 gpm flowing through 2 inch pipe shows a loss of 17.4 feet for each 100 feet of pipe or 17.4/10 = 1.74 feet of head loss in the piping o The K factor for one 2 inch elbow is 0.4 x 1.42 = 0.6 feet Adding these numbers together, 1.74 + 0.6 = a total of 2.34 feet friction loss in the pipe and fitting.

NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 + 0 - 0.62 - 2.34 = 36.04 feet The pump required 9 feet of head at 100 gpm. And we have 36.04 feet so we have plenty to spare. Example No. 2: This time we are going to be pumping from a tank under vacuum. Given:

400ft

Gage pressure = - 20 inches of vacuum Atmospheic pressure = 14.7 psi Liquid level above pump centerline = 5 feet Piping = a total of 10 feet of 2 inch pipe plus one 90 long radius screwed elbow. Pumping = 100 gpm. 68F fresh water with

Hg 20-

ft 40

ft 5

a specific gravity of one (1).

Vapor pressure of 68F water = 0.27 psia from the vapor chart. NPSHR (net positive suction head required) = 9 feet

Now for the calculations: NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure(converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings

Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi x 2.31/sg. =34 feet Static head = 5 feet Gage pessure pressure = 20 inches of vacuum converted to head o inches of mercury x 1.133 / specific gravity = feet of liquid o -20 x 1.133 /1 = -22.7 feet of pressure head absolute Vapor pressure of 68F water = pressure x 2.31/sg. = 0.27 x 2.31/1 = 0.62 feet Looking at the friction charts: o 100 gpm flowing through 2.5 inch pipe shows a loss of 17.4 feet or each 100 feet of pipe or 17.4/10 = 1.74 feet loss in the piping o The K factor for one 2 inch elbow is 0.4 x 1.42 = 0.6 feet Adding these two numbers together: (1.74 + 0.6) = a total of 2.34 feet friction loss in the pipe and fitting.

NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 - 22.7 - 0.62 - 2.34 = 13.34 feet. This is enough to stop cavitation also. Example No 3: we will keep everything the same except that we will be pumping 180 F. hot condensate from the vacuum tank. The vapor pressure of 180F condensate is 7 psi according to the chart. We get the specific gravity from another chart and find that it is 0.97 sg. for 180 F. Fresh water. Putting this into the pressure conversion formula we get:

pressure x 2.31/sg. = 7 x 2.31 / 0.97 = 16.7 feet absolute

NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure(converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 + 22.7 - 16.7 - 2.34 = -2.74 feet. We need 9 feet, so the pump is going to cavitate for sure. If you are given the absolute and vapor pressures in psia, and you forgot how to convet to feet of head; you can use the following formula, providing you know the specific weight of the liquid you are pumping :

Pp = Absolute pressure expressed in psia. In an open system, Pp equals atmospheric pressure, Pa, expressed in psia. Pvpa = Vapor pressure expressed in psia. W = Specific weight of liquid at the pumping temperature in pounds per cubic foot.

1.6.3.b Calculation of Minimum Inlet Pressure

The minimum inlet pressure H in metres head required to avoid cavitation in the pump is calculated as follows :

H = Pb *10.2 - NPSH - Hf - Hs
Where: Pb = Barometric pressure in bar. (Barometric pressure can be set to 1 bar). In closed systems Pb indicates the system pressure in bar. NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head in metres head (to be read from the NPSH curve at the highest flow the pump will be delivering). Hf = Friction loss in suction pipe in metres head. Hv = Vapour pressure in metres head. tm = Liquid temperature. Hs = Safety margin = 0.5 metres head. If the calculated H is positive, the pump can operate at a suction lift of maximum H metres head . If the calculated H is negative , an inlet pressure of minimum H metres head is required . There must be a pressure equal to the calculated H during operation. Example: Pb = 1 bar. Pump type: CR16, 50 Hz. Flow rate: 16 m/ h . NPSH(from curve ) : 1.5 metres head . Hf = 3.0 metres head . Tm= Liquid temperature : + 90 C . Hv = ( from curve) : 7.2 metres head . H = Pb * 10.2 - NPSH - Hf - Hv - Hs [m head]. H = 1 * 10.2 - 1.5 - 3.0 - 7.2 - 0.5 = - 2.0 metres head.

NPSH curve

This means that an inlet pressure of 2.0 metres head is required during operation. The pressure calculated in bar: 2.0 * 0.0981 = 0.20 bar. The pressure calculated in kPa: 2.0 * 9.81 = 19.7 kPa.

1.6.4 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH).. No cavitation

PP Pvapour g g PS VS2 PP VP2 + = + g 2 g g 2 g PS VS2 Pvapour VP2 + g 2 g g 2g Patmospheric

z=

PS VS2 + + H f + HL g 2 g

Patmospheric Pvapour NPSH available = g z H f H L g

1.6.5 Cavitation Number:

NPSH available Hp NPSH required required = Hp for cavitation-free operations P Patmospheric z H f H L required H p + vapour g g

available =

1.7 Solution and Remedies

1.2.7.1 For vaporization problems (cavitation) :
To cure vaporization problems you must either increase the suction head, lower the fluid temperature, or decrease the N.P.S.H. Required. We shall look at each possibility: 1.7.2.1 Increase the suction head

Raise the liquid level in the tank Raise the tank Put the pump in a pit Reduce the piping losses. These losses occur for a variety of reasons that include : o The system was designed incorrectly. There are too many fittings and/or the piping is too small in diameter. o A pipe liner has collapsed. o Solids have built up on the inside of the pipe. o The suction pipe collapsed when it was run over by a heavy vehicle. o A suction strainer is clogged. o Be sure the tank vent is open and not obstructed. Vents can freeze in cold weather

Something is stuck in the pipe, It either grew there or was left during the last time the system was opened . Maybe a check valve is broken and the seat is stuck in the pipe. o The inside of the pipe, or a fitting has corroded. o A bigger pump has been installed and the existing system has too much loss for the increased capacity. o A globe valve was used to replace a gate valve. o A heating jacket has frozen and collapsed the pipe. o A gasket is protruding into the piping. o The pump speed has increased. Install a booster pump Pressurize the tank
o

1.7.2.2

lower the fluid temperature Injecting a small amount of cooler fluid at the suction is often practical. Insulate the piping from the sun's rays. Be careful of discharge recirculation lines, they can heat up the suction fluid. reduce the N.P.S.H. Required Use a double suction pump. This can reduce the N.P.S.H.R. by as much as 27% or in some cases it will allow you to raise the pump speed by 41% Use a lower speed pump Use a pump with a larger impeller eye opening. If possible install an Inducer. These inducers can cut N.P.S.H.R. by almost 50%. Use several smaller pumps. Three half capacity pumps can be cheaper than one large pump plus a spare. This will also conserve energy at lighter loads.

1.7.2.3

1.7.2 For suction cavitation:

1. Remove debris from suction line. 2. Move pump closer to source tank/sump 3. Increase suction line diameter. 4. Decrease suction lift requirement 5. Install larger pump running slower which will decrease the Net Positive Suction Head Required by the pump(NPSHR). 6. Increase discharge pressure. 7. Fully open Suction line valve. 1.7.3 For discharge cavitation: 1. Remove debris from discharge line. 2. Decrease discharge line length Increase discharge line diameter. 4. Decrease discharge static head requirement. 5. Install larger pump, which will maintain the required flow without discharge cavitating. 6. Fully open discharge line valve. 3.

1.7.4 For Recirculation cavitation: 1. Designing the pump for lower suction-specific speeds and limiting the range of
operation to flow capacities above the point of recirculation. 2. 2. Raising the suction head.