How to save energy and money

Guide Book 4
REFRIGERATION

STRATEGY

ENERGY EFFICIENCY EARNINGS

3E

STRATEGY

Netherlands Ministery of Economic Affairs

RA

LS

AND

EN

Technical Services International

TSI

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

RG

MI
N

HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN REFRIGERATION

This booklet is part of the 3E strategy series. It provides advice on practical ways of improving energy efficiency in industrial refrigeration applications. Prepared for the European Commission DGXVII by: The Energy Research Institute Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Cape Town Private Bag Rondebosch 7701 Cape Town South Africa www.eri.uct.ac.za This project is funded by the European Commission and co-funded by the Dutch Ministry of Economics, the South African Department of Minerals and Energy and Technical Services International (ESKOM), with the Chief contractor being ETSU. Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the commission, nor NOVEM, ETSU, ERI, nor any of the information sources is responsible for the use of the information contained in this publication. The views and judgements given in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the European Commission.

HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN REFRIGERATION

3E

STRATEGY

HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN REFRIGERATION

Other titles in the 3E strategy series: HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY:THE 3E STRATEGY HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN ELECTRICITY USE HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN BOILERSAND FURNACES HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN COMPRESSEDAIR SYSTEMS HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN STEAM SYSTEMS HOWTO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY INSULATION SYSTEMS Copies of these guides may be obtained from: The Energy Research Institute Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Cape Town Private Bag Rondebosch 7701 Cape Town South Africa Tel No: +27 (0) 21 650 3892 Fax No: +27 (0) 21 686 4838 E-mail: 3E@eng.uct.ac.za Website: http://www.3e.uct.ac.za

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Energy Research Institute would like to acknowledge the following for their contribution in the production of the guide: Energy Technology Support Unite (ETSU), UK, for permission to use information from the Energy Efficiency Best Parctice series of handbooks. Energy Conservation Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada, for permission to use information from the Energy Management series of manuals. TLV Co, Ltd, for permission to use figures from their set of handbooks on steam. Wilma Walden for graphic design work (walden@grm.co.za). Doug Geddes of South African Breweries for the cover colour photography.

Guide Book Essentials

QUICK 'CHECK-LIST' FOR SAVING ENERGY AND MONEY IN REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
This list is a selected summary of energy and cost savings opportunities outline in the text. Many more are detailed in the body of the booklet. These are intended to be a quick 'checklist'. EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE (Chapter 3): Ensure that there is good and regular maintenance of all equipment. Avoid blockage of air flow through and around heat exchanges (e.g. evaporators and condensers). Make sure that fouling of primary and secondary refrigeration circuits is kept to a minimum. Maintain isolation standards where appropriate. EFFICIENT USE OF THE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM (Chapter 5): Keep operating hours to a minimum. Ensure that the cooling load is kept to a minimum. Avoid operating refrigeration plant under part-load conditions. Investigate the possibility of improving control functions. Reschedule production cycles to reduce peak electrical demand. ALTERATIONS TO THE EXISTING PLANT (Chapters 3 and 5): Utilise waste heat where possible. Where appropriate, retrofit plant with more energy efficient components. Increase evaporator temperature to increase system COP. Reduce condensing temperature to increase system COP Upgrade automatic controls in refrigeration plants to provide accurate and flexible operation. Replace high-maintenance, centrifugal compressors with compressors selected for high efficiency when operating at part load conditions. Upgrade insulation on primary and secondary refrigerant piping circuits. REFRIGERANTS (Chapter 4): Review energy efficiency when replacing CFC with ozone benign refrigerants. (This might not have an energy saving effect).

AUDITING (Chapter 5) Refrigeration efficiency is usually expressed as the coefficient of performance (COP), defined as: COP = Cooling effect (kW) Power input to compressor (kW)

Once the system performance has been established it is useful to identify the contribution of each plant component to the total system power input. Suitable electricity submeters can be installed for this purpose. The main contributors are normally: compressors (typically 65%); condenser pumps (typically 5%); condenser fans (typically 10%); evaporator pumps (typically 15%); lights (typically 5%).

The next stage is to divide the total cooling load amongst the various process requirements. This should allow the loads that significantly affect costs to be highlighted.

3E

STRATEGY

Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Purpose.....................................................................................................................................................................................1 2.THE REFRIGERATION PROCESS...................................................................................................................................2 2.1 The vapour compression cycle ...................................................................................................................................2 2.2. Reverse Carnot Cycle.....................................................................................................................................................4 2.2.1 Coefficient of Performance...............................................................................................................................4 2.3 Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle...............................................................................................................5 2.3.1 Model Coefficient of Performance................................................................................................................6 2.3.2 Practical Considerations .....................................................................................................................................7 2.4 Absorption Cycle............................................................................................................................................................11 2.5 Special Refrigeration Systems ...................................................................................................................................13 2.6 Variations on the simple Carnot circuit................................................................................................................13 2.6.1 Suction/liquid heat exchanger.......................................................................................................................13 2.7 Multiple evaporator circuits .......................................................................................................................................14 2.7.1 Multiple compressor Systems .......................................................................................................................15 2.7.2 Cascade Systems .................................................................................................................................................17 2.7.3 Heat Pump Systems ...........................................................................................................................................18 3. EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................................................................................20 3.1 Compressors.....................................................................................................................................................................20 3.1.1 Types of compressor housing .......................................................................................................................20 3.1.2 Hermetic and semi-hermetic compressors ...........................................................................................20 3.1.3 Open compressors ............................................................................................................................................20 3.1.4 Reciprocating compressors............................................................................................................................21 3.1.5 Screw compressors............................................................................................................................................21 3.1.6 Scroll compressors .............................................................................................................................................22 3.1.7 Compressor performance data ...................................................................................................................22 3.1.8 Capacity control...................................................................................................................................................22 3.2 Evaporators........................................................................................................................................................................23 3.2.1 Direct expansion .................................................................................................................................................23 3.2.2 Flooded.....................................................................................................................................................................24 3.2.3 Oil control in evaporators...............................................................................................................................25 3.2.4 Energy efficient operation of evaporators ..............................................................................................27 3.2.5 Defrosting................................................................................................................................................................27

3.3 Expansion devices...........................................................................................................................................................28 3.3.1 Thermostatic expansion valves ....................................................................................................................28 3.3.2 Float valve systems..............................................................................................................................................30 3.4 Condensers........................................................................................................................................................................32 3.4.1 Air-cooled condensers.....................................................................................................................................32 3.4.2 Water-cooled condensers .............................................................................................................................32 3.4.3 Evaporative condensers...................................................................................................................................33 3.4.4 Loss of condenser efficiency due to air in system ................................................................................38 4. REFRIGERANTS.....................................................................................................................................................................35 4.1 Desirable Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................35 4.2 Common Refrigerants - Vapour Compression Cycles................................................................................38 4.3 Common Refrigerants - Absorption Cycle........................................................................................................38 4.4 Brines and Secondary Coolants...............................................................................................................................38 5. ENERGY MANAGEMENT OPPORTUNITIES ....................................................................................................39 5.1 Housekeeping Opportunities...................................................................................................................................39 5.1.1 General maintenance........................................................................................................................................39 5.1.2 Plant operation .....................................................................................................................................................40 5.1.3 Instrumentation....................................................................................................................................................40 5.1.4 Trouble shooting .................................................................................................................................................42 5.1.5 Housekeeping Worked Examples..............................................................................................................42 5.2 Low Cost Opportunities.............................................................................................................................................45 5.2.1 Low Cost Worked Examples........................................................................................................................46 5.3 Retrofit Opportunities..................................................................................................................................................47 APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY OF TERMS............................................................................................................................49 APPENDIX 2: ENERGY,VOLUMEAND MASS CONVERSION FACTORS ............................................57 APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF MEASURING COP DIRECTLY..........................................................................58

3E

STRATEGY

1. INTRODUCTION

Throughout history, humans have used various forms of refrigeration. Simple cooling arrangements, such as those provided by iceboxes and root cellars, allowed long term storage of perishable foods. These, and other simple techniques, though largely supplanted by mechanical refrigeration equipment, are still used by campers, cottagers and people in remote or less developed areas. Mechanical refrigeration systems were first built in the late nineteenth century, but did not become commonplace until the 1940s. Although mechanical refrigeration provides benefits such as refrigerated storage independent of season or climate, and better living and working environments, the energy costs related to operation of these systems are significant. This guide examines refrigeration and heat pump systems and identifies where energy consumption and costs may be reduced.

1.1

PURPOSE

The following summarizes the purpose of this guide. Introduce the subject of Refrigeration and Heat Pumps as used in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sectors. Make building owners and operators aware of the potential energy and cost savings available through the implementation of Energy Management Opportunities. Provide methods of calculating the potential energy and cost savings, using simple worked examples.

2. THE REFRIGERATION PROCESS

The majority of refrigeration systems are driven by a machi ne, which compr esses and pumps refrigerant vapour around a sealed circuit. Heat is absorbed and rejected through heat exchangers. These systems work on what is called a vapour compression cycle. There are other types of plant which can be used to obtain a cooling effect, such as absorption cycle systems, but these are not in common use and are only economically viable where there are large supplies of waste heat.

The temperature at which refrigerant boils varies with its pressure; the higher the pressure, the higher the boiling point; When refrigerant liquid boils, changing its state to a gas, it absorbs heat from its surroundings; Refrigerant can be changed back from a gas to a liquid by cooling it, usually by using air or water.

2.1

THE VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE

Note: In the refrigeration industry the term evaporation is used instead of boiling. Also, if a gas is heated above its boiling point it is said to be superheated and if liquid is cooled below its condensing temperature it is sub-cooled. To enable the refrigerant to be condensed it has to be compressed to a higher pressure, and it is at this point that energy has to be used to drive the machine that performs this task. The machine is called a compressor and it is usually driven by an electric motor. The operation of a simple refrigeration system is shown in Figure 1. The diagram shows the refrigerant pressure (bars) and its heat content (kJ/kg). The refrigeration cycle can be broken down into the following stages: 1-2 Low pressure liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs heat from its surroundings, usually air, water or some

Heat can only flow naturally from a hot to a colder body. In refrigeration system the opposite must occur. This is achieved by using a substance called a refrigerant, which absorbs heat and hence boils or evaporates at a low pressure to form a gas. This gas is then compressed to a higher pressure, such that it transfers the heat it has gained to ambient air or water and turns back into a liquid (condenses). In this way heat is absorbed, or removed, from a low temperature source and transferred to one at a higher temperature. There are a number of factors, which make the operation of the vapour compression cycle possible:

other process liquid. During this process it changes its state from a liquid to a gas, and at the evaporator exit is slightly superheated. 2-3 The superheated vapour enters the compressor where its pressure is raised. There will also be a big increase in temperature, because a proportion of the energy put into the compression process is transferred to the refrigerant. The high pressure superheated gas passes from the compressor into the condenser. The initial part of the cooling process (3 3a) desuperheats the gas before it is then turned back into liquid (3a - 3b). The

cooling for this process is usually achieved by using air or water. A further reduction in temperature happens in the pipe work and liquid receiver (3b - 4), so that the refrigerant liquid is sub-cooled as it enters the expansion device. 4-1 The high pressure sub-cooled liquid passes through the expansion device, which both reduces its pressure and controls the flow into the evaporator.

3-4

It can be seen that the condenser has to be capable of rejecting the combined heat inputs of the evaporator and the compressor; i.e. (1 - 2) + (2 - 3) has to be the same as (3 - 4). There is no heat loss or gain through the expansion device.

Figure 1: Single stage vapour compression circuit and pressure enthalpy diagram (source: ETSU)

2.2. REVERSE CARNOT CYCLE

The Carnot Cycle is a theoretical model representing the basic processes of a heat engine. A heat engine is a devide which produces work from heat. The Reverse Carnot cycle produces a transfer of heat from work. From the model, the maximum theoretical performance can be calculated, establishing criteria to which real refrigeration cycles can be compared. The following processes occur in the Reverse Carnot Cycle (Figure 2). 4 to 1 is the absorption of heat at the evaporator, a constant temperature boiling process at TL. 1 to 2 is constant entropy (ideal) compression. Work input is required and the temperature of the refrigerant increases. 2 to 3 is heat rejection at the condenser, a constant temperature process at TH.

3 to 4 is constant entropy (ideal) expansion from a higher to a lower pressure through the throttling device.

From the diagram, the concept of Coefficient of Performance (COP) is derived. The COP is the ratio of the cooling or Refrigeration Effect (RE), to the work required to produce the effect.

2.2.1 COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE

The refrigeration effect is represented as the area under the process line 4 - 1. RE = TL (s1 - s4) Where, RE = Refrigeration effect (kJ) TL = Temperature (K) s1, s4 = Entropy [kJ/kgK)J The theoretical work input (WS) (i.e. energy requirement) for the cycle is represented by the

Figure 2: Reverse Carnot Cycle (source: CEMET)

area "within" the cycle line 1-2-3-4-1. WS = (TH - TL) (s4 s1) kJ/kg The equation for coefficient of performance (COP) is obtained by dividing the refrigeration effect (RE) by the theoretical work input (WS). COP = TL x (s1 - s4 ) RE = WS (TH - TL ) x (s1 - s4 )

Example: two refrigeration machines of similar capacity are compared. One has a COP of 4.0 while the second a COP of 3.0 at the same operating conditions. The first machine with the higher COP is the most efficient, producing 1.33 times the refrigeration effect for the same work input of the second machine. The figures above show the effect of evaporator and condenser temperatures on the COP for various types of chillers. The theoretical COP can also be expressed in terms of enthalpy, where the difference in energy content of the refrigerant at various points of the cycle define the cooling effect and the work input. (h1 - h4 ) COP = (h - h )
2 1

The coefficient of performance for this theoretical system is temperature dependent and can be reduced to: COP (Ideal) = TL (TH - TL )

Actual systems are not as efficient as the ideal or theoretical model (i.e. lower COP), but the following general conclusion applies: The smaller the temperature difference between the heat sink and the heat source, (TH - TL) the greater the efficiency of the refrigeration (or heat pump) system. The COP, a measure of the energy required to produce a given refrigeration effect, is an excellent means of comparing the efficiencies of similar equipment.

2.3

THEORETICAL VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE

The Carnot cycle, although a useful model to assist in the understanding of the refrigeration process, has certain limitations. One limitation is the lack of

Figure 3: Effects of evaporator and condensing temperature on chiller COP (source: CEMET) .

accounting for changes of state. The figure below shows a vapour compression cycle approximating the effect of the cycle on the refrigerant, assuming ideal equipment, where: 1 - 2 Compression. 2 - 2' Desuperheating. 2' - 3 Constant Temperature Condensation. 2 - 4' Throttling. 4' - 1 Constant Temperature Evaporation.

condenser. Step 2 2' is the initial de-superheating of the hot gas at the condenser or intermediate equipment, and 2' - 3 is the condensation process.

2.3.1 MODEL COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE

As in the Reverse Carnot cycle, the coefficient or performance is: COP(refrig) = refrigeration effect Work input COP(refrig) = TL h -h = 1 4 (TH - TL ) h2 - h1

Assuming that the compression process starts at point 1 as a saturated vapour, energy added in the form of shaft work will raise the temperature and pressure. Ideally, this is a constant entropy process represented by a vertical line on the T-s diagram. The net result is superheating of the vapour to point 2. Process 2 2' 3 is heat rejection at the

Where h4' = h3 Departures from the ideal Carnot cycle are apparent.

Figure 4: Basic Refrigeration Cycle. (source: CEMET)

[h2 - h1](theoretical) is larger than [h2 h1](Carnot). [h1 - h4](theoretical) is smaller than [h1 h4](Carnot).

limitations such as equipment size, system pressure, and design temperatures at the evaporator and condenser, reduce the effectiveness of actual systems. Actual COPs are 20 to 30 per cent of the theoretical COP based on the Carnot cycle operating at the same conditions. Individual components, such as the compressor, may have an effectiveness of 40 to 60 per cent of the theoretical COP (Figure below). These limitations, and techniques used to reduce their input on cycle efficiency, are now discussed.
1

The net effect is a COP reduction. The throttling process reduces the refrigerant pressure from the condensing (high) pressure side to the evaporator (low) pressure side. By definition, throttling is a constant enthalpy process. The enthalpy at point 3 is equal to that at point 4', thus h3 = h4'. Energy is degraded in this process, therefore the entropy must increase from point 3' to 4.

2.3.2.1 Heat Transfer

Operating temperatures in actual cycles are established to suit the temperatures required at the cold medium and the temperature acceptable for the heat sink. The practical temperature gradient required to transfer heat from one fluid to another through a heat exchanger is in the range of 5 to 8C. This means that the refrigerant entering the evaporator should be 5 to 8C colder than the

2.3.2 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Refrigeration and heat pump cycles are more complex than the theoretical vapour compression cycle discussed in the previous sector. Practical

Figure 5: Effectiveness of Reciprocating compressors. (source: CEMET)

1

An example of measuring COP directly is given in Appendix 3

Figure: 6: Heat exchanger limitations and the effects of superheating. (source: CEMET)

desired medium temperature. The saturation temperature at the condenser should be 5 to 8 C above the temperature of the heat rejection medium (Figure below). The area enclosed by line l - 2 - 3 - 4' - l, which describes the cycle, has increased because of the temperature difference required to drive the transfer process. There has been an increase in the work required to produce the refrigeration effect because the temperature difference has increased, (TH - TL).
0

When the superheating occurs at the evaporator, the enthalpy of the refrigerant is raised, extracting additional heat and increasing the refrigeration effect of the evaporator. When superheating occurs in the compressor suction piping, no useful cooling occurs. The increase in refrigeration effect, caused by superheating in the evaporator, is usually offset by a decrease in refrigeration effect at the compressor. Because the volumetric flow rate of a compressor is constant, the mass flow rate and refrigerating effect are reduced by decreases in refrigerant density caused by the superheating. The relative effects of increases in enthalpy and decreases in density must be calculated in detail. A study of the system design may be practical only for systems over 500 kW in capacity. There is a loss in refrigerating capacity of about one per cent for every 2.5C of superheat in the suction line of a reciprocating compressor. Insulation on suction lines will minimize the undesirable heat gain. Refrigerant superheating also occurs at the compressor. The refrigerant enters the compressor

2.3.2.2 Superheat
In the refrigerant cycle, refrigerant gas becomes superheated at the evaporator and at the compressor (Figure 6). During the evaporation process the refrigerant is completely vaporized part-way through the evaporator. As the cool refrigerant vapour continues through the evaporator, additional heat is absorbed which superheats the vapour. Pressure losses, caused by friction, further increase the amount of superheat.

as a saturated vapour. Increasing the pressure will increase the temperature and cause superheat. Friction, system inefficiency and the work added, raise the entropy and superheat above that occurring in the theoretical cycle. Superheat, caused by the compression process, does not improve cycle efficiency, but results in larger condensing equipment and large compressor discharge piping. Desuperheating is the process of removing excess heat from superheated refrigerant vapour, and when accomplished by means external to the cycle, can be beneficial to system performance. Desuperheating the suction gas is often impractical because of the low temperatures (less than 10 C) and the small amount of available energy. Some superheat is required to prevent slugs of liquid refrigerant from reaching the compressor and causing serious damage. At design conditions, superheat can account for 20 per cent of the heat rejected at the condensers, and often raises condensing temperatures above 45C. Desuperheating the high-pressure refrigerant (hot

gas) leaving the compressor will reduce the required condenser capacity, and provide a highgrade heat source for other process use. A typical application would be the preheating of boiler makeup or process water. The total amount of heat available as superheat can be difficult to predict, as the superheat fluctuates with changes in load conditions. If a use can be found for low-grade heat, the total condensing load can be reclaimed. This can result in substantial energy savings.

2.3.2.3 FLASH GAS AND SUBCOOLING

Liquid subcooling occurs when a liquid refrigerant is cooled at constant pressure to below the condensation temperature (Figure 7). When subcooling occurs by a heat transfer method external to the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerating effect of the system is increased because the enthalpy of the subcooled liquid is less than the enthalpy of the saturated liquid. Subcooling of the liquid upstream of the throttling device also reduces

Figure 7: Effect of Subcooling (source: CEMET)

flashing in the liquid piping. The work input is reduced, and the refrigeration effect is increased because (h1 h4) is less than (h1 h4'). Subcooling refrigerant R-22 by 13C increases the refrigeration effect by about 11 per cent. If subcooling is obtained from outside the cycle, each degree increase in subcooling will improve system capacity by approximately one per cent. Subcooling from within the cycle may not be as effective because of offsetting effects in other parts of the cycle. Subcooling capacity can be increased by providing additional cooling circuits in the condenser or by immersing the liquid receiver in a cooling tower sump. Most systems provide 5 to 7C subcooling at the condenser to improve system efficiency.

cent for an 8 cylinder unit. For centrifugal equipment, the bypass varies with the load and impeller characteristics.

2.3.2.5 EVAPORATOR FROSTING

When a refrigeration system operates with the evaporator temperature close to 0C, or less, frosting of the evaporator coil is inevitable. Examples of this would be the frosting of heat pump evaporator coils during winter operation, or freezer evaporators. Ice buildup on the coils lowers the heat transfer rate, effectively reducing the refrigeration effect. The suction temperature will fall as the heat transfer rate falls, further increasing the rate of ice buildup. For systems operating under these conditions defrosting accessories are available from the equipment manufacturer. Defrost is performed by reversing the refrigerant flow, so that the system operates in an airconditioning mode, using the evaporator as the condenser to reject heat through the frosted coils. In a heat pump system used for heating, a back-up heating system is required to prevent chilling the space during the defrost mode. Defrosting is a major consumer of energy. It is important that the controls optimise the defrost cycle to avoid unnecessary defrosting while preventing unwanted ice build-up.

2.3.2.4 HOT GAS BYPASS

Hot gas bypass is a method of placing an artificial heat load on the refrigeration system to produce stable suction pressures and temperatures, when the refrigeration load is very low. The heat load is produced by bypassing hot gas from the compressor discharge to the evaporator inlet or the compressor suction. While permitting stable compressor operation at low load, hot gas bypass wastes energy. Bypass is required to maintain evaporator temperature above freezing, and prevent frosting of the coil, freezing of the chilled water, and compressor cycling. The total refrigeration load on a compressor with hot gas bypass will be equal to the actual (low) load plus the amount of hot gas bypass. Typically, the hot gas bypass on a reciprocating machine is 25 per cent of the nominal refrigeration capacity for a 4 cylinder unit, 33 per cent for a 6 cylinder unit and 37.5 per

2.3.2.6 HEAT PUMP CYCLE

The heat pump is a separate class of compression refrigeration equipment whose main purpose is to transfer heat from a low temperature heat source to a higher temperature heat sink for heating, rather than for cooling. The coefficient of performance in

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the heating configuration is: Refrigeration effect plus work input2 COP(Heat Pump) = Net work input = TH (T H - TL)

The steps in an absorption refrigeration cycle are: Liquid refrigerant is vaporized in the evaporator absorbing heat from the medium to be cooled 2. The suction effect necessary to draw the vapour through the system is accomplished by bringing the refrigerant into contact with a solvent. The solvent's affinity for the refrigerant causes the refrigerant to be absorbed by the solution, reducing the pressure of the refrigerant vapour. The absorption process releases heat which must be removed from this portion of the cycle. The solution of refrigerant and solvent (weak liquor) is pu mp ed fr om the absorber at low pressure, to the generator at a high pressure. 3. Heat is added to the weak liquor to drive the refrigerant out of solution. A heat exchanger is located between the absorber and generator. Heat is removed from the strong liquor (solution with high solvent and low refrigerant concentrations) leaving the generator, and is added to the weak liquor entering the generator, reducing the cycle heat input. 4. Further heat added to the weak liquor in the generator drives the refrigerant out of solution providing a high pressure refrigerant vapour. The hot solvent, still containing some refrigerant (strong liquor), returns to the absorber through the heat exchanger where the solvent cycle repeats. 5. Vapour at high-pressure and temperature flows to the condenser where heat is rejected through a coil or heat exchanger during the condensation process. 1.

In a heat pump system where both heating and cooling are required, a special four-way valve is used to reverse the functions of the evaporator and condenser. In this manner, the coil or exchanger is used to supply heating or cooling as required. Alternatively, the piping or ductwork system external to the heat pump can be provided with valves or dampers to reverse the primary air or fluid flows, without the reversing valve. The heat pump cycle is identical to a standard refrigeration cycle on a T-s diagram (Figure 2).

2.4

ABSORPTION CYCLE

The absorption refrigeration cycle is similar to the vapour compression cycle, however instead of using a compressor, high pressures are obtained by applying heat to a refrigerant solution. The system operates on the principle that variations in refrigerant solubility can be obtained by changing solution temperatures and pressures. Absorption systems in industry often use ammonia as the refrigerant in a water solvent, whereas in commercial and institutional applications water is used as the refrigerant in a lithium bromide solvent. The basic components of an absorption system are the vapour absorber, solution transfer pumps, and a vapour regenerator (solvent concentrator) in addition to the evaporator and condenser.
2

i.e. 'Heat 'pumped' to the hot surface.

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Figure 8: Absorption Refrigeration Cycle. (source: CEMET)

6.

The pressure of the liquid refrigerant is reduced by passing through a throttling device before returning to the evaporator section. The complete cycle is shown in Figure 8.

The generator may be equipped with a rectifier for selective distillation of refrigerant from the solution. This feature is common in large ammonia systems. Performance of an absorption chiller is measured by the COP, the ratio of actual cooling or heating effect, to the energy used to obtain that effect. The best ratios are less than one for cooling and 1.2 to 1.4 for a heat pump application. Compared to compression cycles this is low, but if hightemperature waste heat can be utilized to regenerate the refrigerant, refrigeration can be obtained at reasonable costs. System performance is affected by: Heat source temperature. Temperature of medium being cooled. Temperature of the heat sink. The flow diagram of a two-shell lithium bromide chiller is shown in Figure 9. Figure 10 shows an alternative configuration of an absorption machine using only a single shell. Actual installations vary

Figure 9: Diagram of a Two-Shell Lithium Bromide Cycle Water Chiller. (source: CEMET)

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considerably in layout, number of components and accessories, application and refrigerant type.

Well water, or any other clean water below l5C, can be used for cooling or precooling ventilation air, or a process.

2.5

SPECIAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

2.6

VARIATIONS ON THE SIMPLE CARNOT CIRCUIT

Steam jet refrigeration systems use steam ejectors to reduce the pressure in a tank containing the return water from a chilled water system. Flashing a portion of the water in the tank reduces the liquid temperature. The chilled water is then used directly or passed through an exchanger to cool another heat transfer fluid.

2.6.1 SUCTION/LIQUID HEAT EXCHANGER

The cooling effect of an evaporator is proportional to the length of the line between points 1 and 2 in

Figure 10: Single shell configuration. (source: CEMET)

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Figure 1. Additional cooling can be obtained by increasing the amount of subcooling at the inlet to the expansion device. The temperature of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator will be lower than that of the liquid entering the expansion device. Therefore, it is possible to reduce the liquid temperature by using a heat exchanger between these two pipes. A schematic layout showing how a suction/liquid heat exchanger can be incorporated into a refrigeration circuit is given in Figure 2.

tem per atu res . In gen era l, the eva por ati ng temperature below which a suction/liquid heat exchanger no longer becomes viable is about 15 C. Care must also be taken when using these heat exchangers on systems with R22 and R717 (ammonia) refrigerants, where the increased suction temperature at the compressor could result in an excessive discharge temperature.

2.7

MULTIPLE EVAPORATOR CIRCUITS

It is often desirable to operate more than one evaporator on the same system. This is not a problem if all if the evaporators are working it the same temperature, as they can simply be connected in parallel. If, however, one evaporator is required to work it a lower temperature than the others, it will be necessary to operate the compressor(s) at the pressure required by the lower temperature. The other evaporators will then have to be controlled at a higher pressure by installing evaporator pressure regulators between the exit of the evaporator and the suction into the compressor(s). The disadvantage of this is that operating the system at the lower suction pressure will reduce the compressor's efficiency and capacity. If the main load has the lower temperature, then the cost of installing an additional system for the small higher temperature load would probably not be economic, despite the increase in efficiency which would result. If the opposite case exists, it will almost certainly be better to put the small low temperature load on its own individual system and run the main load at a higher, and hence more energy efficient, evaporating pressure.

Figure 11:The suction line heat exchanger. (source: ETSU)

It must be remembered that there will be a corresponding increase in the suction gas temperature entering the compressor, which will reduce its capacity as the gas will be less dense and, therefore, a lower mass of refrigerant will be pumped by the compressor. Experience has shown that an overall improvement in the system's efficiency will be gained at high evaporating

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2.7.1 MULTIPLE COMPRESSOR SYSTEMS

In many systems the load is too great to be handled practically with one compressor. In these cases compressors are connected in parallel, which has the added advantage that their use can be cycled in order to adjust the capacity to suit the load.

taken to ensure the liquid does not get significantly warmer, so that it begins to evaporate, before it enters the expansion device.

2.7.1.2 INTERNALLY COMPOUNDED COMPRESSORS

Two stage compression can be achieved within one, specially designed, compressor. The gas is compressed to the intermediate pressure in the first, low stage cylinder(s) and then compressed to the condensing pressure in the high stage cylinder(s). The intermediate condition is called the interstage pressure, and some form of cooling is usually used to reduce the temperature of the refrigerant before it enters the second stage of compression. The selection and application of such a compressor is relatively simple; however, there are a limited number of compressor variations available. Selecting a design that matches a specific system requirement usually results in a compromise which is made at the expense of energy efficiency. The fixed volume ratio of the two compression stages also means that efficiencies are lower than they could be where demand varies.

2.7.1.1 TWO STAGE SYSTEMS

Two stage, or compound, systems are used when there is a large difference between the evaporating and condensing temperatures. This usually occurs when process or product storage conditions require a low evaporating temperature, such as in freeze drying or ice cream storage. At these compression ratios two stage systems have to be used because a single stage system would result in an unacceptably high discharge temperature in the compressor. In addition, in some cases two stage compression can give more efficient compressor operation. There is no easy rule to determine where two stage compression, with its additional design and installation complexity, becomes preferable to single stage compression. Generally, with refrigerants like R22, two stage compression may be used on systems using suction cooled compressors evaporating below about - 30C. There are two ways that two stage compression can be achieved and the method selected will affect efficiency. In both cases, additional system capacity can be obtained by first passing the refrigerant used for interstage cooling through a liquid line subcooler. If this method is used, care must be

2.7.1.3 EXTERNALLY COMPOUNDING COMPRESSORS

In this case two stage compression is achieved by using two separate compressors - one for the low stage and another for the high. This more flexible approach enables the system designer to match a compressor combination to the load more accurately and select the most economical interstage pressure.

15

The design and selection process is far more complicated than with the internally compounded variation, but the use of computer selection programs make it easier and quicker. To limit the final discharge temperature interstage cooling is used, usually by injecting a small quantity of refrigerant into the gas flow although other suitable sources of cooling could be used. A multistage system is used when large temperature and pressure differences exist between the evaporator and the condenser. Figure 12 illustrates the basic arrangement for a two-stage

system where the compression work is done by either two positive displacement compressors or by two stages of a multistage centrifugal unit. The flash intercooler subcools the refrigerant liquid to the evaporator by vaporizing a portion of the refrigerant after the first throttling stage. The flash gas returns at an intermediate point in the compression process to improve the compression efficiency by cooling the superheated gas (Figure 13). In large systems with a number of evaporators and large compression (temperature) ratios, the

Figure 12: Schematic of 2-Stage Refrigeration System. (source: CEMET)

Figure 13: Diagram of a 2-Stage Vapour Compression Cycle. (source: CEMET)

16

number of flash intercoolers and compression stages is increased to maximize system efficiency.

2.7.2 CASCADE SYSTEMS

Cascade systems are another method of overcoming the problems in applications requiring low evaporating temperatures. Two separate refrigeration circuits are used, usually with different refrigerants in each circuit. The evaporator of the low pressure system is

below the process or product storage temperature. The condenser for this system is also the evaporator of the high pressure system. The high stage system transfers the heat from this condenser evaporator to the external condenser. The low pressure system can therefore use a refrigerant which has a suitably low boiling point for the application, and its condensing pressure can be kept at a safe level by the high stage of the cascade. A cascade system cannot be as efficient as a well designed externally compounded system, because there is a loss in efficiency due to the heat transfer

Figure 14:Three stage Cascade System. (source: CEMET)

Figure 15:Two stage cascade system with booster circuit. (source: CEMET)

17

between the two systems. It does, however, offer more flexibility, as a small low temperature load could be interfaced with an existing high temperature system. In many cases cascading is the only alternative if very low temperatures are required. Refrigerants used in each stage may be different and are selected for optimum performance at the given evaporator and condenser temperatures. An alternative arrangement uses a common condenser with a booster circuit to obtain two separate evaporator temperatures (Figure 15).

In each case the first term refers to the heat source for heating applications, or the heat sink for cooling. The second term refers to the secondary refrigerant used for process or space heating and cooling. For example: An air-to-air heat pump (Figure 16) provides heating or cooling. In the cooling mode, heat is removed from the air in the space and discharged to the outside air. In the heating mode, heat is removed from the outside air and discharged to air in the space. An air-to-water system extracts heat from ambient or exhaust air to heat or preheat water used for space or process heating. A water-to-air system (Figure 17) provides heating and cooling of air with water as the heat sink or source. A water-to-water system extracts heat from a water source while simultaneously rejecting heat to a water heat sink, to either heat or cool a space or process. Earth-to-air and earth to water systems have limited use. Practical application is limited to space heating where the total heating or cooling effect is small, and the ground coil size is equally small.

2.7.3 HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

A heat pump is a device used to transfer heat from a lower temperature to a higher temperature, for heating the warmer area or process. In many installations, reversible heat pumps are used, which heat or cool the process, or space. A four-way reversing valve is used to reverse the refrigerant flow, to permit the use of the coils or exchangers in either the condenser or evaporator mode. With a fixed refrigerant circuit and no reversing valve, the secondary refrigerant flows can be reversed through appropriate external valve or damper arrangements. Various heat source and heat sink arrangements are possible, depending on heating and cooling requirements. Air-to-air. Air-to-water. Water-to-air. Water-to-water. Earth-to-air. Earth-to-water.

The COP for heat pump systems varies from 2 to 3 for small air-to-air space heating systems, to 5 or 6 for large systems that operate across small temperature differences. Most heat pump systems are provided with a backup heat source to offset reductions in heat output as the evaporator (heat source: outdoor

18

Figure 16:Typical schematic of an air-to-air heat pump system. (source: CEMET)

coil) temperature falls. This is particularly true in airto-air, space-heating systems where heat output decreases as the outdoor temperature lowers.

result from lack of proper cleaning. Absorption chillers face reductions in refrigerating capacity of up to 24 per cent, with power increases of 7.5 per cent, from poor maintenance.

2.7.3.1 EFFECTS OF MAINTENANCE ON SYSTEM EFFICIENCY

Owners of refrigeration and heat pump equipment should follow the manufacturer's service and maintenance recommendations to maintain maximum system efficiency over the life of the equipment, leaking seals, poor lubrication and faulty controls will reduce system life and performance. A simple procedure, such as regular cleaning of the evaporator and condenser, has a marked effect on performance. Table 7 shows the effect of dirty heat transfer elements on an air-cooled reciprocating compressor system. Reductions in refrigerating capacity up to 25 per cent, with simultaneous increases in power input of up to 40 per cent, can

Figure 17:Typical schematic of water-to-air heat pump system. (source: CEMET)

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3. EQUIPMENT

The following major components are required in vapour compression refrigeration systems. Refrigerant compressors. Evaporators. Throttling devices. Condensers. Heat rejection equipment.

is contained in a common gas-tight housing. Hermetic compressors are built into a welded shell, and there is no access to the internal parts for servicing or repair. Semi-hermetic compressors are assembled with removable covers, usually sealed by gaskets, enabling a limited amount of access for onsite maintenance. Both types of compressor are designed and built with specially selected motors. The motor's size and type is matched to the motion work of the compressor for specific applications and refrigerants. To obtain the maximum efficiency the compressor must be closely matched to the system duty. Hermetic compressors and larger semi-hermetic compressors are usually suction-cooled, the refrigerant passing over the motor windings before entering the compressor cylinders. This helps to cool the motor windings, but reduces the capacity of the compressor. Externally cooled types, where the gas passes directly into the cylinders, are usually about 8% more efficient than the equivalent suction-cooled models but are only available up to a motor size of about 5 kW.

3.1

COMPRESSORS

The purpose of the compressor in a refrigeration system is to draw the low pressure refrigerant gas from the evaporator and compress it to a higher pressure. This enables the gas to be condensed back into liquid by some convenient low cost source of cooling, such as air or water.

3.1.1 TYPES OF COMPRESSOR HOUSING

Most compressors are driven by an electric motor, sometimes built into a common casing. Other compressors have an external drive, the shaft passing through a rotating gas seal where it exits from the pressurised casing.

3.1.3 OPEN COMPRESSORS 3.1.2 HERMETIC AND SEMIHERMETIC COMPRESSORS

These compressors have the motor directly attached to the main shaft, and the whole assembly This type of compressor has an external drive shaft allowing a suitably sized motor to be selected and connected to it, either with a direct coupling or via belts. It is important to size the motor accurately in relation to the compressor's duty. Running motors

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at below their design duty reduces their power factor and their efficiency. When comparing the input power requirements of open and semi-hermetic compressors, the motor's efficiency and losses due to the drive have to be taken into account for open drive machines. Where extended operation of the plant is envisaged it could prove viable to invest in an energy efficient (high efficiency) motor. At present the cost will be higher than a standard motor but this could change as the price differential between standard and high efficiency motors is decreasing. The payback time, derived by a simple cost analysis, will usually be less than two years given the long running hours and may show a better return on investment.

improved flow through valves: o less restricted gas flow path, o reduced pressure drop; minimised heat transfer from discharge to suction gas.

Such modifications can improve efficiency by up to 20%, although in many cases the capital cost of the compressor will be higher because of the increased complexity of manufacturing. It is critical to the reliability of reciprocating compressors that liquid refrigerant or large quantities of oil are not injected into the cylinders, as this will cause mechanical failure in the compressor.

3.1.4 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating compressors are the most common types of compressor and are available for a wide range of applications. The design of a compressor is optimised for operation within a designated application envelope with specified refrigerants. Operating a compressor at high temperature conditions with valves designed for low temperature operation could result in losses of up to 10% in the extraction rate. With many compressors it could also result in the motor being overloaded and tripping its protection device. Compressors have been developed with improved efficiencies. The main areas of improvement are: clearance volume reduction;

3.1.5 SCREW COMPRESSORS

Screw compressors are available for duties from about 50 kW up to thousands of kilowatts and are generally used on medium to high temperature applications. The geometry of the compressor determines its optimum pressure ratio. Operation away from this ratio will significantly reduce its efficiency. For this reason manufacturers usually produce a range of machines with different operating characteristics. A large quantity of oil is injected into screw compressors to seal the running clearances between the rotors and the casing. The oil has to be removed from the refrigerant in a suitable sized separator. A significant amount of the heat of compression is absorbed by the oil, which must be removed by an oil cooler. It is preferable to cool the oil by using a supply of air or water. Using a supply of refrigerant for cooling can reduce the system

21

capacity by up to 10%, with a corresponding loss of efficiency.

compressors that the correct running speed of the compressor has been used. With semi-hermetic compressors this speed is fixed by the design of the built-in motor.

3.1.6 SCROLL COMPRESSORS

The scroll type of rotary compressor has been the subject of extensive development in recent years, as improved machining techniques have made its production viable. Scroll compressors are being increasingly applied to medium and small air-conditioning applications because of their quiet, low vibration operation and good efficiency. Their efficiency advantage over reciprocating compressors at lower compression ratios makes them ideal for high temperature refrigeration applications, such as beer cellar and milk tank cooling. Scroll compressors are also being developed for lower temperature applications.

3.1.8 CAPACITY CONTROL

To maintain the maximum system efficiency in systems with widely varying loads, it is important to be able to vary the duty of the compressor. In a multi-compressor system this can either be achieved by switching a number of compressors off or by reducing their individual pumping capacities. The best way to save energy is always to switch off any unnecessary machines.

3.1.8.1 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

There are a number of methods used to reduce the capacity of compressors: blocked suction gas, suction valve lifting; discharge gas recirculation

3.1.7 COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE DATA

The extraction rate and power input of a compressor depend principally on the evaporating and condensing temperatures. Compressor performance is usually presented in graphical (Fig) or in tabular format. These data are presented at specific rating conditions, and corrections have to be made to take into account actual site operating conditions for: suction gas temperature; liquid subcooling.

Figure 18:Typical compressor performance

Care must be taken with data for open

data. (source: ETSU)

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When selecting a compressor, it is important to check the manufacturer's data to ensure that the model chosen is of an energy efficient design. The reduction in input power should match, as closely as possible, the reduction in refrigeration duty. It is also worthwhile checking whether supplementary compressor cooling is required while capacity control is in operation, as this will need additional energy. The number of stages of capacity reduction that can be obtained will depend on the design of the compressor, and is usually a function of the number of cylinders. On suction cooled compressors the minimum capacity is often limited by the loss of cooling of the motor.

about 50% capacity, but below this it falls off very quickly.

3.2

EVAPORATORS

There are two principal types of evaporator: direct expansion (sometimes called "dry expansion" or DX); flooded.

3.2.1 DIRECT EXPANSION

These are commonly used to cool either air or a liquid. The expansion device used with this type of evaporator is an expansion valve. A direct expansion evaporator used for cooling air is shown in Figure 19. There are many different designs available using plain or finned tube, both with and without forced circulation of air or some process fluid. Certain tube designs incorporate internal devices to maximise heat exchange and

3.1.8.2 SCREW COMPRESSORS

The capacity of a large screw compressor can be varied from 100% down to 10% by using a slide vane. The part load efficiency is acceptable down to

Figure 19: Liquid distribution on a direct expansion circuit. (source: ETSU)

23

thus efficiency, by causing turbulence to keep the liquid in full contact with the tube wall.

3.2.1.1 DESIGN FEATURES

A typical evaporator will have a number of parallel circuits designed to: maximise heat transfer; ensure good oil return; minimise pressure drop.

evaporated before reaching the outlet. By monitoring the flow of refrigerant, the expansion device maintains a superheat of about 5C at the outlet of the evaporator. This ensures that the duty is as high as is practically possible while still protecting the compressor from liquid refrigerant returning down the suction line. This feature is important for the reliability of reciprocating machines, but less so for rotary compressors.

A distributor is used to ensure refrigerant flows evenly between the different parallel circuits. To enhance the heat transfer in air-cooled designs, the surface of the refrigerant-carrying tubes is usually extended by using external fins. To maximise their surface the fins are spaced as closely together as possible without restricting the air flow. On low temperature systems, where ice can form on the fin surfaces, a wider spacing has to be used to ensure adequate air flow when ice build-up occurs. In the past few years compact plate heat exchangers have become increasingly popular for direct expansion cooling of liquids. Due to their design they have a very good heat transfer capability and hence high efficiency. Some larger designs can be disassembled for cleaning, whereas the smaller type are brazed together as a sealed assembly. They can be used with all halocarbon refrigerants, but because of the materials used for construction they arc not suitable for ammonia.

3.2.1.3 OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS

The efficiency of an evaporator can be affected by an uneven distribution of refrigerant, and hence cooling, between the different circuits. This can occur if the distributor is incorrectly positioned - it should always be vertical so that there is an even feed through each outlet - or if one distributor line becomes damaged. It is impossible for each circuit to be totally filled with saturated refrigerant, as there must be sufficient superheat to enable the expansion device to control the flow of refrigerant. This means that the heat transfer efficiency will be reduced at the end of each circuit where superheated gas is present. Oil logging can also reduce the efficiency of an evaporator - more information on this subject is given in Section 4.3.

3.2.2 FLOODED 3.2.1.2 OPERATING FEATURES

Saturated refrigerant is fed through a distributor into the expansion tubes where it is totally There are two types of flooded evaporator: shell and tube; plate type.

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3.2.2.1 SHELL AND TUBE

These are commonly used in larger applications for cooling liquids. There are a number of different designs but they all have the same basic characteristics. Design and operating features In a shell and tube evaporator, the fluid to be cooled is passed through the tubes with the evaporating refrigerant boiling off into gas within the body of the shell. The refrigerant level in the shell is maintained so that the top tube is always covered with liquid. In this way the most efficient heat exchange, liquid to liquid, is achieved over the whole of the cooling interface. To ensure optimum efficiency, the liquid level is usually maintained by using a low pressure float valve. The operation of this type of device is explained in Section 7. Alternatively, an expansion device and level sensor can be used. The space in the upper part of the shell allows any droplets of liquid to be separated from the gas returning to the compressor. This separation is sometimes achieved in a different vessel called a surge drum.

4.3 for more information. Fouling on the external surfaces of the tubes, i.e. the process fluid side, can be difficult to rectify. This will also reduce heat transfer. Due to the internal volume of the shell, large quantities of refrigerant are required with the corresponding cost and environmental or safety issues if a leak should occur.

3.2.2.2 PLATE TYPE

Recently, the use of plate heat exchangers as flooded evaporators in recirculation systems has become more common. They offer the following advantages over the shell and tube type: higher heat transfer coefficients; a smaller temperature difference between the refrigerant and the cooled liquid, resulting in higher evaporating temperatures and therefore improved system efficiency; more compact units requiring less plant room space; smaller refrigerant charges; the ability to clean non-brazed assemblies, thus maintaining a good heat transfer capability.

Operational problems Flooded shell and tube evaporators are usually large and relatively expensive. Accumulation of oil can reduce the heat transfer and hence efficiency - see Section

3.2.3 OIL CONTROL IN EVAPORATORS

In order to maintain the optimum system efficiency it is important that oil is not allowed to collect in the evaporator, coating the tubes and thereby reducing their capability to transfer heat. Different actions

25

are required to control oil, depending on the type of evaporator and refrigerant.

system duty between a number of smaller evaporators, isolating some as the load diminishes.

3.2.3.1 DIRECT EXPANSION EVAPORATORS

The main rule with this type of evaporator, whether it is being used with halocarbons or ammonia, is to maintain an adequate refrigerant velocity to carry the oil through the tube assembly. Problems can occur if the evaporator has to operate over a wide range of loads, as the flow might not be sufficient at the lowest duty to achieve the minimum required velocity. Under these conditions it may be necessary to split the total

3.2.3.2 FLOODED EVAPORATORS

Ammonia systems Oil is almost totally insoluble in ammonia and will separate out, collecting in the bottom of the evaporator and must be periodically drained, either manually or automatically. This is not a hazardous operation providing proper safety precautions are taken. A careful log must be kept recording any oil added to or removed from the system.

Figure 20:Typical oil rectification system diagram. (source: CEMET)

26

Any control connections made to the lower part of the evaporator's shell must be above the highest possible oil level. Oil is very viscous at low temperatures and can cause a restriction in small bore pipes.

the evaporator. The size of evaporator should be decided at the design stage by evaluating the additional evaporator capital cost and the resulting lower running costs, and comparing the simple paybacks obtained by each option. The heat transfer will be influenced by factors such as: oil logging; fouling and corrosion of heat transfer surfaces; incorrect control of the refrigerant flow or level in the evaporator; frost build up.

Halocarbon systems Some refrigerants, for example R11 and Rl2, are completely miscible with oil under all operating conditions and no special action is required to prevent oil logging. Other refrigerants, for example R22 and R502, are miscible at high temperatures but, at low temperatures, an oil rich layer will form on the top of the liquid refrigerant. By carefully positioning tapping points ill the evaporator's shell, this oil rich mixture can be removed from the evaporator and transferred into a rectifier. The rectifier is then heated to boil the majority of the refrigerant out of the oil before it is returned to the compressor. The most energy efficient method of supplying this heat is to use the warm refrigerant in the liquid line which incurs no additional energy costs, and has the further advantage of increasing the liquid subcooling. A typical oil rectification arrangement is shown in Figure 20.

3.2.5 DEFROSTING
As noted before, allowance must be made in the fin spacing to allow for ice build-up on evaporators operating with refrigerant temperatures below 0C. To maintain an adequate air flow through the fin block it has to be defrosted periodically, requiring the use of heat. Energy efficient defrosting depends on the following factors: initiating a defrost operation only when it becomes necessary through loss of performance; using the most efficient method of applying the necessary heat; ensuring that the defrost heat is evenly distributed over the whole of the fin block; stopping the defrost cycle as soon as the fin block is totally clear of ice; minimising the amount of defrost heat absorbed by the process fluid or product.

3.2.4 ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATION OF EVAPORATORS

The efficiency of a refrigeration system is increased when the evaporating temperature increases. This can be achieved by: maximising the size of the evaporator; maintaining the peak heat transfer rate of

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Table1:Types of Liquid Coolers Type of cooler Usual Refrigerant Feed Device Flooded shell-and-bare-tube Flooded shell-and-finned-tube Low pressure float Low pressure float High pressure float, fixed orifice(s), weir(s) 175-35 000 11, 12, 22, 113 114, 134a, 500, 502 Spray-type-shell-and-tube Low pressure float High pressure float 350-1750 11, 12, 13B1, 22, 113, 114, 134a Direct-expansion shell-and-tube Flooded Baudelot cooler Direct-expansion Baudelot cooler Flooded double-pipe cooler Thermal expansion valve Low pressure float Thermal expansion valve Low pressure float 17.5-1250 35-350 17.5-85 35-85 17.5-85 7-35 175-700 12, 22, 134a, 500, 502, 717 717 12, 22, 134a, 717 717 12, 22, 134a, 717 12, 22, 134a, 717 717 Usual Range of Capacity (kW) 175-1750 Commonly Used with Refrigerant Numbers 717 (Ammonia)

Direct-expansion double-pipe cooler Thermal expansion valve Shell-and-coil cooler Flooded tank-and-agitator Thermal expansion valve Low pressure float

3.3

EXPANSION DEVICES

The purpose of an expansion valve is to: reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant from the condensing pressure to the evaporating pressure; modulate the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator

thermostatic expansion valve; high pressure float valve; low pressure float valve.

Capillary tubes (which just drop the refrigerant pressure but cannot regulate flow) are used in domestic type systems. These are factory assembled and cannot be adjusted.

Correct selection and installation of expansion valves is very important, because their incorrect operation will reduce the efficiency and reliability of a system. There are three types of expansion valve widely used in commercial and industrial refrigeration:

3.3.1 THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES

Thermostatic expansion valves are used on most commercial installations. A typical example shown in Figure 21. The refrigerant pressure is dropped

28

through an orifice, and the flow of refrigerant is regulated by a needle valve and diaphragm arrangement. The diaphragm is moved by the pressure inside the controlling phial, which senses the temperature of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator which should be approximately 5 C higher than the evaporating temperature, to ensure there is no liquid refrigerant present which could damage the compressor. This temperature difference is the superheat setting of the valve and can he set by adjusting the valve. Correct setting is vital to the efficient and reliable operation of the refrigeration system. If the load on the evaporator changes, then the temperature of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator will also change. The controlling phial will sense this and automatically adjust the refrigerant flow to accommodate the load change. A major disadvantage of thermostatic valves is that they cannot work well if the pressure difference

across them varies widely, for example if the condensing pressure 'floats' with ambient. To cope with such conditions other valves are now available.

3.3.1.1 BALANCED PORT VALVES

Balanced port valves are very similar in design and operation to the conventional thermostatic valve apart from a special internal balanced port design. This allows the valve to control inlet pressure accurately over a much wider range. These valves cost approximately 20% more than a conventional valve, but are currently available only in a limited range of sizes.

3.3.1.2 ELECTRONIC EXPANSION VALVE

Electronic expansion valves work in a similar way to thermostatic valves, except that the temperature is

Figure 21:Thermostatic Expansion Valve. (source: CEMET)

29

Figure 22: Electronic expansion valve on direct expansion air cooler. (source: ETSU)

sensed electronically and this signal opens and closes the orifice via a small electrical motor. The valve can therefore operate with a wider difference in pressure across it. A further advantage is that they can be easily integrated into an electronic or microprocessor control system. Figure 22 shows an electronic expansion valve with a direct expansion air cooler. Electronic valves are much more expensive than conventional thermostatic valves, and will give a payback of less than a year only on systems with a capacity greater than 100kw.

the high (receiver) pressure or the low (evaporator) pressure of the system.

3.3.2.1 HIGH PRESSURE (HP) FLOAT VALVE

A typical HP float valve is shown in Figure 23. This type of valve is used to maintain a liquid level in the receiver and operates at receiver pressure. The receiver pressure controls the pilot line pressure, and as this pressure varies the expansion valve opens and closes to supply liquid refrigerant from the receiver to the evaporator. An HP float valve is used in large industrial systems with single evaporators. As it provides no control of the level of refrigerant in the evaporator, the amount of refrigerant in the system must be

3.3.2 FLOAT VALVE SYSTEMS

A float valve system uses a float chamber with a separate modulating expansion valve, connected by a pilot line. The float chamber can either operate at

30

Figure 23: High pressure float valve. (source: ETSU)

Figure 24: Low pressure float expansion system. (source: ETSU)

correct, i.e. the system is said to be critically charged. To ensure correct operation, the evaporator must be fitted with a level gauge which is checked regularly.

evaporator and operates at evaporator pressure. This liquid level affects the pressure in the pilot line, and as the pressure varies the expansion valve modulates the supply of liquid from the receiver to the evaporator. LP float valves are used on systems which have more than one evaporator connected to one compressor or to several compressors in parallel. It is important that the expansion valve is fitted at a

3.3.2.2 LOW PRESSURE (LP) FLOAT VALVE

A typical LP float system is shown in Figure 24. An LP float valve is used to maintain a liquid level in the

31

level below the liquid surface in the receiver, in order to prevent refrigerant gas going through the valve and hence reducing efficiency. A level gauge must be fitted to the receiver so that the liquid level can be checked to ensure adequate performance is maintained.

are used, such as electronic expansion valves.

3.4.1

AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS

In an air-cooled condenser the refrigerant condenses inside tubes over which air is forced by fans. To improve the heat transfer, the tube surface is usually extended using corrugated metal fins. A well designed plant should operate with a condensing temperature no higher than l4C above the ambient temperature. With larger condensers it is common practice to control the head pressure by switching off or slowing down fans, although this is inefficient. If air-cooled condensers are being used in a corrosive atmosphere (for example, near the sea or in polluted air) then a suitable tube/fin material combination or a coating should be used. Air-cooled condensers are susceptible to blockage by air borne debris such as dust, feathers, packaging, and so on. They must be regularly cleaned (but not with refrigerant) to prevent a build up of contamination, as this will reduce the air flow and hence increase the condensing pressure.

3.4

CONDENSERS

There are three types of condenser in widespread use: air-cooled (using ambient air); water-cooled (using mains, river or cooling tower water); evaporative cooled (using ambient air and recirculated water).

The two latter types take advantage of the lower wet bulb ambient temperature and the greater heat transfer affect of water, and therefore operate with lower condensing temperatures. When comparing different condenser types the power requirements of associated fans, pumps and heaters should be taken into account. In general, systems under 100 kW capacity use air-cooled condensers unless there is a space or noise restriction. For a given capacity, a larger condenser will result in a lower condensing temperature and hence better efficiency. Problems can be caused on installations which use thermostatic expansion valves if the condensing (head) pressure varies widely. Such valves are unable to control refrigerant flow reliably under such conditions, and reduced efficiency and reliability will result. Some form of head pressure control may be used to raise the head pressure artificially, although this is inefficient and is not necessary if more sophisticated expansion devices

3.4.2 WATER-COOLED CONDENSERS

Water-cooled condensers are of the shell and tube type. The cooling water flows in tubes inside the shell, and refrigerant inside the shell condenses on the outside of the cold tubes. Heat transfer is improved as the water velocity is increased. An efficient system will work with a temperature rise of 5C for the water passing through the condenser, and a difference of 5C between the condensing

32

temperature and that of the water leaving the condenser. On very small commercial installations mains water is often used directly, although this is becoming less common on new installations due to water metering. On larger installations the water will be cooled in a cooling tower, where the cooling effect is achieved by evaporating some of the cooling water into the air. Blockages in the air or water side will significantly reduce the efficiency of the cooling tower. Such blockages are common and are normally caused by hard water deposits or algae growth. Water should be treated to prevent these and also to prevent bacteria growth. The cooling tower should cool the water to within 13 - l8C of the wet bulb ambient temperature (which can be up to 10C lower than the dry bulb temperature). The water side of the condenser is also liable to blockage caused by hard water deposits. If this is

likely to cause a problem, cleanable condensers should be used.

3.4.3 EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS

In an evaporative condenser, refrigerant is condensed in tubes which are wetted and over which air is forced. The water used to wet the outside of the tubes is recirculated, although a certain amount of make up water will be needed. Evaporative condensers should operate with similar temperatures to the water-cooled condenser/cooling tower combination above. The water used will require treatment, as described for watercooled condensers above.

3.4.4 LOSS OF CONDENSER EFFICIENCY DUE TO AIR IN SYSTEM

Air and other non-condensable gases in a refrigeration system will increase the condensing temperature and hence reduce efficiency. For example, in a medium temperature ammonia system working with a condenser which contains 15% air, the running costs will increase by 12%. Air can remain in a system after installation or service, if the system has been inadequately evacuated prior to charging with refrigerant. While running, air can be drawn into a system operating at a suction condition lower than atmospheric pressure, if there is a leak on the low side of the system. It is possible to check for air and other noncondensable gases when the system is not working

Figure 25: Draw-through-type of evaporative condenser (source: CEMET)

33

and the temperatures have had a chance to stabilise. If there is no air present, then the temperature in the condenser should be equivalent to the temperature of the ambient air or of the water flowing through a water-cooled condenser. If air is in the system the temperature will be higher.

Any air should be safely purged from the system by a skilled refrigeration technician, with minimum refrigerant emission to the atmosphere.

34

4. REFRIGERANTS

4.1

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS

Refrigerants for Industrial, Commercial and Institutional refrigeration and heat pump systems are selected to provide the best refrigeration effect at a reasonable cost. The following characteristics are desirable. Non-flammable to reduce the fire hazard. Non-toxic to reduce potential health hazards.

Large heat of vaporization to minimize equipment size and refrigerant quantity. Low specific volume in the vapour phase to minimize compressor size. This aspect is critical for reciprocating and screw type compressors. Low liquid phase specific heat to minimize the heat transfer required when subcooling the liquid below the condensing temperature. Low saturation pressure required at desired condensing temperatures to eliminate requirement for heavy duty or

Table2: Physical Properties of some Refrigerants

Refrigerant Chem. Molec. Boiling Point (NBP), C Freez. Point C Critical Temp C Critical kPa Critical L/kg

Formula Mass

Pressure Volume

Helium Hydrogen Air Oxygen Methane Tetrafluoro-methane Ethylene Trifluoromethane Chlorotrifluoro-methane Carbon Dioxide Propylene Propane Chlorodifluoro-methane Chloropenta-fluoroethane

He H2 O2 CH 4 CF 4 C 2H 4 CHF 3 CClF 3 CO 2 C 3H 6 C 3H 8 CHClF 2 CClF 2CF 3

4.0026 2.0159 28.97 31.9988 16.04 88.01 28.05 70.02 104.47 44.01 42.09 44.10 86.48 154.48

-268.9 -252.8 -194.3 -182.9 -161.5 -127.9 -103.7 -82.1 -81.4 -78.4 -47.7 -42.07 -40.76 -39.1

None -259.2 ---218.8 -182.2 -184.9 -169 -155 -181 -56.6 -185 -187.7 -160 -106
a

-267.9 -239.9 -140.7 -118.4 -82.5 -45.7 9.3 25.6 28.8 31.1 91.8 96.8 96.0 79.9

228.8 1315 3772 5077 4638 3741 5114 4833 3865 7372 4618 4254 4974 3153

14.43 33.21 3.048 2.341 6.181 1.598 4.37 1.942 1.729 2.135 4.495 4.545 1.904 1.629

35

Ammonia Dichlorodi-fluoromethane Difluoroethane Sulphur Dioxide Chlorodifluoro-ethane Methyl Amine Octafluorocyclo-butane Butane Dichlorofluoro-methane Ethyl AmineC 2H 5NH 2 Trichlorofluoro-methane Ethyl Ether C 4H 10O Dichlorohexa-fluoropropane Trichloroethylene Water

NH 3 CCl 2F 2 CH 3CHF 2 SO 2 CH 3CClF 2 CH 3NH 2 C 4F 8 C 4H 10 CHCl 2F 45.08 CCI 3F 74.12 C 3Cl 2F 6 CHCl=CCl 2 H 2O

17.03 120.93 66.05 64.07 100.5 31.06 200.04 58.13 102.92 16.6 137.38 34.6 220.93 131.39 18.02

-33.3 -29.79 -25.0 -10.0 -9.8 -6.7 -5.8 -0.5 8.8 -80.6 23.82 -116.3 35.69 87.2 100

-77.7 -158 -117 -75.5 -131 -92.5 -41.4 -138.5 -135 183.0 -111 194.0 -125.4 -73 0

133.0 112.0 113.5 157.5 137.1 156.9 115.3 152.0 178.5 5619 198.0 3603 180.0 271.1 374.2

11417 4113 4492 7875 4120 7455 2781 3794 5168 4406 3.790 2753 5016 22103

4.245 1.792 2.741 1.910 2.297 1.611 4.383 1.917 1.804 1.742 3.128

high pressure equipment. Low pressure portion of the cycle should be above atmospheric pressure to prevent inward leakage of air and water vapour into the refrigerant piping. High heat transfer coefficients.

R11, R12, R502 and R22) are being phased out by international agreement. The Montreal Protocol on substances suspected of attacking ozone was first agreed in 1988, and has now been signed by over 90 countries. HCFCs such as R22, which have much lower ozone depletion potentials than CFCs, are termed transition substances and cannot be considered long term refrigerants. New HCFCs are being developed which, together with R22, are being used today to replace CFCs in many applications. New refrigerants which do not attack ozone are also being developed. R134a, the first of these to become commercially available, has been developed to replace R12 on mobile airconditioning and small refrigeration applications. It is not a 'drop in' replacement for R12, although it operates with very similar temperatures and pressures. It is not miscible with the mineral oils currently used with CFCs and HCFCs, so new synthetic oils have been developed. Systems

Physical properties of various common refrigerants are listed in Table 2 The relative safety and hazard level of various refrigerants have been compiled and classified under ANSI Code B9.l l97l and by Underwriter's laboratories. Table 2 provides a listing of these properties for various refrigerants. Many refrigerants widely used today belong to the fam ily of c hem ica ls c all ed C FCs (ch lor ofluorocarbons) which are suspected of breaking down ozone in the upper atmosphere. This environmental concern is causing major changes in refrigerant development and use. CFC and HCFC (hydrochlorofluorocarbon) type refrigerants (e.g.

36

Table 3: Non-CFC refrigerants Ref. ODP 1 GWP 2 Availability BP 3 at 1Bar (C) R22 MP39 MP66 HP81 R134a 69S 69L HP80 FX10 HP62 FX40 KLEA60 Notes: 1. 2. 3. 4 The ODP (ozone depletion potential) is relative to R11 for which OP=1. The GWP (direct greenhouse warming potential) is relative to R11 for which GWP=1. BP = boiling point The efficiency is based on limited test data (not theoretical calculations) in the case of newly developed refrigerants and is therefore an indication of expected efficiency in actual installations. Much of this data is provisional - the actual effect on efficiency of any new refrigerant should be checked at the operating conditions of the system. 0.05 0.03 0.035 0.03 0 0.04 0.028 0.02 0.023 0 0 0 0.34 0.22 0.024 0.52 0.34 4.0 4.09 0.63 0.76 0.94 0.88 0.35 Now Now Now Now Now Now approx. Now Now Now 1993/4 1993 for trials Now -40.8 -28.9 -30.7 -47.4 -26.1 -50.0 -50.6 -49.0 -49.7 -46.5 -55.0 -38.0 to 45.0 Better than R12; same as R502 Similar to R12 Similar to R12 Same to slightly better than R12 Same to slightly worse than R12 Same to slightly better than R502 Same to slightly better than R502 Slightly worse than R502 Slightly better than R502 Similar to R502 Slightly worse than R502 Similar to R502 Low temp Low temp Low temp Low temp retail food, transport Low temp Medium temp retail food R12 replacement Medium temp retail food, ice machines, vending Medium and high temp food retail Low temp close coupled systems Low temp remote systems R12, R502 replacement Efficiency 4 Application

running with R12 can be retrofilled with Rl34a if the oil is also changed, providing that the components in the system can be used with the new refrigerant. Successful retrofills have been carried out, with minimum disruption to the cooling application. Further ozone benign refrigerants are being developed which will also need to use the new

synthetic oils. Very few single substances are totally suitable as refrigerants, and therefore blends of new and existing substances are being developed. Blends have already been developed based on HCFCs and are currently being used as transition substances. Care must be taken, however, to ensu re t hat the blen d re main s co nsis tent throughout a plants lifetime.

37

Table 3 gives information on non-CFC refrigerants that are available now and on those that will be available in the near future.

Water, is the most common refrigerant, and is used in combination with lithium bromide as the absorbent.

4.2

COMMON REFRIGERANTS VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLES

4.4

BRINES AND SECONDARY COOLANTS

Freons: R22, used primarily in air conditioning; R-12, used primarily in medium- and high-temperature refrigeration (R-134a is now used as a replacement for R-12); R-502, used primarily in low-temperature refrigeration. R-500 can still be found in older equipment. Ammonia, refrigerant R-717, one of the earliest refrigerants, is now limited to industrial applications because of its high toxicity. High cycle efficiency, low specific volume, high latent heat and low cost led to its popularity, particularly in ice rink facilities and other applications where large temperature differences were required. Carbon dioxide is a non-toxic, non-flammable, odourless, colourless, and inert gas. Because of high operating pressures and high horsepower requirements its use as a refrigerant is limited to specific industrial applications.

Secondary refrigerants, brines and heat transfer fluids find common use in refrigeration applications. These liquids are cooled or heated by the primary refrigerant and transfer heat energy without a change of state. Their use is common where: Large refrigerant quantities would otherwise be required. Toxicity or flammability of the refrigerant is a concern. Central refrigeration is used to produce cooling for a number of remote locations. Many examples exist where brines and secondary coolants are used. Chilled water or glycol-water solutions for air-conditioning and process cooling. Calcium chloride or sodium chloride in solution with water for ice production in skating rink applications. Propylene glycol and water solutions for use in food and potable water refrigeration systems. Hydrocarbon refrigerants in the liquid phase for extremely low temperature applications.

4.3

COMMON REFRIGERANTS ABSORPTION CYCLE

Ammonia is a refrigerant used with water as the absorbent (solvent). Use of ammonia is declining with the introduction of refrigerants that have low toxicity and operate at lower system pressures.

Selection of the brine type and concentration is made on the basis of freezing point, crystallization temperature, specific volume, viscosity, specific heat and boiling point. Toxicity, flammability and corrosion characteristics are secondary factors, but must be considered in the overall analysis.

38

5. ENERGY MANAGEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

'Energy Management Opportunities' is a term that represents the ways that energy can be used wisely to reduce operating costs. A number of Energy Management Opportunities, subdivided into Housekeeping, Low Cost, and Retrofit categories are outlined in this section with worked examples or written text to illustrate the potential energy savings. This is not a complete listing of the opportunities available for refrigeration and heat pump systems. However, it is intended to provide ideas for management, operating, and maintenance personnel to allow them to identify other opportunities that are applicable to a particular facility. Other guides in this series should be considered.

surfaces reduces the heat transfer efficiency, requiring higher temperature differences to maintain the heat transfer rate. An increase in temperature difference reduces the COP. Repair suction and liquid line insulation to reduce superheating of suction gas and loss of subcooling. Refrigerant lines gain heat when they are located in spaces that are not air-conditioned, increasing the system load without producing useful cooling. Calibrate controls and check operation on a regular basis to ensure that the refrigeration and heat pump systems operate efficiently. Maintain specified refrigerant charge in refrigeration and heat pump equipment. Insufficient refrigerant reduces system performance and capacity. Reduced mass flow rates of refrigerant causes excessive superheating of the refrigerant at the evaporator which reduces the efficiency of the compressor, and increases the condensing temperatures. Provide unrestricted air movement around condensing units and cooling towers to eliminate short circuiting or the airstreams which causes a higher condensing temperature and pressure. Minimize the simultaneous operation of heating and cooling systems. Strategically located thermometers will help identify this problem.

5.1

HOUSEKEEPING OPPORTUNITIES

5.1.1 GENERAL MAINTENANCE

Implemented housekeeping opportunities are Energy Management actions that are done on a regular basis and never less than once a year. The following are typical Energy Management Opportunities in this category: Keep heat transfer surfaces of evaporators and condensers clean, through regular inspection and cleaning. Fouling of the

39

5.1.2 PLANT OPERATION

Plant performance will be maintained if the system is monitored and appropriate remedial action taken when necessary. Adequate instrumentation is necessary to enable a plant to be easily monitored. The use of computers to analyse data will help to highlight areas which should be investigated before problems develop.

instrumentation should be considered to measure/monitor: pressures; temperatures; current and/or power.

Figure 26 shows where such measurements should be taken on a water chilling system. Many compressors can he used on part capacity, and the number of cylinders operating on a reciprocating compressor can be indicated by the signal to the solenoid valves which unload cylinders. On centrifugal or screw compressors an analogue indication of the control signal can be useful. Level gauges should be fitted to all vessels that contain liquid refrigerant, i.e. liquid receivers, shell and tube evaporators and condensers, and

5.1.3

INSTRUMENTATION

There should be sufficient instrumentation on a plant to enable the performance to be assessed and faults diagnosed. With smaller commercial systems pressure gauges, thermometers and amp probes of the type carried by service engineers are likely to be sufficient. With larger installations permanent

Figure 26 Simple direct expansion water chilling system (source: ETSU)

40

Table 4: An example of a log sheet. CONDENSER Discharge temperature temp Actual T1 P1+3C to P1+7C P2-5C 6.1 30.0 57.2 100 4.2 30.0 28.0 8.4 3.6 l/min 547 0.5 0 to 7/10C 2/5C 550 % >3bar P2-2C T4 T5 F1 P4 P2 T2 Loading press P3 line temp. Temp. Rate temp Saturated Actual Comp. Oil Diff. Saturated Liquid Inlet Exit Flow Inlet Exit temp. P5 Condensing liquid Water Evaporating EVAPORATOR

COMPRESSOR

Suction temperature

Recommended

Hours

Amps

value

Run

Saturated

P1

1 to 5

Date

Time

18.7.92

1400

2326

92.5

3.0

41

NB: Temperatures taken from pressure gauges (P) refer to saturated temperatures from dual scale gauges

interstage vessels on two stage systems. The normal refrigerant level, and the acceptable maximum and minimum levels should be marked oil the gauge.

5.1.5 HOUSEKEEPING WORKED EXAMPLES

Worked examples are used to illustrate potential energy and cost savings. The examples are considered typical of conditions found in refrigeration and heat pump systems.

5.1.3.1 PLANT MONITORING

The instrumentation fitted to a system enables onsite plant operators or off-site contractors to monitor performance and detect faults before they cause major decline in efficiency. Log Sheets Plant log sheets should be kept, containing information on normal operation as well as recording day to day operation. These logs allow performance to be assessed providing that: data is measured and recorded accurately information is correctly analysed problems found are followed by appropriate action arid recorded.

5.1.5.1 REDUCE CONDENSING TEMPERATURE

Over time the performance of a 175 kW refrigeration system, with an air-cooled, packaged condensing unit, deteriorated. Investigation revealed that the space where the condensing unit was located had been converted to a storage area with stacked materials. Air flow to the condenser was blocked, causing short circuiting of the cooling air stream. On a day when the ambient temperature was 35C, the air entering the condenser was 46.1C. The actual refrigerating load was 120 kW. Manufacturer's data for 120 kW cooling indicates that the compressor power is 42.3 kW at 35 C, and 49.76 kW at 46.1C. The system operates 2000 hours per year at the elevated temperature. Removal of the stored materials from the condenser vicinity would prevent short circuiting and lower the air temperature entering the condenser to the ambient temperature. Electricity cost is 0.10R/kWh Compressor energy required at 46.1C = 2000 x 49.76 = 99 520 kWh Compressor energy required at 35C = 2000 x 42.3 = 84 600 kWh

Table 4 shows an example log sheet for the plain shown in Figure 26. The data recorded on a log sheet for a specific plant will depend on the characteristics of that plant.

5.1.4 TROUBLE SHOOTING

From monitoring the refrigeration system, several irregularities can be linked directly to savings potential. Below table 5 gives a list of such potential symptoms.

42

Table 5: Common faults on refrigeration systems

Major symptom Low cooling duty compared with compressor curves Other symptoms Bubbles in liquid line and low or zero subcooling from condenser On HP float systems: Fault System undercharged LP float or TEV system Solution Add refrigerant to correct level Operational cost penalty Up to 25% or more reduction in duty and COP

HP float valve stuck open, bypassed, gas passing

Determine why bypass valve was opened initially. Correct fault and close bypass valve Repair valve and identify and rectify cause of blockage or obstruction Repair valve and identify and rectify cause of breakage or obstruction Clean evaporator and locate and cure source of fouling Clean suction strainer. Identify and rectify source of blockage Remove excess oil, install effective oil drain or rectification system Re-design suction side pipework Locate and clear obstruction. Identify cause and rectify

Up to 50% reduction in duty and COP

High actual compressor discharge temperature and low compressor absorbed power High actual compressor discharge temperature

Broken or obstructed reciprocating compressor suction valve Broken or obstructed reciprocating compressor discharge valve Fouling of air/water side of evaporator Blocked suction strainer

Loss of duty in proportion to cylinders affected

Loss of duty and COP in proportion to cylinders affected Up to 15% loss of COP, 25% loss of cooling duty Up to 30% reduction in COP

Poor evaporator effectiveness

Low evaporating pressure high water/air side pressure drop Low evaporating pressure high apparent superheat Loss of oil from compressor crankcase Loss of oil from compressor crankcase In all systems, possible subcooling, high high liquid line suction superheat

Oil accumulation in flooded evaporator Poor oil return from expansion valve system Obstruction in liquid line

Up to 25% reduction in COP

Up to 25% reduction in duty and COP Up to 15% loss in COP, 25% loss of cooling duty

Poor condenser effectiveness

High condensing temperature, high liquid subcooling High condensing, high liquid subcooling High water/air side pressure drop

Very high overcharge of LP float or TEV system Air or non-condensable gas in system Fouling of air-water side of condenser Incorrect or faulty expansi on device control

Remove excess charge

Up to 10% loss of duty, 15% reduction in COP Up to 10% loss in COP Up to 25% loss in COP, 10% loss in duty Up to 15% reduction in duty. Potential compressor failure due to liquid carry over

Purge non-condensable gas in system Clean condenser and locate and cure source of fouling Identify and rectify fault

Low suction superheat

LP float and TEV: possible low compressor discharge temperature

High suction superheat

HP float: low liquid level in evaporator

System undercharged

Add refrigerant to correct level

Up to 10% loss of duty. 7% reduction in COP

43

Energy Saved

= = = =

99 520 - 84 600 14 920 kWh 14920 kWh x R0.10/kwh R1492/yr

"Clean" refrigerant condensing temperature: 40.6C = 313.6 K "Dirty" COP = 0.25* x TL (TH - TL )

Rand savings

=0.25 x

274.7 = 1.55 319.1 - 274.7 TL (TH - TL ) 280.2 = 2.10 313.6 - 280.2

5.1.5.2 CLEAN EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

An 880 kW centrifugal chiller with a forced draft cooling tower is used to produce chilled water for air conditioning. On a walk-through audit it was noticed that algae was growing on the wetted surfaces of the cooling tower. Water blowdown to control mineral deposits and chemical feed was performed by leaving the blowdown valve open. Chemical testing and treatment was neglected. During a plant shutdown, the heat exchanger surfaces of the evaporator and condenser were examined and found to be fouled. A contractor was hired to clean the equipment at a cost of R1,700 for each heat exchanger and Rl,400 for the cooling tower, for a total of R4.800. Electricity cost is 0.10/kWh. Performance of the system was evaluated, before and after the cleaning, using manufacturer's data and estimated COP values. "Dirty" refrigerant suction temperature: 1.7C = 274.7 K "Dirty" refrigerant condensing temperature: 46.lC = 319.1 K "Clean" refrigerant suction temperature: 7.2C = 280.2 K

"Clean" COP = 0.25* x

= 0.25 x

*COP actual values estimated as .25 x COP (theoretical)

Change in COP =

(2.10 - 1.55) x 100 1.55

= 35% (improvement)

Power required for 880 kW cooling: "Dirty" 880 1.55 880 2.10 = 568 kW

"Clean"

419 kW

The system operates at full load for an estimated 900 hours per year. Savings because of cleaning are: Savings = = Simple payback = = (568 - 419) kW x 900 hr x R0. 10/kWh R13410/yr (Investment/Savings) 0.36 years (4 months)

44

5.2

LOW COST OPPORTUNITIES

Implemented low cost opportunities are Energy Management actions that are done once and for which the cost in not considered great. The following are typical Energy Management Opportunities in this category. Increase evaporator temperature to increase system COP. Reset the temperature of the chilled water, glycol solution or air as a function of the cooling required, to allow the evaporator temperature to rise at part loads. For example, the setting of the air temperature leaving the evaporator of an airconditioning system can be based on the latent load requirement. As the latent load falls, less dehumidification is required, and the controls adjust the evaporator temperature upwards. Relocate the outdoor coil of an air-to-air heat pump to a clean exhaust airstream. A building's ventilation exhaust is warmer than the outside ambient air during most of the heating season. Reduce condensing temperature to increase system COP Relocate air cooled condensers and heat pump outdoor coils to clean exhaust airstreams. Generally the building's ventilation exhaust is cooler than the outside ambient air when cooling is required. Reduce condenser water temperature by resetting cooling tower temperature controls. Detailed analysis is required to determine whether increased

performance of the refrigeration system will offset the increased power requirement of the cooling tower fan and make-up water costs. Provide an automatic water treatment system to add chemicals, and control blowdown, to match the water losses of cooling tower and evaporative condenser systems. Proper water treatment will maximize heat transfer effectiveness, and keep condensing temperatures low. Benefits include reduced quantities of make-up and blowdown water, and lower operating and maintenance costs. Reschedule production cycles to reduce peak electrical demand and make more efficient use of available cooling or heating energy. Rescheduling may permit shutdown of some compressors in multiunit systems while running others at optimum load and peak efficiency. Operation at higher efficiency may delay purchase of additional equipment when total load increases Upgrade automatic controls in refrigeration plants to provide accurate and flexible operation. Solid state digital control can optimize equipment and system operation to meet load requirements with minimum power consumption, and/or shed load to reduce short term electrical peaks. Replace high-maintenance, centrifugal compressors with compressors selected for high efficiency when operating at part load conditions. Upgrade insulation on primary and secondary refrigerant piping circuits. Provide multispeed fan motors on cooling towers, evaporative coolers and air cooled

45

condensers. Normally, equipment is selected to match the rarely attained peak design condition. Lower outdoor wet and dry bulb temperatures, and lower indoor loads, predominate. Reducing condenser air flow to match the capacity requirement reduces the fan power. Evaporative coolers and condensers operated in winter may provide adequate capacity when operated with dry coils. Maintenance, water and electrical costs can be reduced. Heat tracing and pan heaters can be turned off. The detrimental effect of icing on equipment and buildings is eliminated. Note that the reduced power requirements for fan and circulating pumps in cooling towers and evaporative coolers may be offset by a COP decrease caused by higher condenser temperatures. Detailed analysis is required. Consider a new heat pump system instead of a new air conditioning system, if winter heating is required. The higher equipment cost will be offset by reduced heating costs during the winter season. Provide lockable covers on automatic controls and thermostats, to prevent unauthorised tampering or adjustment. Use clean process cooling water that normally goes to drain for evaporative condenser or cooling tower make-up water. While not conserving energy, this will reduce operating costs. Re-evaluate the use of hot gas bypass when a refrigeration unit works at partload for any significant period. It may be possible to eliminate the bypass feature and cycle or turn off the refrigeration system.

5.2.1 LOW COST WORKED EXAMPLES

Worked examples are used to illustrate potential cost savings. The examples are considered typical of the conditions found in building refrigeration and heat pump systems

5.2.1.1 WATER TREATMENT FOR CONDENSER WATER

Maintain maximum heat transfer rates by minimizing fouling. Consider the condenser water system in Housekeeping Worked Example 2. Assume that half the change in performance was because of condenser cleaning. Reduced electrical costs = R 3 353 / 2 R 1 676 An automatic water treatment system was provided for the cooling tower, to optimize water make-up and blowdown, and automatically feed chemicals to control fouling. Capital cost was R3,000. Annual chemical costs are estimated at R800. Note that the system must be cleaned before automatic water treatment is initiated. Simple payback = R 3 000 /1 676 =1.8 yrs At the end of the first year, the cost of cleaning the exchangers, the cooling tower, and providing condenser water treatment is negligible. See Housekeeping Worked Example 2. Other costs are reduced. Annual cleaning of exchangers is eliminated and controlled blowdown reduces make-up water requirements.

46

5.2.1.2 HEAT PUMP VERSUS ELECTRIC HEAT

A small office addition is planned for an industrial facility in Cape Town. An economical means of heating and cooling the addition is desirable. The plant rejects waste heat in the form of warm water. Loads for the proposed building, including ventilation, are 35.17 kW cooling, and 29.31 kW heating. A rooftop packaged air conditioning system with electric heating is proposed. The estimated annual heating cost for the all-electric system is R2 45l. A water-to-air heat pump was considered as an alternative to the basic, air-conditioning with electric heat, rooftop package initially proposed. The heat pump was selected to meet the design heating and cooling loads, with electric duct heaters for 100 per cent backup. The COP for heating at the given water condition was 2.25 and similar to the air-conditioner performance in the summer. The source of warm water was available 85 per cent of the time during the heating season, and cooling water was available throughout the cooling season. Annual heat pump energy costs = (0.85xR2451)/2.25 +(0.15xR2451) = 1 294 Annual savings = = R2 451- R1 294 R1 157

5.2.1.3. HOT GAS BYPASS

A small manufacturing plant has a 90 kW capacity refrigeration plant operating at a COP of 3. The compressor has six cylinders and operates at fullload 24 hours per day, 5 days per week and 50 weeks per year. During weekends the refrigeration load is less than 10 per cent of full-load, and the unit uses hot gas bypass to avoid low suction pressures and evaporator frosting. It is proposed to eliminate hot gas bypass and cycle the unit on and off to meet the low loads. Controls will be modified to eliminate hot gas bypass and install anti-short cycle timers at a cost of R1400. The hot gas bypass imposes a cooling load of about 33 per cent on the unit at a cost of R1188 per year. In addition to the cost of providing the 9 kW cooling load, by eliminating hot gas bypass, this R1188 can be saved. Simple payback = = R1 400/R1 188 1.2 years

5.3

RETROFIT OPPORTUNITIES

The extra cost for a heat pump package over standard air conditioning with electric heat is estimated at R 3 000 Simple payback = = R3 000/R1 157 2.6 years

Implemented retrofit opportunities are defined as energy management actions that are done once, and for which the cost is significant. Many of the opportunities in this category will require detailed analysis by specialists and cannot be examined in detail in this guide. The following are typical Energy Management Opportunities in the Retrofit category. Absorption equipment can provide low cost cooling if dependable, high grade waste heat is available.

47

Use a heat pump to upgrade the low temperature waste heat to a temperature suitable for building heating. Provide a thermal storage system to reduce compressor cycling, and allow continuous operation at full-load and higher efficiency. Provide decentralized systems to match loads with specialized requirements. For example, if a large system operates at a low evaporator temperature when only a small portion of the load requires low tem per atu re, pro vid e a s mal l, l ow temperature system to serve the special area. Operate the large system at a higher evaporator temperature to improve COP. Co ns id er "p ig gy ba ck in g" th e lo w temperature system onto the higher temperature system to reduce temperature differences and increase COP. Reclaim rejected condenser heat for space hea tin g, pro ces s hea tin g or wat er preheating. In addition to reclaiming the otherwise wasted heat, the system COP may be increased when a lower temp erat ure cond ensi ng medi um is available. For example, preheating domestic water will reduce the energy required for water heating and reduce the con den sin g tem per atu re. The col d incoming water supply can often reduce the condensing water temperature by 5 to 10C, thereby increasing the system COP. Desuperheat the refrigerant vapour (hot gas) leaving the compressor. The superheat can be recovered for process or make-up water preheating. Because the temperature of the hot gas is higher than the condensing temperature, the

superheat can be used where lower temperature latent heat cannot. Care must be taken in the design of the refrigerant piping system to ensure proper return of liquid refrigerant and oil from the desuperheater. Use well, river or lake water as a lower temperature cooling medium to reduce condensing temperatures. If an air-cooled condenser requires major repair or replacement, consider using an evaporative condenser. Improved performance and reduced energy cost because of the higher COP may justify the added expenditure. Use mechanical refrigeration equipment in facilities, such as indoor swimming pools where high ventilation rates are required for humidity control. Winter heating costs for the ventilation air can be reduced by reducing the ventilation rate. The total heat of rejection can be used to preheat the ventilation supply air and preheat the make-up water for the pool. Energy savings result.

Calculations for 'retrofit' savings are site specific and in many cases involve detailed analysis. This booklet serves as a guide for the possible avenues to investigate and gives a feel for energy efficiency earning opportunities in refrigeration and cooling.

48

APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Glossary of terms used in commercial refrigeration (Words in italics are other terms explained within the glossary.) Air cooled condenser: Ambient temperature: A condenser cooled by natural or forced flow of air. The prevailing temperature of the atmosphere surrounding the component under consideration. The pressure exerted by the column of air in the atmosphere above the reference point. An expansion valve which gives good system stability despite widely varying operating conditions. The temperature at which evaporation of liquid takes place at a specific pressure. Variation in the quantity of refrigerant circulated in order to vary the refrigeration capacity. A refrigeration system composed of more than one circuit where the evaporation process of the higher temperature circuit cools the condenser of the lower temperature circuit. Chlorofluorocarbon a derivative of a hydrocarbon containing chlorine. When sufficient heat is added or removed, most substances undergo a change of state. The temperature remains constant until the change of state is complete. Change of state can be from solid to liquid, liquid to vapour or vice versa. Typical examples are ice melting and water boiling. The process of changing a vapour into a liquid by the extraction of heat.

Atmospheric pressure:

Balanced port valve:

Boiling point:

Capacity control:

Cascade system:

CFC: Changes of State:

Condense:

49

Condenser: Coefficient of performance:

A heat exchanger in which a vapour is liquefied by the removal of heat. (For a refrigerator:)The ratio of the refrigeration capacity to the power absorbed by the compressor.(For a heat pump:) The total heat delivered to the power absorbed by the compressor. The ration of the absolute pressures before and after compression. A machine for mechanically increasing the pressure of a gas. The pressure at which a vapour changes into a liquid at a specific temperature. The temperature of a fluid at which condensation occurs when at a known pressure. A collection of components usually consisting of a compressor, condenser and receiver assembled onto a common base frame. A cycle is a series of processes where the end point conditions or properties of the substance are identical to the initial conditions. In refrigeration, the processes required to produce a cooling effect are arranged to operate in a cyclic manner so that the refrigerant can be reused. An automatic defrost system which is initiated by an unacceptable build up of ice and terminated when the coil has cleared. Elimination of an ice deposit from the surface of an evaporator. The density of liquid at saturation temperature and pressure is expressed in kg/m3. The specific volume of the refrigerant liquid can be calculated by taking the inverse of the density. Specific Volume = 1 Density

Compression ratio: Compressor: Condensing pressure: Condensing temperature:

Condensing unit:

Cycle:

Defrost on demand:

Defrost: Density of Saturated Liquid:

Desuperheat: Discharge: Discharge temperature:

Removal of part or all of the superheat in a gas. The output side of the compressor. The temperature of the compressed fluid discharged from the compressor.

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Discharge pressure: Energy in Liquids and Vapours:

The pressure of the compressed fluid discharged from the compressor. When a liquid is heated, the temperature of the liquid rises to the boiling point. This is the highest temperature to which the liquid can rise at the measured pressure. The heat absorbed by the liquid in raising the temperature to the boiling point is called sensible heat. The heat required to convert the liquid to vapour at the same temperature and pressure is called latent heat. An electro-mechanical expansion valve controlled by a microprocessor which has sensors attached to the evaporator and adjacent pipe work. The total energy contained in a refrigerant is called the enthalpy. Most refrigerant tables assume, for convenience of calculations, that the saturated liquid at 40C has zero energy. Enthalpy of liquid (hf) is the amount of energy contained in one kilogram of the liquid at a particular temperature, and is expressed in kJ/kg. Enthalpy of vapour (hg) is the total energy contained in dry saturated vapour at a particular temperature and saturation pressure, and is expressed in kJ/kg. Latent heat of vaporization (hfg) is the amount of energy required to evaporate one kilogram of liquid at a given temperature and pressure and is the difference between the enthalpy of the liquid and the vapour. It is expressed in kJ/kg. The enthalpy equation is: hfg = hg - hf Enthalpy of a mixture is a value necessary in the calculation of most practical applications because a refrigerant usually contains a mixture of both vapour and liquid. If the quality of the vapour is "x" then: h = hf + x(hg - hf) Where, h hf hg x = = = = Enthalpy of "wet" vapour (kJ/kg) Enthalpy of the liquid (kJ/kg) Enthalpy of the vapour (kJ/kg) Quality of the vapour (decimal fraction)

Electronic expansion valve:

Enthalpy (h):

Entropy (s):

Entropy can be described as a measure of the molecular disorder of a substance, and is used to describe the refrigeration cycle. Entropy of saturated liquid (sf) at a given temperature and pressure condition is expressed in kJ/(kgK).

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Entropy of saturated vapour (sg) at a given temperature and pressure condition s expressed in kJ/(kgK). Entropy of vaporization (sfg), is the difference in entropy between the saturated liquid and the saturated vapour. Evaporation and Condensation: Unlike freezing and melting, evaporation and condensation can take place at almost any temperature and pressure combination. Evaporation is the gaseous escape of molecules from the surface of a liquid and is accomplished by the absorption of a considerable quantity of heat without any change in temperature. The vapour that leaves the surface of a boiling liquid is called saturated vapour. The quantity of heat required to make the change of state is called the latent heat of vaporization. Condensation occurs when the gaseous molecules return to the liquid state. Liquids including refrigerants, evaporate at all temperatures with increased rates of evaporation taking place at higher temperatures. The evaporated gases exert a pressure called the vapour pressure. As the temperature of the liquid rises, there is a greater loss of the liquid from the surface which increases the vapour pressure. Boiling occurs when the vapour pressure reaches the pressure of the surrounding space. During boiling, vapour is generated at a pressure equal to the gas pressure on the surface. If the pressure on the surface is increased, boiling takes place at a higher temperature and the boiling point is said to increase. Similarly, a reduction in the pressure will lower the boiling point. Evaporating temperature: The temperature at which a fluid vaporises within an evaporator at a specific pressure. The pressure at which a fluid vaporises within an evaporator at a specific temperature. A heat exchanger in which a liquid is vaporised to produce refrigeration. A compressor which is cooled by air or water passing over the outside of its housing. The quantity of heat which a refrigeration plant is capable of extracting under specified conditions of time and temperature. A group of tubes which have been expanded into fins to form a heat exchanger.

Evaporating pressure:

Evaporator: Externally cooled:

Extraction rate:

Fin block:

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HCFC: Heat exchanger: Heat recovery: Heat Transfer:

Hydrochlorofluorocarbon. A device designed to transfer heat between two physically separated fluids. The reclaim of heat from a refrigeration system for use in a heating process. Heat energy can flow only from a higher to a lower temperature level unless energy is added to reverse the process. Heat transfer will occur when a temperature difference exists within a medium or between different media. Higher heat transfer rates occur at higher temperature differences. A compressor directly coupled to an electric motor and contained within a gas-tight welded casing. A switch designed to stop the compressor motor should the discharge pressure reach a predetermined maximum valve. A system whereby some or all of the discharge refrigerant is passed directly back into the compressor suction. A condition where oil and refrigerant are incapable of being mixed. For most pure substances there is a specific melting/freezing temperature relatively independent of the pressure. For example, ice begins to melt at 0C. The amount of heat necessary to melt one kilogram of ice at 0C to one kilogram of water at 0C is called the latent heat of fusion of water and equals 334.92 kJ/kg. The removal of the same amount of heat from one kilogram of water at 0C will change it back to ice. Introduction of liquid refrigerant into high temperature refrigerant gas to cool it. International legislation to phase out production of CFCs and other substances suspected of depleting ozone. A device for separating oil from refrigerant vapour. A compressor driven by an external power unit, requiring a shaft seal. The conditionsunder which a refrigeration system works, including the evaporating pressure and condensing pressure. The potential of a substance to destroy stratospheric ozone.

Hermetic compressor:

High pressure switch:

Hot gas bypass:

Immiscible: Latent Heat of Fusion:

Liquid refrigerant injection: Montreal Protocol:

Oil separator: Open compressor: tOperating conditions:

Ozone depletion potential:

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Performance data: Plant room:

The extraction rate and power input of a refrigeration system. A secure room where most of the high pressure components of a refrigeration system are located along with the electrical panel. Pressure is the force exerted on a surface, per unit area, and is expressed in kilopascals (kPa), megapascals (MPa), bar and pounds per square inch (psig). A process is a physical or chemical change in the properties of matter, or the conversion of energy from one form to another. In refrigeration, a process is generally defined by the condition (or properties) of the refrigerant at the beginning and end of the process. Theoretically, when vapour leaves the surface of a liquid, it is pure and saturated at the particular temperature and pressure. In actual practice, tiny liquid droplets escape with the vapour. When a mixture of liquid and vapour exists, the ratio of the mass of the liquid to the total mass of the liquid and vapour mixture is called the 'quality' and is expressed as a percentage or decimal fraction. A vessel permanently installed in the refrigeration system between the condenser and the expansion valve to provide a reservoir of liquid refrigerant. A positive displacement compressor with piston(s) moving linearly and alternately in opposite directions in the cylinder(s). The working fluid in a refrigeration system, which absorbs heat at a low temperature (by evaporation) and rejects heat at a high temperature (by condensation). The quantity of heat which a refrigeration plant is capable of extracting under specified conditions of time and temperature. Common properties of refrigerants are tabulated for both liquid and vapour phases, and at different temperature pressure conditions. A compressor in which the rotation of the component varies the volume of the compression chamber. A condition at which liquid and vapour may exist when in contact with each

Pressure:

Process:

Quality ofVapour:

Receiver:

Reciprocating:

Refrigerant:

Refrigeration capacity:

Refrigerant Tables:

Rotary: Saturation:

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other. Saturation Pressure: Saturation pressure is normally the second column in a refrigerant table and is expressed as MPa (absolute). To obtain gauge pressure subtract 0.101325 MPa (101.325 kpa) from the absolute pressure.

Saturation Temperature: Saturation temperature, normally the first column in a refrigerant table, and given in K, is the temperature at which boiling will occur to produce vapour at the given saturation pressure. Semi-hermetic compressor: A compressor directly coupled to an electric motor and contained within a gas-tight bolted housing. A valve used to isolate particular items of equipment. A device which allows a visual inspection of a liquid within a pressurised container.

Shut-off valve: Sight glass:

Specific Volume of Saturated Vapour: The specific volume of saturated vapour is the volume occupied by one kilogram of dry saturated gas at the corresponding saturation temperature and pressure, and is expressed in m /kg. Density of the vapour can be calculated by taking the inverse of the specific volume. Density = Subcooled liquid: 1 Specific Volume
3

A liquid whose temperature is lower than the condensing temperature at its given pressure. The temperature at which refrigerant gas enters the compressor. A compressor in which the motor is cooled by refrigerant gas passing over the motor windings. The quantity of heat added to dry saturated vapour to raise it from it saturation temperature to a higher temperature. Temperature is an indication of the heat energy stored in a substance. If the temperature of a substance was decreased to 273C or 0 K (Kelvin), known as absolute zero, the substance contains no heat energy and all molecular movement stops. The difference in temperature between two substances, surfaces or

Suction (return) temperature: Suction cooled:

Superheat:

Temperature:

Temperature difference:

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environments involving transfer of heat. Thermostat: Thermostatic expansion valve: An automatic switch which is responsive to temperature. A valve which automatically regulates the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator to maintain within close limits the degree of superheat of the vapour leaving the evaporator. A condenser cooled by the circulation of water through it. Work is the energy which is transferred by a difference in pressure or force of any kind. Work is subdivided into shaft work and flow work. Shaft work is mechanical energy used to drive a mechanism such as a pump, condenser or turbine. Flow work is the energy transferred into a system by fluid flowing into, or out of, the system. Both forms of work are expressed in kilojoules, or on a mass basis, kJ/kg.

Water-cooled condenser: Work:

Since South Africa mainly uses metric units, these are the first choice in this guide. However, Imperial units are

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APPENDIX 2: ENERGY, VOLUME AND MASS CONVERSION FACTORS

often given as well. The units used are given in the table below:

Table A1: Unit Conversions

Metric Pressure absolute Pressure gauge Flow, volumetric Power Energy Specific energy bar barg l/sec kW kWh J/l

Imperial psi psig cfm hp Btu

Conversion 1 barg = 14.7 psig 1 bar = 14.7 psi 1 l/s = 2 cfm (approx) 1 kW = 1.34 hp 1 kWh = 3412.4 Btu

Abbreviations: psi: pounds per square inch psig: pounds per square inch gauge l/sec: litres per second cfm: cubic feet per minute J/l: Joules/litre kW: kilowatt hp: horsepower kWh: kilowatt-hour Btu: British thermal units

Pressure absolute = pressure gauge + 1 bar 1 bar = 100 kPa Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.013 bar

Example of measuring the COP of a refrigeration system directly:

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APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF MEASURING COP DIRECTLY.

COP is defined as the refrigeration affect (i.e. heat taken up in the evaporator) divided by the work (from the compressor) supplied to the system. Supposing we have an 880 kW centrifugal refrigeration system. The liquid refrigerant (134a see relevant Pressure-Enthalpy diagram) condenses at 1Mpa (P3 from section 5.1.2.1) this corresponds to just over 40C. The refrigerant is then expanded (at constant Enthalpy) to a pressure of 0.22 MPa (from the PE diagram this corresponds to 10C) and a vapour fraction of about 35%. The outlet temperature and pressure (T6 and P6) are measured as 0C and 0.2 MPa. The temperature of the brine being cooled is (T5 and T6) from 1 8'C at the inlet to 2C coming out. The flowrate of the brine is 0.0367 m3/s (Fl). Calculate the COP of the system and the flowrate of the refrigerant. Cooling effect: Water flow = 36.67 kg/s Temp change for water = 18C-2C = 16C Heat capacity (Cp) of water = 4.2 kJ/kg.C (Cp is the amount of heat (in joules) that is given up (when the substance is cooled) or taken up (when the substance is heated), for a change in temperature of a degree C or K.Cp is generally given - as above - per kilogram of substance.) Thus the cooling effect = 4.2 * 16 * 36.67 = 2464 kJ/s

COP
COP = cooling effect/ = compressor work 2462/880 = 2.8(note: kJ/s = kW)

Refrigerant flow: Refrigerant enthalpies After expansion valve = 188 kJ/kg (0.22 MPa & -10C) After the evaporator = 400 kJ/kg (0.2 MPa & 0C) Enthalpy difference = 400 - 188 = 212 kJ/kg Assuming heat losses between the expansion valve and suction side of the compressor are negligible, Refrigerant flow required 2464/212 = 11.6 kg/s Note: given the flow of refrigerant, the actual COP may be estimated directly from the refrigerant enthalpy change (from the P-E graphs) over the evaporator, and the power drawn from the compressor. SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

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SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

For the latest news in energy efficiency technology: Energy Management News is a free newsletter issued by the ERI, which contains information on the latest developments in energy efficiency in Southern Africa and details of forthcoming energy efficiency events. Copies can be obtained from: The Energy Research Institute Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Cape Town Private Bag Rondebosch 7701 Cape Town South Africa Tel No: +27 (0) 21 650 3892 Fax No: +27 (0) 21 686 4838 E-mail: eri@eng.uct.ac.za www.eri.uct.ac.za

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