A Project Report on

Domestic Refrigeration Unit

Submitted for partial fulfillment of award of

BACHLER OF TECHNOLOGY
Degree

In
Mechanical Engineering

By

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 ABSTRACT
       The object of the project is to design, fabricate and assemble an economically
priced '' domestic refrigeration unit'' having, aesthetic look efficient and small in size.

     This unit is unique in the sense that it body is in the form of a bucket which works
as an evaporator and easy in transport from one place to another place.

   This unit can be utilized in a heavy duty manufacturing shop consist 25 to 35

workers as a sources cold water and to store eatables things. The basic idea behind
refrigeration is to slow down  the activity of bacteria (which all food contains) so that 
it   takes longer for the bacteria to spoil the food.

There are five basic  parts of our refrigeration unit

 Compressor
 Heat- exchanging pipes-  serpentine or coiled set of pipes outside the unit.
 Expansion valve
 Heat- exchanging pipes- serpentine or coiled set of pipes inside the unit
 Refrigerant pipes-  liquid that evaporates inside  the refrigerator to create the
cold temperatures

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page No.

Abstract iii

Acknowledgement iv

Table of content v

List of Figures vii

1. Introduction to refrigeration unit 1-15

 Introduction 2

 Refrigeration cycle 4

 Pressure- enthalpy chart 8

2. Refrigeration history 9-14

3. Components of refrigeration unit 15-38

 Refrigerant 18

 Compressor 22

 Condenser 25
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  Evaporator 30

 Expansion devices 35

4. Specification & Tools required 39-41

5. Mathematical Analysis 42-47

 Outside geometry 43

 Cooling load estimation 43

 Mass of refrigerant for compressor 45

 Coefficient of performance 47

6. Fabrication of Refrigeration unit 48-56

7. Controls of Refrigeration Unit 57-59

 Starting relay 58

 Over load protector 58

 Thermostat 59

8. Future potential 60-66

9. Conclusion 67-68

10. Bibliography 69-70

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 LIST OF FIGURES

S. No. FIGURE NAME PAGE NO.

1. Refrigeration Cycle 4
2. Vapor Compression Cycle 6
3. P-h Diagram 8
4. Component of Refrigerator 17
5. Compressor 23
6. Condenser 25
7. P-h Diagram of simple 27
refrigeration system
8. Evaporator 31
9. Expansion Valve 36

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 Introduction to

Refrigeration Unit

INTRODUCTION

The health, welfare, comfort and productivity of nations are interwoven

with new development in both the refrigeration and air- conditioning fields.

Refrigeration is essential for the preservation of foods, the production and safe

storage of medicines and numerous other application. Through refrigeration, better

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controls of industrial processes are possible. Dimensional accuracy is improved,

new materials may be developed and processed and other production processes

may be increased.

Refrigeration is need to produce correct climatic conditions for domestic as

well as certain manufacturing processes. For example, cool cutting fluid helps in

machining operations by lowering the temperature of the work piece to prevent

overheating. Quenching baths for heat treating operations may be controlled

through refrigeration process.

In the pharmaceutical field, refrigerating units are used to store, process and

test many chemical and biological materials. Refrigeration as a quick cooling

process, speeds production, cuts moisture losses in foods and other engaged in the

preparation, marketing and purchasing of foods, all depend on refrigeration,

Important studies of exact nature of electron movement slow down to a point

where it may be deserved has also wide application in submarine ships, aircraft and

rockets. Component design is another important area. There is scope for improving

all aspects, including developing more efficient condensers and evaporators.

Expansion valves motor drives and fan controls.

Energy savings can also be achieved by improved management, e.g. related to:

 Control systems.

 Air purge cycles.

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  Defrost cycles.

 Maintenance.

Investment and management costs differ for the various options available.

Investing in improved design will lead to decreasing costs. The installation of

super heat pumps, however, may need large investment. In the general, the

investment costs for new refrigeration systems are considered to be comparable

with, or lower than, currently installed system, if system design analysis is applied.

Costs are estimated to be slightly lower than for conventional refrigeration

systems.

Units of Refrigeration

The practical unit of refrigeration's is expressed in terms of ' tone of refrigeration'

(briefly written as TR). A tone of refrigeration is defined as the amount of refrigeration

effect produced by the uniform melting of one tone (1000 kg) of ice from at 0o C in 24

hours.

Since the heat of ice is 335 kj/kg, therefore one tone of refrigeration,

ITR = 1000×335 kj in 24 hours

= 1000×335 = 232.6 kj/ min

24×60

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In actual practice, one tone of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to 210 kj/ min or

3.5kW(i.e.3.5. kj/s)

REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Fig. :- Refgeration Cycle

The term ' refrigeration' may be defined as the process of removing heat

from a substance under controlled conditions. It also include the process of

reducing and maintaining the temperature of a body below the general

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temperature of its surrounding. In other words, the refrigeration means a

continued extraction of heat from a body whose temperature is already below

the temperature of its surroundings.

Theoretically, a refrigerator is a reversed heat engine or a heat pump

which pumps heat from a cold body and delivers it to hot body. This substance ,

which works in heat pump to extract heat from a cold body and to deliver it to a

hot body, is, called a refrigerant.

As scientists, technicians and crafts person experiment at still lower

and temperatures, approximately (-273oC), the new science of cryogenics

(refrigerants) will reveal materials in a state that is a neither a solid, liquid nor a

gas.

System design can be improved by the use of new components, e.g. the

development of super heat pumps with high COPs of greater them seven. Another

major trend is the drive to reduce the amount of refrigerant used and to develop

new working fluids. Traditionally, the most common working fluids for

compression heat pumps have been ammonia and CFCs, but energy saving of 2-

20% have been reported when using alternative working fluids such as halogen

refrigerant mixtures , and natural refrigerants such as air and CO 2. Systems that use

compact and cost-effective components have reported 20% higher coefficient of

performance values than conventional CFC systems.

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 Absorption refrigeration offers considerable scope for energy saving when

driven by waste heat. When configured correctly in conjunction with CHP, it can

actually increase the viability ( and also viable size) of CHP plant, by providing a

productive use for the heat, especially during summer periods. Despite these

benefits, in practice only heating capacity is discussed in the relevant literature.

Fig. :- Vapour Compression Cycle

A cooper compression refrigeration system is an improved types of air

refrigeration system in which a suitable working substance , termed as termed as

refrigerant , is used. It condenser and evaporates at temperatur.es and pressure

close to the atmospheric conditions. The refrigerants usually used for this purpose

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are ammonia (NH3) carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). There

refrigerant used, doesn't leave the system, but is circulated throughout the system

alternately condensing and evaporating, the refrigerant absorbed its latent heat

from the brine (salt water) which is used for circulating it around the cold

chamber, While condensing, it gives out its latent heat to the circulating water of

the cooler.

Advantages and disadvantages of Vapour compression

Refrigeration System Over Air Refrigeration System

Advantages:

 It has smaller size for given capacity of refrigeration

 It has less running cost

 If can be employed over a large to temperatures.

 The coefficient of performance is quite high.

Disadvantages:

 The initial cost is high

 The prevention of leakage of the major problem in vapour compression

system.

 Mechanism of a simple vapor compression Refrigeration system

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Pressure—Enthalpy (p-h) Chart

The actual vapor compression cycle differ from the theoretical vapor

compression cycle in many ways, some of which are unavoidable and cause losses.

The main deviations between the theoretical cycle and actual cycle are as follows:

1. The vapour fefigerant leaving the evaporator is an superheated state.

2. The compression of refrigeration is neither isentropic nor polytropic.

3. The liquid refrigerant before entering the expansion valve is sub- cooled in

the condenser.The pressure drops in the evaporator and condenser.

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Fig. :- p-h diagram

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 Refrigeration

History

REFRIGERATION HISTORY

In prehistoric times, man found that his game would last during times when

food was not available if stored in the coolness of a cave or packed in now. In

China before the first millennium, ice was harvested and stored.

Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans placed large amounts of snow in to storage

pits dug in to the ground and insulated with wood and straw. The ancient Egyptians

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filled earthen jars with boiled water and put them on their roofs, thus exposing the

jarsm to night's cool air. In India , evaporative cooling was employed. When a

liquid vaporizes rapidly, It expands quickly. The rising molecules of vapor

abruptly increase their kinetic energy and this increase is drown from the

immediate surroundings of the vapor. These surroundings are therefore cooled.

The intermediate stage in the history of cooling foods was to add chemicals

like sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate to water causing the temperature to fall.

Cooling wine via this method was recorded in 1550, as were the words'' to

refrigerate"

The first known artificial refrigeration. Was demonstrated by William

Cullen at the University of Glasgow in 1748. Cullen let ethyl ether boil in to a

partial vacuum; he did not, however, use the result to any practical purpose.

Ice was first shipped commercially out of canal street in New York city to

Charleston, South Carolina in 1799. Unfortunately, there was not much ice left

when the shipment arrived.. New Englanders Frederick Tudor and Natthaniel

Wyeth saw the potential for the ice business and revolutionized the industry

through their efforts in the first half of the 1800s. Tudor who became known as the

"Ice King", focused on shipping ice to tropical climates. He experimented with

insulating materials and built icehouses that decreased melting losses from 66

percent to less than 8 percent. With devised a method of quickly and cheaply

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cutting uniform blocks of ice that transformed the ice industry, making it possible

to speed handling techniques in storage, transportation and distribution with less

waste.

In 1805, an American inventor, Oliver Evans, designed the first refrigeration

machine that used vapour instead of liquid. Evans never constructed his machine,

but one similar to it was built by an American physician, John Gorrie.

In 1842, the American physician John Gorrie, to cool sickrooms in a

Florida hospital, designed and built an air- cooling apparatus for treating yellow-

fever patients. His basic principle- that of compressing a gas, cooling it by sending

it through radiating coils, and then expanding it to lower the temperature further—

is the one most often used in refrigerators today. Giving up his medical practice to

engage in time- consuming experimentation with ice making, he was granted the

first U.S. patent for mechanical refrigeration in 1851.

Commercial refrigeration is believed to have been initiated by an American

businessperson, Alexander C. Twinning, in 1856. Shortly afterward an Australian

James Harrison, examined the refrigerators used by Gorrie and twinning and

introduced vapor- compression refrigeration to the brewing and meatpacking

industries.

Ferdinand carre of Frane developed a somewhat more complex system in

1859. Unlike eatlier compression- compression machine, which used air as a

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coolan, carre's equipment contained rapidly expanding ammonia. Ammonia

liquefies at a much lower temperature than water and is thus able to absorb more

heat.) Carr;s refrigerators were widely used, and vapor compression refrigeration

became, and still is, the most widely used method of cooling. However, the cost,

size and complexity of refrigeration systems of the time, coupled with the toxicity

of their ammonia coolants, prevented the general use of mechanical refrigerators in

the home.

The refrigerated railroad car was patented by K.B. Sutherland of Detorit,

Michigan in 1867. He designed an insulated car with ice bunkers in each end. Air

came in on the top, passed through the bunkers, and circulated through the car by

gravity, controlled by the use of hanging flaps that created differences in air

temperature. The first refrigerated car to carry fresh fruit was built in 1867 by

parker Earle of Illinois, who shipped strawberries on the Illinois Central Railboard.

Each chest contained 100 pounds of ice and 200 quarts of strawnerries. It was not

until 1949 that a refrigeration system made its way in to the trucking industry by

way of a roof- mounted cooling device, patented by Fred Jones.

Natural ice supply became an industry unto itself. More companies

entered the business, prices decreased, and refrigeration using ice became more

accessible. By 1879, there were 35 commercial ice plants in America, more than

200 a decade later and 2,000 by 1909. No pond was safe from scraping for ice

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production, not even Thoreau's Walden pond, where 1,000 tons of ice was

extracted each day in 1847.

Car ( Paul Gottfried) von linde in 1895 set up a large- scale plant for the

production of liquid air, six years later he developed a method for scaparating pure

liquid oxygen from liquid air. that resulted in widespread industrial conversion to

processes utilizing oxygen (e.g., in steel manufacture).

Though meat- packers were slower to adopt refrigeration than the breweries,

they ultimately used refrigeration pervasively. By 1914, the machinery installed in

almost All- American packing plants was the ammonia compression system, which

had a refrigeration capacity of well over 90,000 tons/ day.

In 1973, Prof. James Love lock reported finding trace amounts of refrigerant

gases in the atmosphere. In 1974, sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina predicted

that chlorofluorocarbon refrigerant gases would reach the high stratosphere and

there damage the protective mantle of the oxygen allotrope, ozone. In 1985 the '

ozone hole' over the Antractic had been discovered and by 1990 Rowland and

Molina's prediction was proved correct.

The basic components of today's modern vaor- compression refrigeration

system are a compressor; a condenser; an expansion device, which can be a valve,

a capillary tube an engine, or a turbine; and an evaporator. The gas coolantis first

compressed, usually by a piston, and then pushed through a tube in to the

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condenser. In the condenser, the winding tube conttaining the vapor is passed

through either circcculating air or a bath bath of water , which removes some of

them heat energy of the compressed gas. The cooled vapor is passed through an

expansion device to an area of much lower pressure; as the vapor expands, it

draws the energy f its expansion from its surroundings or the medium in contact

with it.

Evaporators may directly cool a space by letting the vapor come in to

contact with the area to be chilled, or they may act indirectly—i.e. by cooling a

secondary medium such as water. In most domestic refrigerators,, the coil

containing the evaporator directly contacts the air in the compartment. At the end

of the end of the process, the warmed gas is drqwn toward the compressor.

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 Components

of

Refrigeration Unit

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COMPONENTS OF A REFGREGERATION UNIT

The basic idea behind a refrigerator is very simple : It uses the evaporation

of a liquid to absorb heat. You probably know that when you put water on your

skin it makes you feel cool. As the water evaporates, it absorbs heat, creating that

cool feeling. Rubbing alcohol feels even cooler because it evaporates at a lower

temperature. The liquid, or refrigerant, used in a refrigerator evaporates at an

extremely low temperature, so it can create freezing temperatures inside the

refrigerator. If you place your refrigerator refrigerant on your skin (not a good

idea), it will freeze your skin as it evaporates. There are five basic parts of any

refrigerator (or air-conditioning system) :

 Compressor

 Heat-Exchange Pipes – Serpentine or coiled set of pipes outside the unit.

 Expansion Valve

 Heat-exchange pipes- Serpentine or coiled set of pipes inside the unit

 Refrigerant - Liquid that evaporates inside the refrigerator to create the cold

temperatures.

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 Fig. : Components of Refrigerator

Many industrial installations use pure ammonia as the refrigerant. Pure

ammonia evaporates at 27 degrees Fahrenheit (-32 degree Celsius).

The basic mechanism of a refrigerator works like this :

1. The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas. This raises the refrigerant's

pressure and temperature (orange), so the heat-exchanging coils outside the

refrigerator allow that refrigerant to dissipate the heat of pressurization.

2. As it cools, the refrigerant condenses into liquid form (purple) and flows

through the expansion valve.

3. When it flows through expansion valve, the liquid refrigerant is allowed to

move from a high-pressure zone to a low-pressure zone, so it expands and

evaporates (light blue). In evaporating, it absorbs heat, making it cold.

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 4. The coils inside the refrigerator allow that refrigerant to absorb heat, making

the inside of the refrigerator cold. The cycle then repeats.

This is a fairly standard-and somewhat unsatisfying- explanation of how a

refrigerator works. So let's look at refrigeration using several real-world examples

to understand what is truly happening.

REFRIGERANT

The refrigerant is a heat carrying medium which during their cycle in the

refrigerant system absorb heat from a low temperature system and discard the heat

so absorbed to a higher temperature system.

The natural ice and a mixture of ice and salt were the first refrigerants. In

1834, either, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, methyl chloride and carbon dioxide came

into use as refrigerant in compression cycle refrigerant machines. Most of the early

refrigerant materials have been discarded for safety reasons or for lack of

chemicals or thermal stability. In the present days, many new refrigerant including

halo-carbon compounds are used for air conditioning and refrigeration

applications.

The suitability of a refrigerant for a certain application is determined by its

physical, thermodynamic, chemical properties and by various practical factors.

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There is no one refrigerant which can be used for all types of applications. If one

refrigerant has certain good advantages, it will have some disadvantages also,

Hence, a refrigerant is chosen which has greater advantages and less

disadvantages.

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL REFRIGERANT

We have discussed above that there is on ideal refrigerant. A refrigerant is

said to be ideal if it has all of the followings properties :

1. Low boiling point.

2. High critical temperature.

3. High latent heat of vaporization.

4. Low specific volume of vapour.

5. Low specific volume of vapour.

6. Non-corrosive to metal.

7. Non-flammable and non-explosive

8. Non-toxic.

9. Low cost.

10.Easy to liquefy at moderate at pressure and temperature.

11.Easy of locating leaks by odder or suitable indicator.

12.Mixes well with oil.

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 The standard comparison of refrigerant, as used in the refrigeration industry,

is based on an evaporating temperature of 150C and a condensing temperature of

+300C.

CLASSIFICATION OF REFRIGERANTS

The refrigerant may, broadly, be classified into the following two groups:

1. Primary refrigerants and

2. Secondary refrigerants.

The refrigerant which directly take part in the refrigerant system are called

primary refrigerants whereas the refrigerants which are first cooled by

primary refrigerants and then used for cooling purpose, are known as

secondary refrigerants.

The primary refrigerant are further classified into the following four groups :

1. Halo-carbon refrigerant.

2. Azeotrope refrigerants.

3. Inorganic refrigerants.

4. Hydro-carbon refrigerants.

R-12, DICHLORODIFLOUROMETHANE (CCL2F2)

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 The R-12 is a very popular refrigerant. It is colorless, almost odorless liquid

with boiling point of 290C at atmospheric pressure. It is non-toxic, non-corrosive,

non-irritating and non-flammable. It has a relatively low latent value which is an

advantage in small refrigerating machines. The large amount of refrigerant

circulated will permit the use of less sensitive and more positive operating and

regulating mechanisms. It operates at a low but positive head and back pressure

and with a good volumetric efficiency. This refrigerant is used in many different

types of indu trial and commercial applications such as refrigerators, freezers,

water coolers, room and window air conditioning units etc. Its principal use is

found in reciprocating and rotary compressors, but it use in centrifugal

compressors for large commercial air conditioning is increasing.

R-12 has a pressure of 0.82 bar at-150C and a pressure of 6.4 bar at 300C.

The latent heat of R-12 at 150C is Kj/Kg. The leak may be detected by soap

solution, halide torch or an electronic leak detector. Water is only slightly soluble

in R-12. At-180C, it will hold six parts per million by mass. The solution formed is

very slightly corrosive to any of the common metals used in refrigerator

construction. The addition of mineral oil to the refrigerant has no effect has no

effect upon the corrosive action.

R-12 is more critical as to its moisture content when compared to R-22 and

R-502. It is soluble in oil down to-60 0C. The oil will begin to separate at this

xxvii
temperature and due to its lightness than the refrigerant, it will collect on the

surface of the liquid refrigerant. The refrigerant is available in a variety of cylinder

sizes and the cylinder colour code is white.

COMPRESSORS

As any experienced cruiser knows, many refrigeration systems seem to

spend more time being repaired than they do cooling the bear. While there can be

many causes for a system to break down, one of the most common is compressor

failure. In fact, it is not uncommon for some full-time live aboard vessels to need

annual, or even bi annual compressor replacements. Interestingly enough, the

frustrated owners of these boats rarely realize than the source of their problem

likely stems from the type of compressor they are using.

A holding plate type refrigeration/freezer system is quite hard on it's

compressor. Unlike a constant "evaporator temperature", the evaporator coil

temperature inside a holding plate varies considerably during each "freeze-down"

cycle. To achieve the lowest temperatures (at the end of each cycle) the low

xxviii
pressure side of the compressor frequently pulls down to only slight positive

pressure and in some systems even a vacuum. Aside from a few industrial cooling

systems, marine holding plate applications are about the only time this occurs. That

fact that this unique conditions exists only in marine refrigeration system is

signification since all marine refrigeration manufacturers use compressors which

were designed for more traditional uses. Since it is impractical for any marine

manufacturer to design and build their own compressors due to the relatively small

market, the question is which existing type is best suited for this application.

Fig. : Compressor

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 There are currently three types of compressors which are used in

refrigeration. These are :

REFRIGERATION COMPRESSOR TYPES

 Must be able to describe the function and types of compressors in

refrigeration systems.

 Compression Ratio

 Heat of compression.

 Capacity controls on compressors.

 Understand the difference in booster compressor and high stage.

 Know the various operating limits of different compressors.

 Dynamic displacement compressor.

 Positive displacement compressor.

 Hermetically sealed compressor.

 Semi-hermetic compressor.

 Swash Plate.

While all of these compressors offer excellent performance when used in the

cooling environments for which they were designed, some are not equally suited

for reliable application in a marine holding plate system.

SWASH PLATE

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 The swash plate compressor has several points to recommend it. Because it

is so widely used in cars it is relatively inexpensive and readily available. It is also

compact and operates safely over a wide R.P.M. range. However, it is also at the

top of the "No-no list" for marine holding plate use. These units are designed for

automotive air conditioning systems and are primarily seen in engine-driven

marine applications. The manufacturers of these compressors are Sanden (i.e.

Sankyo/Sanden) and Diesel Kiki. They may have anywhere from three to seven

pistons and cylinders arranged in a circle. The pistons are connected to a "swash

plate" which wobbles when the compressor shaft is rotated. This "wobble" action

in turn moves the pistons up and down in sequence. Many "home built"

refrigeration systems use swash plate compressors as well as number of well-

known manufactures including Sea Frost (C.F. Horton Co.), Grunert and

Terchnautics.

Condenser

The condenser is an important device used in the high-pressure side of a

refrigeration system. Its function is to remove heat of the hot vapour refrigerant

discharged from the compressor. The hot vapour refrigerant consists of the heat

absorbed by the evaporator and the heat of compression added by the mechanical

energy of the compressor motor. The heat from the hot vapour refirgerant in a

xxxi
tubes to the condensing or cooling medium. The cooling medium may be air or

water or a combination of the two.

The selection of condenser depends upon the capacity of the refrigerating

system, the type of refrigerant used and the type of cooling medium available.

Fig. : Condenser

Working of A Condenser

The working of a condenser may be understood by considering a simple

refrigerating system as shown in fig. 10.1

(a) The corresponding p-h diagram showing three stages of a refrigerant cooling

is shown in fig.

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(b) The compressor draws in the suppurated vapour refrigerant that contains the

heat it absorbed in the evaporator. The compressor adds more heat i.e. the

heat of compression to the superheated vapour. This highly superheated

vapour from the compressor is pumped to the condenser through the

discharge line. The condenser cools that refrigerant in the following three

stages :-

1. First of all, the superheated vapour is cooled to saturation temperature

(called desuperheating) corresponding to the pressure of the refrigerant.

This is shown by the line 2-3 in fig. 10.1 (b). The desuperheating occurs

in the discharge line and in the firs few coils of the condenser.

2. Now the saturated vapour refrigerant gives up its latent heat and is

condensed to a saturated liquid refrigerant., This process, called

condensation, is shown by the line 3-4.

3. The temperature of the liquid refrigerant is reduced below its saturation

temperature (i.e. sub-cooled) in order to increase the refrigeration effect.

This process is shown by the line 4-5.

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 Fig. : p-h Diagram of simple refrigeration system

Factors Affecting the Condenser Capacity

The condenser capacity is the ability of the condenser to transfer heat from

the hot vapour refrigerant to the condensing medium. The heat transfer capacity of

a condenser depends upon the following factors :

1. Material since the different materials have different abilities of heat transfer,

therefore the size of a condenser of a given capacity can be varied by

selecting the right material. It may be noted that higher the ability of a

material to transfer heat, the smaller will be the size of condenser.

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 2. Amount of contact the condenser capacity may be varied by controlling the

amount of contact between the condenser surface and the condensing

medium. This can be done by varying the surface area of the condenser and

the rate of flow of the condensing medium over the condenser surface. The

amount of liquid refrigerant level in the condenser also affects the amount of

contact between the vapour refrigerant and the condensing medium. The

portion if the condenser used for liquid sub-cooling can not condense any

vapour refrigerant.

3. Temperature difference the heat transfer capacity of a condenser greatly

depends upon the temperature difference between the condensing medium

and the vapour refrigerant. As the temperature difference increase, the heat

transfer rate increases and therefore the condenser capacity increases.

Generally, this temperature difference becomes so great that it becomes a

problem, devices are available that will change the amount of condensing

surface and the air flow rate to control condenser capacity.

Classification of Condensers

According to the condensing medium used, the condensers are classified into

the following three group :

1. Air cooled condensers,

2. Water cooled condensers, and

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 3. Evaporative condensers.

These condensers are discussed, in detail, in the following pages.

Air Cooled Condensers

An air-cooled condenser is one, which the removal of heat is done by air. If

consists of steel of copper tubing through which the refrigerant flows. The size of

tube usually ranges from 6mm to 18mm out side diameter, depending upon the size

of condenser. Generally copper tubes are used because of its excellent heat transfer

ability. The condensers with steel tubes are used in ammonia refrigerating systems.

The tubes are usually provided with plate type fins to increase the surface area for

heat transfer, as shown in fig. The fins are usually made from aluminum because of

its lightweight. The fin spacing is quite wide to reduce dust clogging.

The condenser with single row of tubing provides the most efficient heat

transfer. This is because the air temperature rises at it passes through each row of

tube. The temperature difference between the air and the vapour refrigerant

devereases in each row of tube and therefore each row becomes less effective.

However, single row condensers require space more than multi condensers. The

single row condensers are usually used in small capacity refrigeration system such

as demestic refrigerators, freezers, water cooler and room air conditioners.

The air cooled condensers may have two or more rows of tubing, but the

condensers with upto six rows common. Some condensers have seven or eight

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rows. However more than eight rows of tubing are usually not efficient. This is

because the air temperature will be too closed to the condenser temperature to

absorb any more heat after passing through eight rows of tubing.

EVAPORATORS

The evaporator is an important device used in the low- pressure side of a

refrigeration system. The liquid refrigerant from the expansion value enters in to

evaporator where it boils and change in to vapour. The function of an evaporator is

to absorb heeat from the sirrounding location or medium, which is to be cooled ,

by means of a refrigerant. The temperature of the boiling refrigerant in the

evaporaator must always be less than of the surrounding medium so that the heat

flows to the refrigerant. The evaporator becomes cold remains cold due to the

following two reasons;

The temperature of the evaporator coil is low due to the temperature of the

refrigerant inside the coil.

The low temperature of the refrigerant remains unchanged because any heat

it absorbs is converted to latent heat as proceeds.

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 Fig. : Evaporator

Working of an evaporator

The working of an evaporator may be best understood by considering the

simple refrigerating system as shown in fig (a) the corresponding p-h diagram is

shown in fig (b). The point 5 in the figure represents the entry of liquid refrigerant

in to the expansion valve. Under proper operating condition, the liquid refrigerant

is sub- cooled (i, e cooled below its satruration temperature). The sub- cooling

ensures that the expansion valve receives pure liquid refrigerant with no vapour to

restrict the flow of refrigerant through the expansion vale.

The liquid refrigerant at low pressure enters the evaporator at point 6, as

shown in fig.

xxxviii
 As the liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coil, it continually

absorbs heat through the coil walls from the medium being cooled, During this, the

Refrigerant continues to boil and evaporate. Finally at point 1; all the liquid

refrigerant has evaporated and only vapour refrigerant remains in the evaporate

coil. The liquid refrigerant's ability to convert absorbed heat to latent heat is now

used up.

Since the vapour refrigerant at pint 1' is still colder than the medium being

cooled, therefore the vapour refrigerant continuesn to absorb heat (or temperature)

of the vapourn refrigerant. The vapour temperature continues to rise until the

vapour leaves the evaporator to the suction line at point 1. At this point , the

temperature of the vapour of the vapour is above the saturation temperature and

the vapour refrigerant is superheated.

The variation of refrigerant temperature ( or sensible heat ) and the

refrigerant heat content (or enthalpy) within the evaporator. We see that the

temperature of the refrigerant is constent during evaporation of the liquid

refrigerant from point 6 to 1 and the enthalpy increases steadily. It shown that the

latent heat is absorbed by the evaporating liquid with no change in temperature,.

Both the temperature and enthapy of the refrigerant increases from 1' to 1. At point

1, all the liquid refrigerant has evaporated. The line 1'- 1 shows the increase in

sensible heat of the vapour refrigerant

xxxix
Factors affecting the heat transfer capacity of an Evaporator

1. Material.

In order to have rapid heat rapid transfer in an evaporator, the material used

for the construction of an evaorator coil should be a good conductor of heat . The

material, which is not affected by the refrigerant , must also be selected. Since

metal are best conductors of heat, Therefore they are always used for evaporators.

Iron and steel can be used with all common refrigerants. Brass and copper are

used with all refrigerants except ammonia, Aluminum should not be used with

Ferro 12.

Temperature Difference

The temperature difference between the refrigerant with the evaporator and

the product to be plays an important role in the transfer capacity of an evaporator,

The following tables show the suggested temperature difference for some of the

products and be cooled.

Types of evaporators

Though there are many are types of evaporators, yet the following are

important from the subject point of view:

xl
 a. Bare tube coil evaporator,

b. Finned tube evaporator,

c. Plate evaporator,

d. Shall and tube evaporator,

e. Shall and coil evaporator, and

f. Tube- in – tube evaporator,

Bare tube coil evaporators

The bear tube coil evaporator is also k now as prime- surface evaporators.

Because of its simple construction, the bore tube coil is easy to clean and defrost.

A little consideration will show that this type of evaporator offers relatively little

surface contact area as will show that this type of evaporator offers relatively little

surface contact area as compared to other types of coils. The amount of surface

area may be increased by simply extending the length of the tube , but there are

disadvantages of excessive tube length. The effective length of the tube is limited

by the capacity of expansion valve. If the tube is too long for the valve's capacity,

the liquid refrigerant will tend to completely vaporize early in its progress through

the tube, thus leading to excessive superheating at the outlet.The long tubes will

also cause considerably greater pressure drop between the inlet and outlet of the

evaporator. This result the inlet suction line pressure.

xli
 The diameter of the tube in relation to tube length may also be critical. If the

tube diameter is too large the refrigerant velocity will be too low and the volume

of refrigerant will be too great in relation to the surface area of the tube to allow

complete vaporisation. This in turn may allow liquid refrigerant to enter the suction

line with possible damage to the compressor. On the other hand, if the diameter is

too small, the pressure drop due to friction may be high and will reduce the system

efficiency.

The bare tube coil evaporators may be used for any type of refrigeration

requirement. Its use is however, limited to applications where the box temperatures

are under 00C and in liquid cooling, because the accumulation of ice or frost on

these evaporators has less effect on the heat transfer than on those equipped with

fins. The bare tube coil evaporators are also extensively used in house hold

refrigerators because they are easier to keep clean.

Expansion Devices

The expansion device (also know as metering device or throttling device) is

an important device that divides the high-pressure side the low-pressure side of

refrigerating system. It is connected between the receiver (containing liquid

xlii
refrigerant at high pressure). The expansion device performs the following function

It reduces the high-pressure liquid refrigerant to low pressure liquid

refrigerant before being fed to the evaporator.

It maintains the desired pressure difference between the high and low-

pressure sides of the system, so that liquid refrigerant vaporises at the designed

pressure in the evaporator. It controls the flow of refrigerant according to the load

on the evaporator.

Fig. : Expension Valve

xliii
Types of Expansion Devices

Following are the main types of expansion devices used in industrial

commercial refrigeration and air conditioning system.

1. Capillary Tube

2. Hand-operated expansion valve,

3. Automatic or constant pressure expansion valve,

4. Thermostatic expansion valve,

5. Low side float valve and

6. High Side float valve.

Capillary Tube

The capillary tube, as shown in fig is used as an expansion device in small

capacity hermetic sealed refrigeration units such as in domestic refrigerators, water

coolers, room air conditioners and freezers. It is a copper tube of small internal

diameter and of varying length depending upon the application. The inside

diameter of the tube used in refrigeration work is generally about .05mm to

2.25mm and the length varies from .5mm to 5m. It is installed in the liquid line

between the condenser and the evaporator as shown in fig. A fine mesh screen is

provided at the inlet of the tube in order to protect in from contaminants.

xliv
 In its operation, the liquid refrigerant from the condenser enters the capillary

tube. Due to the functional resistance offered by a small diameter tube, the pressure

drops. Since drop the frictional resistance is directly proportional to the length and

inversely to the diameter, therefore longer the capillary tube and smaller is inside

diameter, greater pressure difference between the condenser and evaporator is

needed for a given flow rate of the refrigerant. The diameter efficiently at other

conditions.

The refrigeration system using capillary tube have the following advantages.

The cost of capillary tube is less than all other forms of expansion devices.

When the compressor stops, the refrigerant continues to flow into the

evaporator and equalises the pressure the high side and low side of the system.

This considerably decreases the starting load on the compressor. Thus a low

starting torque motor can be used to drive the compressor, which is a great

advantage.

xlv
Specification

xlvi
 &

Tools Required

xlvii
 SPECIFICATIONS

Materials Application

Compressor 1/6 HP

Relay for electrical connections

5/6' copper tube for evaporator (22 feet)

Capillary tube for expansion (12 feet)

Condenser Air-cooled; for condensing the liquid

Filter drier Dehydrator

Thermostat Automatic defrost control

Indicator lamps Red-for main supply

Green- for automatic defrost

Glass wool Insulator

Pitch Black surface, leak proof and rigidiy (2 Kg)

¼ tubes Joining the tubings (4 feet)

Gas (Freon 12) Refrigerant

Oil for lubrication

Brazing rod for brazing the tubings

Lead For soldering

xlviii
Wooden planks For making the outer cabinet

Wheels For transport

Wires For electrical connections insulating the wires

Tin sheets To cover the sides of the table

TOOLS REQUIRED

 Soldering Iron

 Lead Solder

 Blow Lamp

 Brazing Rod

 Tube Cutter

 Hammer

 Carpentry Tools

 Charging Line Gauge

 Hand Shut-off Valve

 Vacuum Pump

 Cutting Flair

xlix
Mathematical

Analysis

l
 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

Outside dimension of unit- 77×47×60 cm3

Dimension of cylinderical evaporator- diameter- 22 cm.

Depth- 54 cm.

Capacity of evaporator = π×r2×h

=π×11×11×54

=20.535 L

temperature ( amient)= 43oc

(inside the cylindrical evaporator) =5oc

refrigerent used (r-12) = dichlorodifloromethane (CC1212)

freezing point = 157.780c

boiling point = - 29.780C

 COOLING LOAD CALCULATION

For Water Cooler.

For heavy duty manufacturing shop

LOAD REQIRED,

Q = 1.1× NO. OF OCCUPANTES

= 1.1×30 L/h ×Spec. heat × temp diff.

= 33 L/h ×4.18×(30-6)

=3 310 . 56Kj/h

li
lii
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH INSULATION

Thermal conductivity of,

Aluminium, ka1=225W/m.k

Plastic kp=0.15W/mk

Copper kcu = 385W/mk

Glass Wool kg= 0.038W/ mk

Convective heat transfer cofficient,

Inside film hi = 15 W/m2k

Outside Film ho= 15W/m2k

Thus,

Heat conducted inside the evaporator due to infiltration

Q= (T1- To) 2π rh

1/h1×r1+1/k1×In(r2/r1)+1/k2 In r (rx1/r2) +1/k3 In (rx2/ rx1)+1/ (rx2×ho)

rx 1 =4/54××+15.5

liii
 = 0.074×+15.5

=rx2= 4/54××+16

=0.074×+16

Approximately

Q = 2/3 Qmax.

Q =2/3(-7-43)2π54×10-2

{1/15×10 +1/225 In (10.2/10)+ 1/.038 In (19.5/11)+1/385 In (11/10.2)+1/0.15 In

(20/19.5+1/15×10-2×20}

=2.2174Watt

=2.2174j/s

=8kj/hr

Total cooling load on the unit,

Q total =2(Q infiltare+ Q actual)

=2(8+3310.6)

=2(3318.6) kj per hour

=6637.2Kj/h

=1.844 Kwatt

= 0.512 TR

=0.5 TR

Mass of refrigerant required

liv
From p-h chart at 6oC,

h8 = 183 KJ/Kg

h5 =189Kj/Kg

40oC, h2 =205kj/kg

hf3=76 kj/kg

For cylindrical evaporater,

m1= 210Q /(183- 76)= 0.588 kg/ min.

For rectangular evaporater

m2= 210Q/(189- 76)= .0377 KG/ MIN.

Power required for compressor

Work done by compressor per kg of refrigerant,

h1 = m1 h8 +m2 h5

(m1+m1)

=0.589×183+0.377×189

0.589+0.377

=185.34kj/kg

W=(0.589+0.377) (h2-h1)

lv
 =(0.589+0.377) (205-185.36)

=18.49kj/min

=0.3165kw

=0.422hp

=1/2h

Coefficient of performance of refrigeration unit

Cop = RE/w

= 85/18.49

= 4.648

lvi
Fabrication

lvii
 of

Refrigeration Unit

lviii
 Fabrication of Refrigeration Unit

Domestic refrigeration is rather limited in scope, being concerned primarily

with household refrigerators and home freezers. However, because the number of

units in services is quite large, domestic refrigeration represents a signification

portion of the refrigeration industry.

Domestic units are usually small in size, having horse power ratings of

between 1/20 and ½ hp, and of the hermetically sealed type.

The domestic refrigerator, in our case, is a small, compact unit, which works

on the principle of vapour compression system. It has been designed as per

economical considerations for a middle-class family. This unit is unique in the

sense that its body is in the form of a bucket (plastic) which works as an

evaporator.

For fabricating the unit, initially a plastic bucket of conical cross-section

with 90 liters capacity was purchased. The diameter of the upper portion of bucket

is 45 cm while that of lower surface is 37 cm since the material of the bucket,

therefore certain material was necessary to conduct heat for cooling purpose inside

the bucket. Therefore, a sheet-metal internal container (evaporator) of conical

cross-section was designed.

lix
Designing of Internal Container

Because the bucket is in conical cross-section, therefore the internal

container was also made in the same shape. For this purpose, the development of

the cone was considered. The sheet metal of 30mm gauge was used to serve the

purpose.

The sheet of 6 feet ×3 feet was made use of and the development

calculations are evolved. Now as the sheet is not big enough to take the center of

264 cm, hence the point was taken outside the sheet. The point was marketed

making use of a string and marker pin. The angle was 26 0 after wards the height of

54.5 cm was marked and the undesired portion of the sheet is cut off, in a circular

are on both ends of the sheet.

Thus, the sheet metal of required tapering dimensions be obtained which is

then soldered from the sides to get the internal container.

Accumulator

It is just like a cylinder tapering at both ends and made up of copper. The

length of the accumulator is 10 inches. This is used to trap the liquid, which is not

vaporized from the compressor, and it returns the same to the compressor. It is

used for balancing of oil pressure also.

lx
 The one end of the copper tube is joined to the one extreme side of the

accumulator by the help of brazing. Brazing was done with the help of brazing rod

and blow lamp. First of all, the two ends were heated red-hot and the brazing rod

was brought in contact with them. Due to this, the brazing rod melted and filled the

space between the two junction. The brazing rod is acting as a filler material.

Brazing Process

It is process of joining metal pieces by means of hard solder. Brass is mainly

the main constituent of this solder. The brazing solder used in modern practice is

commercially known as spelter, which is mixture of Cu, Zn and Sn. The most

important phenomenon in this that the pieces to be joined are heated instead of the

bit.

Winding of Cu Tubes

Once the internal container is repaired, it is soldered at its ends. Now 5/6"

copper tubes of length 22 feet was wound a round the outer surface of the sheet

metal internal container, with equal spacing between them. These "Cu" tubes were

positioned in their place firmly and rigidly with the help of soldering at place. Now

these assembly functions as our Evaporator and these coils are called as

"Evaporator Coils."

lxi
 Both the ends of the Cu tubes Viz, the top and bottom of the internal

container, where left free or unwound the upper portion of the tube was taken

below along the external surface of the container and finally taken out of the

bottom of the plastic bucket through a small boring. The other end of the coil was

connected to the accumulator which is placed in between the bottoms of the bucket

and the container. Ten this end was also taken out of the same boring and

connected to the capillary tubes.

Capillary Connection

One end of the capillary was brazed inside the accumulator to prevent

leakage. The total length used for the purpose was 12feet. Initially, some portion of

the capillary was wound around the 5/16' tube coming out from the lop surface of

the container. Then, this capillary is made in the from of a uniform coil and was

suspended freely. This capillary tube acts as an expansion valve.

Dehydrator

The dehydrator or the filter drier is located in the fluid line at the outlet end

of the condenser. Its purpose is to filter, trap minute particles of foreign materials

and absorb any moisture which may be in the system. Fine mesh screens filter out

foreign particles and the desiccant absorbs the moisture. The one used in this

refrigerator desiccants is silica gel (silicon dioxide).

lxii
Condenser Connections

Now a small piece of copper tubes id again brazed to the free end of he filter

drier, which is then connected to the condenser. The condenser used in this unit is

of air cooled type. In this the tube is bent in the shape of U and placed in

conjunction with the fins are responsible for holding the air in their gaps that

extract heat from the hot refrigerant flowing in the tubes of the condenser.

The evaporator coils surrounding the internal container absorb the heat from

the hot boy inside the container and this heat is taken by the refrigerant. This

refrigerant which is ultimate passing through the condenser radiates heat to the

atmosphere with help of the condenser fins.

In our unit the condenser is fixed to the rear side of the cabinet, facing the

atmosphere air.

Compressor Connection

The 5/16' copper tube of the evaporator oil is connected to one end the

compressor with the help of brazing. The outgoing end of the compressor is brazed

to the condenser to complete the circuit.

The compressor used in this case is reciprocating type sealed unit. The

horsepower of the compressor is 1/6 HP. Compressor is used to establish a

pressure difference and thus cause the refrigerant to flow from one part of the

lxiii
system to the other. At the same time the compressor raises the refrigerants

pressure above the condensing pint.

At the temperature of the room air, so it will condense. It is this difference in

pressure between the high low sides forces liquid refrigerant through the capillary

tube an into the evaporator.

Thermal Insulation

In any refrigeration process thermal insulation is necessary so that no heat is

radiated out of the system thereby reducing its efficiency.

Since heat will always flow from a region of high temperature to a region of

low temperature, there is always a continuos flow of heat into the refrigerated

region from the warmer surroundings. The various types of the insulators used are

1. Thermocoal

2. Glass Wool.

In this unit glass wool is used which was stuffed between the two surfaces of

the plastic bucket and sheet-metal container. The glass wool is tightly packed by

ramming heavily so that no air gap remains between the glass wool and hence

provides maximum operating efficiency.

Thermostat

lxiv
 This is a temperature controlled electrical switch located on the evaporator

wall. It is fastened to the evaporator will with a clamp at the lower region of the

internal container. When the sensing element mounted on the evaporator wall

senses the temperature lower than the operating conditions then it sends the signal

to the thermostat switch immediately breaks the circuit in the relay and thus gets

Tripped Off. The thermostat switch is connected to the relay. The rely thermostat

has the bimetal strips, which is responsible for the make and break of the circuit.

Gas Charging

When the whole of the connections has been made then gas is charged with

the help of the charging cylinder and the value is closed. The whole is now

checked for the leakage by applying soap solution to the joints formed by brazing.

Now when no leakage was there then the gas was filled. The amount of gas by

weight was 15 ibs. The gas used for this was refrigerant 12 or Freon 12 (CCl 2F2 –

Dichloro- Difluro – Methane).

Fabrication Of Cabinet

lxv
 Wooden planks used to make the table of appropriate shape and size to

accommodate the bucket in the bucket in the top tier while the other components in

the basement. The top plank is cut in the from of a round hole in which 2/3 nd of the

bucket can go inside with remaining portion projecting outwards. It has got one

more bottom plank supporting the compressor, the condenser and other

accessories. The compressor is rigidly with the help of 4 bolts bolted to the base.

This table-like structure is mounted on four wheel making the whole unit mobile.

Lubrication

 Function of lubricating oil in a refrigeration system.

 Understand the importance of and dangers associated with draining oil

 Describe the properties of refrigerate oils

 Describe the purpose and functions of an oil separator

 List and explain three types of indirect oil cooling systems

 Identify major oil contaminants and described contamination control in

refrigerant oils

 Explain three types of heat exchange in lubrication.

lxvi
 Controls

Of

Refrigeration Unit

lxvii
 Controls In Refrigerator

The controls are very essential for satisfactory and economical working of

any refrigerator. The refrigerator is fitted with the following controls.

Starting Relay

The starting relay is used to provide the necessary starting torque required to

start the motor. It also disconnects the starting winding of the motor when the

motor speed increases. When the compressor motor is to be started the thermostat

is in closed position. When the electric supply is given, an electric through the

running winding of the motor and the starting relay. Due to the flow of electric

current through relay coil and due to electromagnetism its armature is pulled

thereby closing the starting winding contacts. The current through starting winding

provides the starting torque and the motor starts. As the motor speed increase, the

running winding current decreases. The current in the starting relay is no longer

able to hold the relay and it gets released thereby opening the starting winding

contacts. Thus, the starting winding gets disconnected.

Overload Protector

The basic function of an overload protector is to protector is to protect the

compressor motor winding from damage due to excessive current. It consists of a

bimetallic strip. During the normal working of the compressor, the contacts are

lxviii
closed. Wherever there is any abnormal behaviour (i.e. overheating, overcorrect

due fault or overload), the bimetallic strip gets heated and bends, there by opening

the motor contacts and de-energising it. The overload protector is fitted on the

body of the compressor and operates due to combined action of heat produced

when current when current passes through the bimetallic strip and a heater element

and heat transferred from the compressor body. It may be noted that the abnormal

behaviour of the compressor may be due to low voltage, high load, low suction

pressure, and high suction and discharge pressure.

Thermostate

A thermostate is used to control the temperature in the temperature in the

refrigerator. The bulb of the thermostat is clamped to the evaporate of freezer. The

thermostat bulb is charged with few drop of refrigerant. The thermostat can be set

to maintain temperatures at a time. When the desired temperature is obtained, the

bulb of the thermostat senses it, the liquid in it compresses and operate bellow of

the thermostat and opens the compressor motor contacts. The temperature at which

compressor motor stops is called cutout temperature. When the temperature

increases, the liquid in the bulb expands thereby closing the blows contact of the

compressor motor. A thermostat is very crucial in the operation of refrigerator as

the running time of compressor is reduced considerably thereby cutting the

lxix
operation cost as well as enhancing the compressor life due to non-continous

working.

lxx
 Future

Potential

lxxi
 Future Potential

Total energy saving potential in the EU is estimated at 15% [Eichhammer,

1995], but may be more, as illustrated by a classification of opportunities for

energy efficiency from 1992, summarised in figure 1. R&D to achieve this should

aim at alternative refrigeration cycles, combined power and cooling and alternative

working fluids.

70

60

50

40 Process Design
System Design
30 Component Design
Improved O&M

20

10

0
Category 1

Energy savings realised in demonstration projects by category

We focus here on various demonstration projects, to give some insight in the

technologies to achieve energy savings in refrigeration in the food industry.

lxxii
Process Design

For process integration and process control, Mann (Mann 1992) describes a

project where 30% energy savings are realised by changing the process design.

New cold stores for apples were constructed together with a test store. In this test

store, some adaptations compared to the other cold stores were made, thereby

creating the possibility for frequency controlled fanning. The energy consumption

of the fans was reduced by about 30% by reducing the circulation factor to half the

normal value. This example shows that changes in process design allow for energy

savings in components designs. Additional savings have been achieved by

optimising cold air flow distribution in stores, also reducing product losses.

System Design

Some technological advancements and trends can lead to large energy

savings in the near future in system design. The first trend is the development of

super heat pumps. These heat pumps are developed in the Japanese Super Heat

Pump Accumulation System Program, leading to high COP-values of about 7.1 for

closed cycled electric heat pumps for cooling with a heat source of 32c and an

output temperature of 7c (Mottal, 1995).

lxxiii
 Other major trends are a reduction of refrigerant charges and the

development of new working fluids. Traditionally, the most common working

fluids for compression heat pumps are ammonia and (H) CFCs, R&D is aimed at

alternative working fluids, especially for the (H) CFCs due to the Toronto

agreements. These alternative working fluids, like halogen refrigerant mixtures,

decompressed air and CO2, can also save energy. Savings of 2-20% have been

reported (Trepp et.al. 1992, Lorentzen, 1993a; Lorentzen, 1993nb). Other recent

development are the focus on natural refrigerants (IEA, 1996b). For example CO 2

is considered a completely safe and environmentally compatible refrigerant. COP-

values 20 percent higher than convectional CFC systems with compact and cost

effective components have been reported (Lorentzen, 1993a).

Another example is absorption cooling. Lazarrin (Lazarrin et.al. 1996)

described a theoretical analysis of an open-cycle absorption heating and cooling

system. They concluded that with relatively low investment costs PER values of

1.2-1.4 in heating mode can be obtained, as well as energy savings in cooling mode

of about 5-20%. Absorption cooling in general is an energy-saving option if

regenerative systems are used (Hajji et.al. 1995). Absorption heat pumps have

large energy savings potentials. However, in practice, only the heating capacity is

discussed in literature. RTD in this area should aim at absorption heat pumps for

refrigeration, air conditioning and cooling.

lxxiv
 An example of combined power and cooling is given by Erickson

(Erickson, 1995). In a community in Alaska, electricity is produced using

generators. The waste heat in the summer is used to power an absorption cycle,

thereby reducing electricity demand by 70% with equal capital costs. Another

example is the combined cold and power production for air conditioning purpose.

Component Design

Energy savings of more than 30% are estimated to be technically achievable

through improved component design in areas such as adjustable speed drives and

computer controlled fans.

Improved Operation & Maintenance

In refrigeration, energy savings could by made by improved operation and

maintenance. The examples of frequency controlled fans and adjustable speed

drives have already been mentioned. Another example can be found in the United

Kingdom. On a cold store refrigeration plant, an automatic air purger was installed

in 1989. Energy savings are estimated at 630 GJ/year, together with reduced

maintenance due to less refrigerant loss and total installed costs of $8,980 leading

to a simple payback period of 10 months (Caddet, 1996).

The investment and O&M costs differ for the various options. Because

different systems are discussed for different purposes, no general economic data

lxxv
can be given. Investing in improved design for O&M will lead to decreasing O&M

costs. The installation of super heat pumps however, may require large investment

costs. In general, the investment costs for new refrigeration systems are considered

to be comparable with (Lorentzen, 1993; Gigiel, 1989) or lower than the currently

installed systems if system design analysis is applied (Maczedk et.al. 1993). O&M

costs are estimated to the slightly lower than for conventional refrigerating systems

(Caddet, 1996; ETSU, 1992).

The total energy savings potential of the four categories is estimated at 20%

in 2010 (ETSU, 1992). Most promising technologies are heat pumps and combined

power/cooling systems.

Projected savings both of energy and of environmental emissions by 2000

and 2010, compared with 1995, are presented in Table 1.

1995 2000 2010

Technical Data

Typical Size

Life-time (yr) 15 15 15

Construction (yr) 1 1 1
Energy Data

Fuel use (PJ)

Electr. Use (PJe) 30 27 24

Primary Energy (PJ) 75 67.5 60

Savings (%) 10% 20%

Economic Data Technology 10% decrease 10% decrease

lxxvi
Investments (relative) Dependent expected expected

Fixed O&M (relative)

Variable O&M (relative)

Environmental Data

CO2 Emissions 10% 10%

SO2 NOX Emissions 10% 10%

Other Emissions Less CFCs Less CFCs

Capacity EU

Capacity Outside EU Current mix of

Remarks (based on) refrigerating systems

Note : Economic data are relative to conventional refrigerating systems. Electricity

generation efficiency is assumed to be 40%

Table 1 : Summary of projected data for refrigeration

lxxvii
Conclusion

lxxviii
 Conclusion

In the last it is to be stated of further developments are done in the present

fabricated refrigerator then the cost of the refrigerator can be curtailed so that it can

be with in the reach of middle class families. Keeping in view of economical

aspects we have tried to fabricate a refrigerator which would cost low and function

equally good. In this the main part of interest is the body which is easy to fabricate

and at less prices. Now with this the capacity of refrigerator has reduced. If it is

possible to manufacture compressors suitable for such unit made of plastic or fibre

and of lesser HP. Then the prices would go down so as to suffice our needs. For

such unit the condenser also can be a made small and of smaller gauge which

would further curtailed the prices. The linear container is also fabricated in such a

way that if is cheap and serves the purpose of deep freezer as cooling water bottles.

Hence seeing the above mentioned improvements if possible then it would

serve the ideal. Refrigerator for a middle class family because it will curtail

barriers have cost and be with in reach of all general people.

lxxix
Bibliography

lxxx
 Bibliography

Author Title of Text Publisher

Edwin P. Anderson Audels Refrigeration and Air- D.B. Tarapore Vala Sons

Condition Guide & Co. Pvt. Ltd. 1944

Robert Schorff Refrigeration Air- McGraw Hill Bock Co.,

Conditioning Range & Oven 1976

Servecing
Roy, J. Dossat Principal of Refrigeration John Wiley & Sons 1966

Refrigeration
Richjer C. Jordon Refrigeration and Air- Prentice-Hall of India (P)

& Gay Le B. Conditioning Ltd. 1948

Priester
S. Domkundwar A Course in Refrigeration Dhanpat Rai & Sons

Ration and Air-Conditioning

C.P. Arora Refrigeration and Air- Tata Mc-Graw Hill

Conditioning Publishing Co., Ltd.

R.S. Khurmi Mechnical Technology S. Chand & Co., New

Delhi

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