I.

Title of Experiment:

The Characteristic of Radioactivity

II. Purpose of Experiment:

1. To learn about how to use the radioactivity detector. 2. To determine the characteristic of voltage of Geiger-Muller tube. 3. To learn about the characteristic of radioactivity ray.
III. Basic Theory:

Radioactivity was first discovered in 1896 by French scientist Henri Becquerel while working with fosforen material. Such material will glow in the dark after previous exposure to get light, and he thinks landing produced by cathode-ray tube X may be associated with fosforesensi. Because of he wraps a photo plate with black paper and put the various materials fosforen above it. All of them do not show results until when he used uranium salts. Black spots occur on the photo plate when he used the uranium salt.

Figure 1
Trefoil symbol image is used to indicate a radioactive material

Radioactivity or radioactive decay is the event emission energy in the form of radioactive rays from the nucleus is unstable to form a stable core. Radioactivity by definition of Herman Chamber in his book titled Health Physics Introduction is transformations of core (nuclear) happens spontaneously and cause the formation of the new elements. Radioactivity or radioactive decay events took place spontaneously and is usually accompanied by emission of alpha particles (), and betta particle (). For example, it was found that the electric field or magnetic field
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can be split into three beams of radiation emission. For the sake of ease of naming, these rays are named according to the Greek alphabet alpha, beta and gamma, these names still survive today. Then from the direction of electromagnetic force, it is known that alpha rays contain a positive charge, negatively charged beta rays, and gamma rays are neutral. From the direction of reflection, is also known that alpha particle much heavier than beta particle. With alpha rays pass through a thin glass membrane and trap in a fluorescent light tube led researchers to study the emission spectrum of gas produced, and proved that alpha particles the reality is a helium nucleus. Other experiments showed the similarity between beta radiation with cathode ray and gamma radiation similar to X-rays.

Figure 2 shooting of particle in materials l Alpha particles cant through a sheet of paper; beta particles cant through aluminum plate. To stop gamma required metal layers thick, but because of absorption of the exponential function will have a few sections that may through sheet metal. All radioactive radiation such as charged of particles has characteristic can ionize the air or gas. This property is used as the principle of a device to detect radiation. Because the decay of radioactive radiation cant be detected directly by our senses, then the detection should be done with the help of some device called a detector. As a radioactive ray detector can be used Geiger Mullers tube which detects the intensity of the transmitted beam of radioactive material. Geiger Muller tube is connected with a tool counter. Each ion is formed due to radiation will be recorded by the counter as the counting of radiation that is strong or weak the size of a radioactive radiation.
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Geiger Muller tube consists of a positively charged wire which caused the cylinder axis negatively charged. The whole system is placed in a glass tube containing a gas that can be ionized when exposed to radiation. If you want to be detected is alpha particle in a tube filled a small window, so that the low input power. Also differentiated in terms of protection for particle betta. If alpha particle () and betta particle () enter into the Geiger Muller tube, most energy alpha particles () and betta particle () transferred to the gas molecules into ionized gas resulting tube, in which the outer electrons of gas molecules will be pushed out. These electrons are attracted by the positively charged wire of the Geiger Muller tube and negative ions into the cylinder of gas will go positive. If the potential difference high (800-1000 V), the primary ions with high velocity, with a short path in the friction towards the electrodes will collide with other gas molecules and produce secondary ions. These secondary ions as primary ions will also produce other ions, and so on until the last ions reaching the electrode. This cascade effect is called the avalanche of ions. Arriving the avalanche of ions on charged electrodes cause a potential difference that suddenly arise between the two electrodes so that current pulses are transmitted to the circuit and the voltage pulse R eventually arises that if the loudspeaker or amplified sound can be recorded with a sampling time. This signal indicates the existence of radiation entering the Geiger Muller tube. Because the rate of ions in the tube related with the potential difference between electrodes, this will cause the calculation depends on the potential difference. Public Relations naturally is as the following graph.

Count/m nt

Discha rge Area

Threshol d Voltage

L Plete au Operatio n
Voltage

Volta ge

There is a voltage threshold below which there is no counting, then count on it increased rapidly until the curve K. Slope KL almost flat is called the area of plateau. This area depends on how the tubes were made and what type of gas filled into it. In this area a small voltage fluctuations are very small effect on the calculation. This is the best operating voltage. The properties of radioactive There are also several types of radioactive rays which is as follows.
a. Alpha Rays ()

Alpha rays are positively charged particle radiation. alpha rays particle with core of helium +4, charged +2e and mass 4 sma. Alpha particle is the heaviest particle produced by radioactive substances. Alpha rays emitted from the nucleus at about a 1/10 the speed of light. Because it has a large mass penetrating power of alpha rays weakest among the radioactive rays. In the air can only penetrate a few cm only and can not penetrate the skin. Alpha rays can be stopped by a sheet of plain paper. Alpha rays quickly loses its energy when it collides with the molecules of the media in its path. The collision

resulted in the media that have gone through ionization. Finally, alpha
4 particles will capture two electrons and changed into atoms . H 2

b. Betta rays() Beta rays are negatively charged particle radiation. Beta rays is an electron beam that comes from the nucleus. Beta particles that charged -1e and with mass 1/836 sma. Because very small of betta particles are considered
0 massless so are stated by the notation 1 e Beta ray energy is varied, has a

greater penetrating power than alpha ray, but power is weaker pengionnya. The most energetic beta rays can travel up to 300 cm in dry air and can penetrate the skin. All forms of radiation have the nature ionize the air when passed and cause flouresensi on a particular substance. Particles betta and alpha particles are also deflected by magnetic fields and electric field on ionization events and flouresensi particle or photon radiation likely to change from its original state asdue to deflection or absorption. Events adsorption of particles through a material with thickness t can be described as follows.

I0

Figure 4. Events absorption of particles Suppose there is a radioactive rays has initial intensity I0 through a material with thickness x. After passing through the material, the intensity of light transmitted by I. Relations with the initial intensity of the transmitted intensity is I = I0e-x Where is absorption coefficient (m-1) whose value depends on the type of material, while e is the natural numbers or natural numbers the values is 2,71828.

c. Gamma Ray Gamma radioactivity is composed of electromagnetic rays. It is distinguished from x-rays only by the fact that it comes from the nucleus. Most gamma rays are somewhat higher in energy than x-rays and therefore are very penetrating. It is the most useful type of radiation for medical purposes, but at the same time it is the most dangerous because of its ability to penetrate large thicknesses of material.

IV. Apparatus of Experiment There are also tools and materials used in the experiment this time is as follows.
1. Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube) 2. Counter and Timer 3. Radioactive source alpha, betha and gamma. 4. Some absorber a.

Aluminum 0.125
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b. c. d.

Aluminum 0.100 Aluminum 0.090 Aluminum 0.040 Lead 0.125 Plastic 0.040

e. f.

V. Methode of Experiment
1.

Connect the GM tube on scale with a high voltage potential. Adding voltage gradually by way of arranging buttons coarse and fine control knob until the tube began to record the count is displayed in the viewer counter.

2.

3.

Noting the voltage threshold voltage where the tubes right began to record the count.

4.

Record the number of counts per minute for each hike relatively small voltage which can be obtained from voltmeter, until the appointment is on a value where the addition of recording a split voltage causes a change that doesn't mean.

5.

Count the number of beats per minute from the voltage threshold for each increment of 25 volts to about 300 volts above the threshold voltage.

6.

Draw charts the relationship between the amount of voltage per minute and voltage are attached, where the Y axis as the number of stresses per minute and the X axis as the voltage is attached.

7.

Determine the best operating point of GM tube and studied the properties of absorption of radioactive radiation.

8.

Determine the radiation background several times with a record count per minute and find the average.

10. Put alpha source on holders sample and put it in holes buffers 5th from

above. 11. Note the activity of radiation sample without absorber.

12. Put the aluminum absorber 0.125 and record back the radiation activity. 13. Repeating step of 9-11for beta and record the activity of radioactive

radiation.
14. Search for data activity radiation radioactive sources alpha to girth different

absorber. 15. Record the data of that activity

VI. Technique of Data Analysis Analysis of data used in the experiment was the technique in a qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis. In a qualitative is to analyze the graph of the relationship between besar voltage and many a permenit to determine the voltage theoperation suitable for use . In a quantitative analysis is find the relationship between the input and output in the equation I 2 =
VII. DATA OF EXPERIMENT

1 1 I1 dan I1 = I 0 2 2

Table 1. No 1 Voltage (Volt) 300 Calculation 1 Time (minute) 1 Calculation/ minute 1

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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520

3 4 5 5 20 21 22 21 23 24 25

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3 4 5 5 20 21 22 21 23 24 25

Table 2.(Beta) Voltage No (Volt) 1 400 2 400 3 400 4 400 5 400

Calculation 336 319 316 288 303

Time (minute) 1 1 1 1 1

Calculation/ minute 336 319 316 288 303

Table 3. (Gamma) No 1 2 3 4 5 Voltage (Volt) 400 400 400 400 400 Calculation 98 97 99 101 102 Time (minute) 1 1 1 1 1 Calculation/ minute 98 97 99 101 102

Table 4. (Background) No 1 Voltage (Volt) 400 Calculation 19 Time (minute) 1 Calculation/ minute 19
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2 3 4 5

400 400 400 400

20 24 15 20

1 1 1 1

20 24 15 20

Table 5. (Same absorber with different thickness) Source Beta Gamma Absorber Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Thickness 849(p)/0.125 645(o)/0.100 590(n)/0.090 849(p)/0.125 645(o)/0.100 590(n)/0.090

c1
24 34 26 77 68 87

c2
26 26 26 79 69 79

c3
33 28 22 70 68 81

c average
29.30 29.30 24.67 75.30 68.30 82.30

Table 6. Different Absorber with same thickness Source Absorber Thickness c1 c2 Beta Aluminum Lead Aluminum Plastic Aluminum Lead Aluminum Plastic 849(p)/0.125 3632(s)/0.12 5 258(j)/0.040 102(f)/0.040 849(p)/0.125 3632(s)/0.12 3 258(j)/0.040 102(f)0.040 28 18 63 170 71 62 66 83 33 29 48 166 58 63 66 73

c3
34 22 48 146 78 48 70 96

c average
31.6 23.0 53.0 160.6 69.0 57.6 67.3 84

Gamma

VIII. Data Analysis a. Operation Voltage To find the operation voltage we can draw the graph from the data in table below: No 1 2 3 Voltage (Volt) 300 320 340 Calculation 1 3 4 Time (minute) 1 1 1 Calculation/ minute 1 3 4
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4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 The Graph

360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520

5 5 20 21 22 21 23 24 25

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5 5 20 21 22 21 23 24 25

From the graph above we can get the value of operation voltage from the plateau area. So the best value of operational voltage is defined from the average value from 400-480 volt:

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Operational Voltage =

( 360 + 380 )Volt

2

= 370volt

b. Background Radiation No 1 2 3 4 5 Voltage (Volt) 370 370 370 370 370 Calculation 4 6 5 5 6 Time (minute) 1 1 1 1 1 Calculation/ minute 4 6 5 5 6

No. 1 2 3 4 5

ci
4 6 5 5 6 26

ci c
-1.2 0.8 -0.2 -0.2 0.8

(c i c ) 2
1.44 0.64 0.04 0.04 0.64

5.2

2.8

12

For Calculate c
c= n 26 c= 5 c = 5.2

For Calculate the uncertainty c

c =
c =

( x

x)

n(n 1)

2.8 5(5 1)

c = 0.14 c = 0.37
So the value of c

c = ( c c ) c = ( 5.2 0.37) Cpm

Relative error
RE = c 100% c

0.37 100% 5.2 RE = 7.2% RE =

c. Same Absorber (Aluminum) with different thickness Source Beta Source Beta Absorber Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Thickness 0,025 0,020 0,032

c1 32 38 24

c2 34 36 27

c3 37 37 25

c average
34,33 37 25,33

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The Graph

Source Gamma Source Gamma Absorber Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Thickness 0,025 0,020 0,032

c1 37 30 27

c2 38 31 29

c3 37 33 27

c average
37,33 31,33 27,67

The Graph

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d. Different absorber
Between Aluminum and Lead (thickness 0.125)

1. Source Beta Gamma Aluminum Lead Aluminum Plastic Calculation/ minute 10 9 9 18 29 22 4,33 9.33 0,125 0,125 0,040 0,040 25 25 24 30
i

27 24 21 32

24 24 23 33

Absor ber Alumi num

c c=
n

ci c
0.67 -0.33 -0.33 0.67 -0.33 -0.33

(c i c ) 2
0.45 0.11 0.11 0.45 0.11 0.11

c =

(c
0.18

25,33 24,33 22,67 31,67

2

n(n 1)

Lead

0.18

2. Source Gamma Absor ber Alumi num Lead Calculation/ minute 25 27 24 25 24 25.33 24.33

c c=
n

ci c
0.33 1.67 -1.33 0.67 -0.33

(c i c ) 2
0.11 2.78 1.78

c =

(c
0.48

n(n 1)

0.44 0.11

0.18
15

24

-0.33

0.11

Between Aluminum and Plastic (thickness 0.040) 3. Source Beta Absor ber Alumi num Calculation/ minute 21 19 18 170 166 146 160.6 19.33

c c=
n

ci c
1.67 -0.33 -1.33

(c i c )

c =

2.77 0.11 1.78 88.36 29.16 213.16

n(n 1) 0.48

(c

Plasti c

9.4 5.4 -14.6

55.11

4. Source Gamma Absor ber Alumi num Plasti c Calculation/ minute 24 21 23 30 32 22.67 31.67

c c=
n

ci c
1.33 -1.67 0.33 -1.67 0.33

(c i c )

c =

1.77 2.77 0.11

2.78 0.11

n(n 1) 0.48

(c

0.48

16

33

1.33

1.78

IX. Result and Discussion Results Based on the chart above shows that the plateau region located between the voltage of 400 V and 480 V. So that the best operating voltage can be obtained by finding the average value of voltage between 400 V-480V, which amounted to 190 Volt. Voltage is what we will use to determine the count per minute background radiation, radiation and radiation using different absorber and absorber using the same but with different thicknesses. Because the best operating voltage is 440 volt, the background radiation is the average value calculation / min is shown in the voltage between 400-480 volts, which is 19 cpm. Graph showing the relationship between the number of count or count per minute with a good absorber thickness for the radioactive sources of beta () and gamma () is inversely proportional. Where, the thicker the absorber the count value of count per minute which can be observed on the counter will be less. This means, the thicker the absorber, the less the radiation beams beta () and gamma () that can penetrate the absorber so that the count per minute count will be smaller. Radioactive properties of beta and gamma particles are also influenced by the type of absorber used. Can be seen from the above experimental results which count values generated using the absorber aluminum, lead and plastic have different values. This is because each absorber has the ability to absorb the beta and gamma particles different. Discussion Threshold voltage is the voltage at the Geiger Muller tube starts particles which strike a note of the electrodes on the Geiger Muller. From the observations we obtained in the tube using a Geiger Muller Counter and Timer, a large threshold voltage is equal to 440 Volt. This figure can be seen in the table of observations. Observation area in the tube R is the region where the voltage changes in the tube
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causes the counter did not perform a meaningful calculation. From the observations we obtained (400-480) Volt. Best use of the operating voltage of the Geiger Muller tube is 520 Volt. We get that number by averaging the voltage on the Plateau area so we get the average value is: Operation Voltage:
400 + 420 + 440 + 460 + 480 = 440 Volt 5

Observations on the radioactive properties of beta and gamma particles can be observed with respect to fractional count Geiger Muller. To find out the penetrating power of beta particles and gamma can search through the experiments using different absorber thickness equal and using the same absorber, but with different thicknesses.
X. Answer The Question

1. When high voltage is turned on first time has appointed 500 V, the calculation is not observed although there is a radioactive source close to GM tube. That's because the Geiger Muller tube is not given barrier material so that the breakdown of radioactive beams is large enough to get away with it. At the time of the radioactive source is near the GM tube these particles will penetrate the thin window at one end and go into it. These radioactive particles then mashing the gas atoms so that the gas atoms will emit electrons and generate secondary ions. Secondary ions as primary ions will also produce other ions and so on until the last ions reach the electrodes. This cascade effect is called "avalanche" of the ion. Arrival of the avalanche of charged ions on the electrode potential difference causing the sudden between the two electrodes so that the resulting current pulses are passed to the R series and eventually arise when a voltage pulse is amplified loud speaker could sound or recorded with a counter. However, at a voltage of 500 V radiation radioactive sources are not detected by the tube is not the case records or calculations. It is not independent of the random nature of collisions so that the radiation does not enter the Geiger Muller tube. Because the collisions of atoms so that the electron gas occurs despite the very short time. Tube can not capture radioactive radiation sources. So in the absence of

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a radioactive beam barrier will be difficult to detect due to the penetrating power and random particle collisions. 2. The addition of a smaller voltage is required for a small portion of the first set of data. This is because the rate of ions in a tube connected to the potential difference between electrodes, so the calculation will depend on the potential difference. Therefore, the addition of a small voltage would cause the rate of ion that is more detailed. 3. Steps to get the data to be more subtle plateau curve at the point of operation is to perform repeated experiments by adding the voltage slowly and observe the calculations that are detected by the counter. Then look for the calculation of the value or the count per minute relatively the same. Further define the best operating voltage. The best operating voltage obtained from the average looking from the top and the bottom end of the plateau. In the plateau region are small voltage fluctuations are very small effect on the calculation. 4. From the graph of radioactive beta source () and gamma () obtained a difference. Graph beta () looks steeper when compared with the graph gamma (), where gamma graph tends to look flat. This means, the thickness of the absorber provides a huge influence on the results of a radioactive source count per minute for beta (). As for the radioactive sources of gamma (), the thickness of the absorber does not significantly affect the results of a legible tattoo count per minute on a counter. 5. Benefits of the reaction gamma rays () of the material is to study the characteristics of a metal. 6. Protective gamma rays () is good to protect the protective effect of gamma rays which have a thickness that is high enough. This is because gamma rays have a very high penetrating power. If the thickness of the protective small, then the gamma rays would be translucent, so it will not be able to protect from the effects of gamma rays ().
7. Proof:

I 2 = I 1 e t log I 2 = log(I 1e t ) log I 2 = log I 1 + log e t

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log I 2 = log I 1 t log e

log I 2 = log I 1 t log 2,718

log I 2 = log I 1 t 0,434
log I 2 = log I 1 t 434 1000

log I 2 = log I 1 t log I 2 = log I 1 t log I 2 = log I 1

1 1000 1 2,3

434

t 2,3

8. According to the equation in problem 7: log I 2 = log I 1 log I 1 log I 2 = log I 1 log

t 2,3 t 1 ; We have known that I 2 = I 1 2,3 2

I 1 t = 2 2,3

log I 1 (log I 1 log 2) = log I 1 log I 1 + log 2 = log 2 = 0,301 =

t 2,3

t 2,3

t 2,3
t 2,3

t = 0,6923

XI.Conclusion 1. From the experiments we do can be summarized as follows.

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a. Geiger Muller tube is a useful tool for detecting radiation. GM tube

connected with a counter. Each ion is formed due to radiation will be recorded by the counter as a chopped radiation is strong or weak a measure of radioactive radiation. Radioactive detector operated in the following way. b. Coarse and fine is a button to adjust the voltage. Voltage regulation is intended to determine the size of the calculations can be calculated by the counter. c. Counter used to count the number of counts each time. Counter will work if the voltage is selected to be in the threshold. d. Reset is used to repeat the calculation. e. Stop is used to stop the calculation. Stop button will turn on automatically if the count calculation is complete.
2. Voltage characteristics of the Geiger Muller tube is the best operating voltage

on the results of the experiment is 440 volts. This figure is obtained from finding the average of the upper end and lower end of the plateau region. 3. Radioactive properties. a. Can ionize the air or gas. b. At the same operating voltage and the same absorber thickness, the penetrating power of beta particles and gamma is different. c. At the same operating voltage and by using different absorber penetrating power of beta particles and gamma is different. 4. From the analysis of data on the experiments there is deviation from the standard value. This is because at the time of experiment occur several errors, as follow: a. Parallax error Error occur because human error. The parallax error occurs during the practicum.

Lack of skilled us in regulating both the coarse and fine

control. Such as difficulty in the round accuracy on fine control for precise pointing the desired scale.

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Lack of our patience in doing lab work while awaiting the

results of the calculation. b. Systematic Errors Errors caused by measuring devices at the time of the experiment, can be caused by conditions which are quite old equipment (hardware limitation), so that means of diminishing sensitivity. c. Random error Errors occur without the knowledge of the observer. For example, the presence of radiation, random radiation which we know nothing about its existence (sun radiation, radiation electronic items brought us and so forth). In this experiment we were having some problems such as. Prior knowledge we have about the experiment and operating equipment is less so this resulted in the time required to conduct lab work long enough.

Obstacles place is also much influenced. Where is the place to conduct lab work less so comfortable, visible in the presence of noises that occurs in the room due from other groups held practicum

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REFERENCES Anonim. GeigerMller tube.2008 acessed from Wikipedia.com ( April 10th 2012). Anonim. Radiaoctivy. 2010 Accessed from hyperphysics.phy-

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html (April 10th 2012).

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