Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

UNIT 5 Feeding Relationships

Some common terms, which shall be used in this unit, are:

Ecosystem

Habitat

Community Population

A reasonably self-contained area together with all its living organisms The physical or abiotic part of an ecosystem, i.e. a defined area with specific characteristics where the organisms live, e.g. oak forest, deep sea, sand dune, rocky shore, moorland, hedgerow, garden pond, etc. The living or biotic part of an ecosystem, i.e. all the organisms of all the different species living in one habitat. The members of the same species living in one habitat

Ramla located along the northern shore of Gozo is an example of a sand-dune ecosystem a. Name two different habitats in this site: ________________________________________, _____________________________________ b. Give an example of a community in this area ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ c. Give an example of three different populations that can be found in this area:

______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ d. Name two threats to this area:

________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

5.1 Plants as producers.

(see GCSE Biology pg. 35 44)

All the energy in the world comes from the sun, but the organisms that are capable of making direct use of it are the plants. For this reason they are called the primary producers. External and internal features of a leaf as an organ for photosynthesis. (see book pg. 50-53)

Function of Leaves: a. Increase surface area for Photosynthesis. b. Gas exchange (CO2 in, O2 out). c. Site of transpiration, evaporation of water that helps pull water up from roots. Structure of leaves - The leaves are the part of a plant where most photosynthesis takes

place.
EXTER AL STRUCTURE:
Leaf Blade: Wide flattened area of leaf for concentrating sunlight on photosynthetic cells. Petiole: Short stem that attaches leaf to main stem or branch. Veins: Vascular bundles within leaf for transport. Node: Growth region of stem where leaves or new branches arise. Axillary bud: Baby leaf or stem

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Internal Leaf Structure:

1. Waxy cuticle - this gives the leaf a waterproof layer, which lets in light. 2. Upper epidermis - provides an upper surface. Light passes through. 3. Palisade cells - are packed full of chloroplasts, so lots of photosynthesis 4. Spongy mesophyll - Collection of damp, loosely packed cells. Gas exchange. 5. Lower epidermis is the layer of cells on the lower surface. Has stomata. 6. Air spaces - allow contact between air and moist cell surfaces. 7. Stoma - a hole in the leaf from which gases diffuse through. 8. Guard cells - change shape to close the stoma.

Photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll cells inside a green plant's leaves. As you can see there are two kinds of mesophyll cells - palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll. The mesophyll cells contain tiny organelles called chloroplasts, which contain a green chemical called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll enables the light energy from sunlight to be converted into chemical energy for the photosynthesis reaction.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

The importance of PHOTOSY THESIS

Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis.

These are mainly the amounts of: o o o o water carbon dioxide sunlight temperature.

1. The amount of water is effected by how much is taken up through the roots and how much is lost from the leaves. If less water is available in the leaf then photosynthesis will occur more slowly. 2. Sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the level of carbon dioxide. Even if there is plenty of light a plant cannot photosynthesise if it has run out of carbon dioxide. If there is less carbon dioxide around then photosynthesis will occur more slowly. 3. Without enough light a plant cannot photosynthesise very fast, even if there is plenty of water and carbon dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will make photosynthesis faster. 4. Temperature can be a limiting factor too. If it gets too cold the rate of photosynthesis will slow right down; equally, plants cease to be able to photosynthesise if it gets too hot. If you plot the rate of photosynthesis against the levels of these three limiting factors you get graphs like the ones on the next page.

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Fate of carbohydrate products in the plant. The glucose produced in the photosynthesis reaction can be converted to sucrose and carried to other parts of the plant in phloem vessels.

Complete:

Green plants make their own food by ______________________ . Green __________________ in the chloroplasts of the leaves traps the suns ________________. Raw materials for this process are carbon ___________________ and ___________________. Sugars are made in the leaves and are soon changed to ___________________. The waste products of this process is the gas ___________________.

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Questions from Past Papers The diagram below shows the internal structure of a leaf.

a) Name the parts labelled: A __________________________ B ___________________ C ___________________________ D ___________________ (4)

b) Part A and part B are both adapted to facilitate photosynthesis. Explain how. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ (4)

c) Give one other adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis. ______________________________________________ (1)

d) The cuticle of the leaf in the diagram is waxy. State one way in which a waxy cuticle may be helpful to a plant. _______________________________________________________________ (1)

e) State one importance of stomata to plants. ______________________________________________________________ (1) Total 11 marks

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The following diagram shows the apparatus used in an experiment to show the affect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis.

a) List four factors which must be kept constant in this experiment while intensity of light is being changed. 1______________________ 2_________________ 3 ______________________ 4 _________________ (4) b) Bubbles of a gas are being produced during the experiment. Name the gas. ____________________________ (1) c) How can you test that your answer to b is correct? _______________________________________________________________ (2) d) How can the bubbles of gas, being produced, help to measure and compare the rate of photosynthesis? _______________________________________________________________ (1) e) Why was the paper clip used? _______________________________________________________________ (1) f) Name one other factor besides light that may limit the rate of photosynthesis. ____________________________________________ (1) g) Give a word equation for photosynthesis. _______________________________________________________________ (3) Total 13 marks

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Animals as consumers.
Nutrition in plants is known as autotrophic nutrition as they make their own food. We refer to nutrition in animals as holozoic nutrition where complex food is taken into a specialist digestive system and broken down into small pieces to be absorbed This consists of 5 phases:

ingestion digestion absorption assimilation egestion

The stages in a protist1

- taking large pieces of food into the body - breaking down the food by mechanical and chemical means - taking up the soluble digestion products into the body's cells - using the absorbed materials - eliminating the undigested material

The shots below show Amoeba proteus in the process of eating another protist called Tetrahymena.

1. Sensing the organism

2. Forming pseudopodium

3. Pseudopodium formation

4. Pseudopodium circling it

5. Pseudopodium closed

6. Tetrahymena being digested

Ingestion: Stages 1 to 4 in the shots above show ingestion where the organism (food) is being taken into the Amoebas body. Digestion: Stage 5 shows the beginning of digestion where breaking down of the food is started in the amoebas body in what we refer to as a Food vacuole. Absorption: The food is distributed through the entire cell Assimilation It is used for processes in the Amoeba such as respiration. Egestion Any waste food is egested as the food vacuole moves towards the amoebas periphery and breaks open releasing the waste material out of the cell.
1

http://130.158.208.53/WWW/PDB/Images/Sarcodina/ap/feeding.html - Amoeba proteus feeding

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

The Stages in a Human Make sure you know the following: o o o Be able to draw and label the diagram of the human alimentary canal - Book pg. 99, figure 11.5 Structure and function of the human gut and its associated glands Book pg. 97-102 Be able to draw and label the villus structure Book pg. 102, figure 11.10

Some brief notes:

1. Ingestion Food is taken into the body through the mouth.

The start of the process of digestion occurs in the mouth using the teeth and tongue. There are 4 types of human teeth: 1. Incisors for cutting. 2. Canines for piercing. 3. Pre-molars for cutting and rushing. 4. Molars for crushing and grinding.

2. Digestion also starts in the mouth. o Food broken then mixed with saliva, which moistens it and adds the enzyme salivary amylase, which begins to digest starch. o Tongue helps to form the food into a small, moist ball called a bolus, which can be easily swallowed. o The bolus is squeezed down the oesophagus (gullet) by wavelike contractions of the surrounding muscle. This is called peristalsis. (See pg. 98 figure 11.3) Work out pg. 98 numbers 1- 3

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

As food passes down the digestive system different secretions are added to the food in order to digest the large molecules.
Mouth Saliva is released from salivary glands. It contains amylase and digests starch to maltose. Stomach Makes gastric juice, containing protease (pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. microbes and creates to best pH for the protease to digest proteins. The acid kills

The liver makes bile that contains bile salts. They break the large fat droplets down into smaller droplets. Bile is stored in the gall bladder. The pancreas makes more protease and amylase. It also makes lipase to digest the fats to fatty acids and glycerol. The small intestine makes enzymes such as maltase. This digests maltose to glucose.

Answer the following: a. Name the enzyme that digests proteins ____________________ b. Explain why lipase does not digest starch ________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ c. Why does boiling an enzyme preven it from working? _______________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ d. What is the function of bile? ___________________________________________________________ e. Why does the stomach produce acid? ___________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Work out GCSE Biology pg. 101 numbers 1-4

The Small Intestines Apart from secretion of some enzymes, these have the important function of food absorption that is made possible with the help of the villi. (sing: villus) Although we refer to the small intestines as a whole thing, in reality, it is divided into two part the duodenum and the ileum. It is adapted for absorption as: 1. Has a thin lining 2. A good blood supply 3. A very large surface area (due to the villi)

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Work out GCSE Biology pg. 103 numbers 1-3

The Large Intestines By the time food gets here, it consists mainly of fibre, dead cells, bacteria and water. As it passes along the large intestine some of the water is absorbed into the blood. The solid waste or faeces are stored in the rectum, and eventually are egested from the anus.

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Cellulose digestion: an adaptation of herbivorous mammals as primary consumers. See pg. 295-6

Dentition: -

Lower jaw loosely articulated, allowing side to side and up and down movement. Incisors long, chisel shaped, forward-pointing for cropping grass. No canines Diastema for manipulation grass. Broad, ridged, premolars and molars for grinding grass. Open roots to allow teeth to grow continuously.
Cattle and sheep are herbivores and ruminants. Ruminants digestive systems allow a high proportion of cellulose to be digested. Ruminants have 4 stomachs (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum).

Long intestine gives time for digestion. Large caecum and appendix containing bacteria which secretes cellulase. Four stomachs to help the digestion of cellulase.
1) Food is swallowed and lands in the rumen. This contains bacteria, some protists and yeasts. Food remains here for up to 30 hrs. The food is often regurgitated to be chewed again (chewing the cud). The microbes break down the cellulose (with cellulase). 2) Next food enters the reticulum, sometimes food enters here first. Food moves between the rumen and reticulum fairly freely. 3) As the food enters the omasum, where water and organic acids are removed. No enzymes are secreted. 4) From here on it follows a similar path as in the human gut, with enzymes being secreted etc.

NB. many of the bacteria etc are also taken in with the food and digested, which makes protein digestion from the rumen even more efficient, as the microbes can convert low grade protein and urea into a high grade version that can be digested by the cow.

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Answer the following: 1. The diagram shows the skull of a mammal from the side. i) What would this mammals diet have been? ______________________________________________ ____________________(1) ii) Give two (2) features, shown in the diagram, which support your answer in 2i. a) __________________________________________________________________ b) _______________________________________________________________(1,1) (total 3 marks) 2 a) Explain the difference between Digestion and Egestion (3) b) Protein is an important constituent of a balanced diet. (i) What are proteins? (ii) Name one importance of proteins to organisms. (iii) Where does digestion of proteins start in humans? (iv) Name an enzyme that digests proteins. (2, 1, 1, 1) c) A student claims that nuts are rich in oil and protein. Describe two separate simple tests by which the student can show that nuts are rich in these two nutrients. (3, 4)

3. The following diagram shows part of the digestive system of a mammal. (i) Label the parts marked. A:___________________________(1) B:__________________________ (1) C: __________________________(1) D:__________________________ (1) E:__________________________ (1) F:__________________________ (1) G:__________________________(1) H:__________________________(1) I: __________________________(1) (ii) Use the letters in the diagram to complete the following sentences. a) Bile is produced in _____________ and stored in _____________. b) ____________ is highly acidic. (2) (1) (12 marks)

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Ways of representing feeding relationships.

Food Chains and Food webs o o o

(read GCSE Biology pg. 224-227)

Food Chains and webs begin with energy from the sun. A food chain shows us what eats what in a community. The arrows in the food chain show the transfer of food energy between organisms. Food chains always begin with the sun (which isnt written each time), and then there is a green plant (can include leaves, fruits or seeds) Each step in the food chain is called a trophic level

A food web is made up of interconnected food chains. Arrange the organisms below in a food chain:

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

Some terms worth knowing:

o o o o o o o Producers - green plant or organism that carries out photosynthesis Primary consumer The organism that eats the producer Secondary consumer - The organism that eats the primary consumer. Tertiary consumer - The organism that eats the secondary consumer. Detritivores - animals that feed off all dead plants and animals. Scavengers - carnivores that eat that dead remains of animals killed by predators. Decomposers microbes that feed on dead and decaying material. Apply these terms for the organisms in the food chain you wrote above

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

1. Look at the seashore food web:

Sea bird crab dog whelk barnacle limpet mussel starfish

small algae

a)

How many primary consumers are there? Name them

_________________________________________________________________________ b) How many secondary consumers are there? Name them

_________________________________________________________________________ c) Draw a food chain with 5 links from this food web

_________________________________________________________________________ d) Suppose all star fish died from pollution. What would happen to the number of: i. Mussels ______________________________________________ ii. Small algae ____________________________________________ 2. Complete the paragraph below: Producers are fed upon by in turn provide food for

Producers are able to make their own _________________. herbivores or _________________ consumers. These

_________________ consumers.

Dead and _________________ matter provides food for Feeding relationships can be shown in food

_________________ and Detritivores.

________________ and in food _________________.

Pyramids of numbers and biomass

A pyramid of numbers tells us the number of organisms involved in a food chain. A pyramid of biomass tells us the mass of the organisms involved in a food chain.

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Pyramids of numbers
o o This tells us how many organisms are involved at each stage in the food chain. At each trophic level the number of organisms gets less.

1 90 000 200 000 1 500 000

What happens to the numbers of individuals as you go up the pyramid? _______________ o Sometimes a pyramid of numbers does not look like a pyramid at all as it doesnt take into account the size of the organisms.
parasites ladybirds greenfly rosebush

Pyramids of biomass
o o o This takes into account the size of the organisms at each level. It looks at the mass of each organism If we take the information from the pyramid of numbers and multiply it by the organisms mass we get a pyramid shape again.

Work out GCSE Biology pg. 228 numbers 1-3 Discuss pg. 229 number 4 Work this on a separate sheet: The table shows information about a food chain.
Producer Primary Consumer Secondary Consumer Tertiary Consumer

200 leaves a) b)

100 caterpillars

5 trushes

1 kestrel

Draw a pyramid of numbers The average mass of each organism is: leaf (5g), caterpillar (4g), trush (70g), kestrel (250g) Knowing this draw a biomass pyramid What difference can you see between the two pyramids?

c)

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Answer the following: 1. ____________________ are animals that are eaten only by decomposers after they die. Secondary consumer Top carnivore Carnivores 2. Animals that only eat other animals are called ______________________ Herbivores Carnivores 3. What part does the sun play in food chains and webs? It provides the energy to start a food chain It transfers food energy between organisms It links the food chains 4. The arrows in food webs and food chains show the transfer of food energy between organisms. True False 5. An animal that eats other plants and animals is called a _______________ Producer Consumer

Energy flow through an ecosystem.

(see GCSE Biology pg. 231 233)

Energy flows through ecosystems in one direction, typically from the Sun, through photosynthetic organisms or producers, to herbivores to carnivores and decomposers. Energy is transferred through the trophic levels in food chains and food webs and is dissipated. At each link in a food web, some energy is stored in newly made structures but much energy is lost into the environment as heat. Continual input of energy from sunlight is required to keep this process going.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Efficient food
So little energy is left by the end of a food chain that they cannot get too long. In fact the shorter they are the better.

Losing one trophic level means that you get more energy at the end. It is more efficient. Intensively reared livestock are kept in restricted conditions so that they do not waste energy moving around. However, apart from the ethical questions, they still end up wasting energy from their food. Land can feed more people if used for crops. However some land such as hillsides and marshy areas are not suitable for crops and so rearing animals on it is the most efficient use.

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Work out the following: For every square metres of grass that it eats, a cow gets 3000kJ of energy. It uses 100 kJ for growth, 1000kJ are lost as heat and 1900kJ are lost in faeces. a) What percentage of the energy in one square metre of grass i) is used for growth? ____________________________________________________________ ii) passes through the gut and is not absorbed? ________________________________________ b) If beef has an energy value of 12kJ per gram, how many square metres of grass are needed to produce 100g of beef ___________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________

1. a) Write a balanced equation ( in words or symbols) summarising the process of photosynthesis. b) Name two environmental factors that can affect the rate of photosynthesis. c) Draw a large labelled diagram to show the internal cellular structure of the leaf. (3) (2) (5)

d) Describe an experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to occur. (5) (15 marks)

2.

Use the following terms to complete the paragraph: photosynthesis ; energy ; sun ; food/carbohydrates ; 90%

Food

chains,

webs

and

pyramids

are

ways

of

representing

the

flow

of

__________through an ecosystem. The original source of energy is the _____________. Green plants use this energy to manufacture ______________________ in the process of ___________________. At each step in the food chain, ________________ of the energy is lost as it passes from one trophic level to another. (5 marks)

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

3. Study this food web and answer the questions that follow.

i) From the diagram name (a) one producer (b) 2 primary consumers. a) One producer: _____________________________________________(1) b) Two primary consumers: ________________ ; ________________(1,1) c) One secondary consumer: ____________________________________(1) ii) From the food web shown above, construct a food chain with four links. ______________ ______________ _____________ _____________ (2)

iii) Name the ultimate source of energy for this food web. ______________________________________________________________(1) iv) Explain why only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________(2) (total 9 marks) 4. Explain the terms community and populations in relation to ecosystems. i) Community: ___________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________. ii) Populations: ___________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________(2,2) (total 4 marks)

Exam tips
Don't worry if you have never heard of the organisms used in a food chain and web question. There will always be enough information for you to work out the answer. When looking at a food web, check carefully which way the arrows are pointing. Remember the arrows represent a flow of materials or energy, so the arrow should go from the organism which is being eaten to the animal which is eating it.