mined for this, and the sample is cut so as to obtain a rectangle or square.

Then, the sample area S is determined in m2 The sample with a measured area is weighed on precision scales for determining its masE. ms in grams. The mass of 1 m2, g, is determined using the formula
m

= ms/S

(28}

The loop module, yarn take-up, and the density ratio factor of the' knitted fabric are calculated by the aforementioned formulae.
Instructions on How to Compile the Check-Out Report

The check-out report must contain: (1) samples of analyzed knitted fabric, drawings of the face and reverse sides of each sample, the graphical representation of yarn laying with indication of the interlocking repeat, and the description of main properties; (2) for each sample, the experimental and adopted values of yarn linear density, the values of Dh, Dv' L, C, a, In, U, the deviations in % of characteristic experimental values from those adopted with indication of the causes of these deviations; (3) the calculations used in designing the knit structure. Re,'iew Questions

1. What knitted fabric produced from yarns of the same linear density and of the same yarn length in the loop can be more easily ravelled, i.e. of cotton yarn or of man-made yarns? Why? 2. What are the factors on which depends the degree of curling at the edges of kni tted fabric? 3. Why is the fabric of jersey derivative structure narrower than plain jersey fabric manufactured of yarns of the same linear density and with an equal number of wales? 4. Explain why knitted fabric which has been subjected to wet and heat treatment becomes thinner, larger in area, and does not curl at the edges. 5. Why are the jersey loops askew if the knitted fabric has been manufactured: from yarn with an unbalanced twist? 6. Why does a jersey derivative stitch ravel less than plain jersey? 7. Why are the reverse wales in rib overlapped by the face wales, and ,yhat isthe cause of this overlapping? 8. Why is it the rib structures do not curl at the edges, ravel in the direction reverse to knitting, and are twice as thick as the single structures? Is the' absence of curling a feature inherent in all ribs? 9. How does the rib width change with an increase in repeat? 10. Why does rib stretch in width more than jersey? 11. Why do interlock structures ravel less than rib structures? 12. Why does reverse jersey (purl stitch) tend to shorten in length and what an,-' the causes determining the degree of this shortening?

9. ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WARP KNITTED FABRICS

Objective: To get acquainted with the main kinds of knitted fab-rics in basic and derivative warp knitted stitches (single and double),. to acquire skill in their determination, graphical representations of yarn laying, evaluation of properties, and designing of structural characteristics.

1. Make an analysis of samples with stitch structures: chain, tri,cot, atlas, and their derivatives (single and double) from different kinds of yarn. For each sample it is necessary: (a) to study the particularities of stitch structure to determine the face and reverse sides, the direction and causes of curling, the loop inclination in relation to the loop course, and to establish the direction of knitting and ravelling of samples, as well as ravelling inten:sity; (b) to draw the graphical and analytical representation of yarn laying, to determine the stitch repeats in width and height (Rb, Rh), yarn drawing-in and repeat of warping, types of loops in courses (open or closed); (c) to establi h experimentally the kind of raw materials, the yarn linear densit:: in tex (this being done only for some samples as indicated by the teacher), the characteristics A and B, the stitch density, the length of the yarn in the loop l, and the mass of 1 m2 m; (d) to calculate on the basis of the actual values l, D ,,, D" (established experimentally) the module of the loop (J, the density ratio factor C, the mass of 1 m 2 m, the yarn take-up in the knitted fabric

u.

2. Design the main characteristics of loop structure in knitted fabrics of the stitches under examination, according to a given yarn linear density.

Basic ~warp knit stitches are stitches con isting of similar structural elements (loop~) joined together in the simplest combination. Basic warp stitches may be as follows: chain, tricot, and atlas (single and dOllble). The deriyative warp knit stitches are formed of an undividable combination of seYeral similar basic \yarp stitches \yhich are interlaced in such a manner that bet\veen the wales of one structure there are the wales of another structure or several such structures. Derivatives of warp stitches may be derivative single and double tricots (halftricot, charme, T-shirts, etc.) and atlas derivatives (single and double) .

\\'arp-kniLLeci fabric is formed from a yarn system called "the warp". The warp yarns, after forming loops in one course, pass into the following course, a~d, as a rule, the number of loops formed in the course is the same as the nllm bel' of yarns in the warp. Due to this, loop formation in warp-knitted fabric features the presence of jllnctures J (Fig. 54a) connecting the carcasses of loops C in the adjacent courses. Depending on tbe method tho \varp yarn is layed on the needles, the loops

Rb

r--;"i
I II 0 1 J
I

h'6

.(

Oct' .[J
0

Jl1 U
[

x
x

o ~
ux

x
x

fY

jJ1

U
[

'OJ

I U

O
x
6 [J '4 J 0 (c)

.~ :g: '"

2
(0)

0 Numericaf three - stafe record 2-3-_2 2 - 7- 1 1-0-0 '-2-2 2-3-2

I 15t

2 0

I 18t

I/0 I '{cllrse

Numerical t wo- stafe record

2 - 3 2'- 1 1 -0 ! -2 2 - J

Numerlca'T N two - stc:fe Course recor 4 - 5

!!
III

4~ Z
2-0

1J7 1

2-4

are of the follmdng types: open loops (courses II and rV), closed loops (courses, I, III), with one-side junctures (courses I, III), and ,,'ith two-side junctures (conrses II, IV). ''Varp-knitted fabrics haye a very intricate structnre. Usually \\'arp-knit stitches are represented by a graph, and the symbols in the graph designate the sequence in which the \\'arp yarn lays on the needles. The graph of the warp knit giYes sufficient information on the kind of yarn laying, possible properties, and knit design; it is u"ed to establish the programme of bar operation on warp knitting machines (setting the pattern chain). For plotting a graph, use is made of a rectangular coordinate net (Fig. 54ob, c). The points and cro"ses of the coordinate not are considered to be needles; the horizontal row of points designates the needles of one bed, and the horizontal row of crosses-the needles of the other bed (for two-bar n19cllines). The knitting courses produced by the needle beds are numbered from the left side of the graph, the figures running from bottom to top. As the full course of double knit is formed by the consecuti\'e operations of t\\'o needle beds, the numeration of a loop course comprises rows Kith points and crosses (Fig. 54oc). The inlerspaces between th(; yertical columns of points and crosses are designated from right to left by figures in consecutive order for warp knitting machines and by even numbers for Raschel machines ero designates the beginning of the record from the right ofthe co lumn of points (crosses) in which the extreme right loop of the repeat is dis-

posed. ~arked on the graph is the sequence in which the yarns of each bar are laid in each loop COllrse; the part of the line above the point (cross) 0 means warp yarn laying on the needle, while the portion of the line under the point (cross) U -means yarn laying under the needle. \Vith graphical representation of warp knit, there is a warp threading-up chart for the given bar (B1) where the dashes designate yarns drawn into the bar guides, and the circles-the yarns which have not been drawn into the guides. As all the yarns of the given bar are laid on to the needles in the same manner, it is sufficient to show on the graph how one yarn is laid. In the bar threading-up chart this yarn is designated by a rectangle. The consecutiyc order of links in the pattern chain (program) i established according to the line of yarn motion in the graph. For this, a nllmerical or analytical record of the structure is made (Fig. 54d-j) , WIlen making a numerical record according to the graph, only yarn laying on the needles is shown, as laying of yarn under the needles in the 11llmerical record is regisLered automatically. The nllll1erical record is always made from the bottom Ilpwards, starting from the bottom horizontal (first) row, i.e. in the order of course knitting (the record is made and read from top to bottom). Fig. 54d, j illustrates the numerical records of interlacing corresponding to the diagrams in Fig. 54b, c at the two-stage operation of the warp knitting machine. "Vhen the \york is carried ouL in two stages, for knitting one course two racks of the bar are made: one for overlapping the yarn on the needle, and the second for lappi ng the yarn under the needle. The direction of the rack in yarn overlapping in Figs. 54d, e is indicated by the horizontal arrow, \\'hile the rack direction at yarn unclerlapping is sho\yn by the inclined arrow. For reducing the impact load on bar racking in the case of threestage operation of the warp knitting machine, bar racking behind the needles is effected in two stages. The three-stage numerical record transformed from a two-stage record (see Fig. 54d) is shown in Fig. 54e. In looping diagrams, it is standard practice to indicate the structure repeat by the width Rb and height RH. Plain chain (Fig. 55a-d) is the simplest warp knit formed by lapping the yarn on the same needle in all loop courses. It forms separate wales (Fig. 54a, b) and may be with closed loops (RH = 1) or with open loops (Fig. 54d, c) (Rr! = 2). Plain chain curls into a spiral towards the face and has a slight extensibility. It is usually used in combination with other stitches. Plain chain is the most important element in knitted nets, curtains, lace, fringe, cords, etc. Single tricot (or English leather) (Fig. 56a, d) is a stitch formed by one warp; the tricot loops are disposed in an alternate order in

two adjacent \\'ales (Rb = 2) (R H = 2). All loops in single tricot have single-face junctures. This tricot may be formed of closed, open, or alternate closed and open loops (Fig. 5Gb, c, d); the junctures in tricot are seen on the back. The loop skeletons in single tricot are

Fig. 55. Plain. chain cal representatlOn

and

its graphi-

inclined in relation to the line of the loop course in the direction reyerse to the disposition of junctures, this being caused by the tendency of yarn kinked in loops to straighten. The degree of loop inclination, which is determined by the angle a (see Fig. 5Ga), increases with the yarn elasticity and density of knitted fabric. Due to loop inclination, the loops of single tricot haye

a zigzag structure. Moreover, the loop skeletons in tricot tend to turn from the horizontal plane of the knitted fabric to the perpendicular plane. As a result, at certain loop structure characteristics for a giYen kind of yarn, the face and reyerse sides of tricot are the same and have the appearance of open texture fabric with small rhomboidal meshes. Owing to the disposition of loops in the tricot, curling of edges 011 the samples of knitted fabric is barely visible. Single tricot ravels (separates along the line of wales) only in the direction reverse to knitting; this is the main drawback of knitted fabrics with a tricot structure. Single atlas is a stitch in which each yarn consecutively forms loops in a multitude of adjacent wales. In single atlas (Fig. 57) there

are loops with single-side and double-"ide junctures. The smallest stitch repeat is Rb = = 3 in width, and in height R H = 4. The graphical representation of yarn laying in this atlas is shown in Fig. 54b. In high repeat multicourse atlas the junctures connect the adjacent wales first in one direction, and then in the reverse direction (to te initial wale). In atlas, the loop carcasses are inclined in the direction reverse to the direction of the ontgoing juncture. Owing to this inclination of the loop skeletons, knitted tricot fabrics, when manufactured of single colour yarns, ' 5S' 1 II have cross stripes of different shades, and I. mge a as F Ig. when of rnulticoloured yarns, characteristic zigzag designs. Single atlas may be of a plain or a complex structure. In plain atlas the yarns are laid in the simplest alternate order in opposite directions. A complex multi course atlas may be considered to be jersey turned at an angle of a ~ 60. Single atlas curls at the edges, similarly to jersey, and ravels in the direction reverse to knitting; the fabric does not separate along the wales. Single tricot derivatives are combinations of two, three, and more tricots mutually interlaced so that in the interspace between the adjacent loop carcasses there are one, two, and more carcasses of loops pertaining to other tricots. The tricot derivative obtained as a result of combining two tricot is called double-tricot or half-tricot (Fig. 58a). The combination of three tricots is called T-tricot or "charnHl" (Fig. 58b), etc. The half-tricot structure is formed of one warp, so that the loops of each yarn are disposed in turn in two wales, i.e. every other wale (Rb = 3, RH = 2). The loops in the half-tricot stitch have only single-side junctures, and for this reason the wales (visible from the face) have a zigzagshaped structure; from the reverse side of the structure, the loop skeletons are intersected by junctures. The systems of junctures e, e' (Fig. 58a) form at the reverse side sharply visible false wales orientated in the direction of the knit courses. Samples cut out from grey knitted fabric of half-tricot structure curl at the edges, i.e. along the line of courses towards the face, and along the line of wales towards the reverse side. Half-tricot ravels wi th difficulty, and for its running at least three wales must be unraveled. Charme or locknit (Fig. 58b) differs from half-tricot in the length of junctures. It is knitted from a one warp system and the loops are formed by one yarn in turn in adjacent courses, every two wales (Rb = 4; RH = 2). With an increase in derivation, the stitch repeat

in width also increases, i.e. for four-tricot Rb = 5, for five-tricot Rb=6andsoon.vVithanincreasein the value Rb, the length of junctures also increases. Consequently the mass of 1 m 2 of fabric becomes greater, and the angle of juncture inclination to the line of the loop course decreases, resulti.ng in the reduction of knitted fabric extensibility in ~\Vidthand in higher lustre of the reverse siele of the fabric.

Fig. 58. Single tricot

(a) half-tricot;

derivatives

and their graphical

representation

(b) channe

Charme and other tricot derivatives are even more difficult to ravel than half-tricot, and this may occur only in the sense reverse to knitting; they curl at the edges the same as half-tricot. Atlas derivatives have a structure similar to that of tricot derivatives; between the wales of one atlas are found one or several wales of a second or several similar atlases. In the atlas derivatives of the half-tricot type (Fig. 59), the yarns form loops over every other wale in the direction over a length of several courses, and then in the same order in the other direction. The smallest repeat of such an atlas in width is Rbmm = 5, and of the charme type atlas Rbmin = 7. of the atlas of the type four-tricot, R bmin = 9 and so on; R H min for an atlas of any type is equal to 4. Atlas derivatives are heavier than tricot derivatives due to the increased length of their junctures. They are less extensible in width, can be unravelled with difficulty only in the direction reverse to knitting, and, moreover, they curl from the edges in the same way as the standard single atlas.

Double chain (Fig. 60a) is the simplest double warp knit with loops of one yarn forming two wales: a face and a reverse wale. Double <chain is obtained by laying the yarn in the same needle of each bed.

Fig. 60b-j shows the diagram of different yarn laying on needles during the formation of double chain. When knitting a double chain, the yarn may be laid not only on the opposite needles of the bed, but ..onadjacent ones as well. In all cases, separate wales are formed which
r..J
/'

1h
I

l-JI

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A

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I

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I ,.w
1-

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--: 20

r
l.+I

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Z 0 8 5 4 Z 0
(f)

'I Z 0 5'1
(d) (e)

(a)

(c)

are not interconnected. Double chain does not curl and ravels only in the direction reverse to knitting. In case of yarn breakage in one wale and chain tensioning, this wale may ravel, so that the double chain is transformed into a plain chain. Double rib tricot (Fig. 61a) is a double warp stitch obtained from {:mewarp by a staggered (rib) disposition of needles in the beds as shown in the graph (Fig. 61b). The stitch is obtained by consecutively laying the yarn in three wales, one wale from one side of the knitted fabric being composed of loops formed by the same yarn, while the two adjacent wales on the other side are composed of loops of different yarns. The loops on one side of the knitted fabric have only single-side junctures, while the loops on the other side have only double-side jun-

ctures. Both sides of the knitted fabric have a zigzag shaped texture, the inclination of loops being greater on the fabric side formed by loops with single-side junctures. Double rib tricot does not curl at edges, and ravels (separates along the loop wale) only in the direction
Numerical Course two-stope N record
I JI
x

2-4

3-S
r2

3-1
(c)

D
(b)

N2 Nt

10,

reverse to knitting. The numerical record of the stitch is given in Fig. 6ie. Double rib atlas is also manufactured on machines with a staggered disposition of needles in the beds (as well as derivatives of rib

420

0 I bi rb)

tricot and atlas). Such two-bar knitting machines do not find practical application in the knitting industry nowadays. Machines in which the needles in both beds are disposed "in file" are widely used. Double tricot (Fig. 62a) is the simplest basic structure forming the fabric produced in these machines. In this warp structure each yarn consecutively forms loops first in one course on the face and reverse sides in the same wale, next, in the following course in the

neighbouring wale on the face and reverse sides, and finally in the initial wale. Both sides of double tricot have the same structure and all loops-single-side junctures; \\"ales are disposed in zigzag. Knit-

III

1I

-4

2
I

181

ted fabric of this structure ravels only in the direction reverse to knitting. Fig. 62b shows yarn laying in double tricot. Double atlas (Fig. 63) is a warp knit structure in which the loops are consecutively formed in many adjacent wales first in one direction and then in the other. The minimum repeats of double atlas in
II

~J Fig. 64. Double half-tricot and its graphical representation

0) = 4. same knitcombasic are

width and height are the same as in single atlas: Rb = 3, R H Knitted fabric of double atlas stitch does not curl and has the structure on both sides; it ravels only in the direction reverse to ting. The double warp knit derivatives are formed according to a mon principle, i.e. by the combination of two or several similar double warp stitches. Two groups of double warp derivatives known.

Double derivatives of tricot and atlas pertain to the first group. In the same way as in plain warp knits, by combining two double tricots a half-tricot is obtained; by the combination of three tricots
Rb !II
II

IY
III J
1

~
T

o (a)

181

1 18,

[ I 0 I
I

Fig. 65. Graphical representations of .

181

(b)

(c)

(a) double charme; (b) double fourtricot; double two-atlas

a double three-tricot (charme), etc. By the combination of two atlases a double two-atlas is formed. The structure and looping diagram of a double two-tricot are shown in Fig. 64a, b. The graphs of double charme, double four-tricot and

Fig. 66. Warp stitches

(a) interlock tricot; (b) interlock atlas

double two-atlas are given in Fig. 65a, b, c. With increased derivation, the length of junctures is increased, the extensibility is reduced, and the mass of knitted fabric is increased. The characteristic feature of double derivatives pertains to the first l roup in the same structure of wales at the face and back sides. Interlock warp knits constitute the second group. Interlock tricot (R b = 3; R H = 2) and interlock atlas (R bmln = 4; R Hmln =

~\

to

(j

(0/

= 4) are formed just like weft interlock of two rib warp-knitted tricot and atlas (Fig. 66a, b). In these structures, the junctures connect the adjacent wales in different loop layers. The face and back sides have different structures: in tricot one side has loops with two-side junctures, while the other has loops with one-side junctures and in atlas-loops with one-side and two-side junctures. Interlock deri vati ve of half-tricot with repeats Rb = 5, RH = 2 (Fig. 67a, b) is formed
RF'7

Fig. 68. Graphical representation derivative of two-atlas

of interlock

of two derivative rib tricots, while the interlock derivative triple tricot (charme) with repeats R b = 7, R Ii = 2 from three interlock charme, etc. The interlock derivative atlases have a similar structure. The graph of the interlock derivative two-atlas is given in Fig. 68. The greater the derivation of interlock warp knit structures, the more their mass and thickness, while their extensibility in width decreases. The wales have a zigzag structure; the inclination of wales with two-side junctures is less than with one-side junctures. All these structures do not curl at the edges and ravel only in the sense reverse to knitting.