Lecture #5

Todays Program:
1. Review: Fourth postulate discrete spectrum
2. Fourth postulate continuous spectrum
3. Fifth postulate and discussion of implications to time evolution
4. Average quantities
5. Position eigenvectors
6. Physical interpretation of ( )
2
0
x
7. Commutation relations
8. Commuting observables
9. Commutation of X and P operators
10. Physical implications simultaneous measurements
Questions you will by able to answer by the end of todays lecture
1. What are the position observables eigenfunctions and eigenvalues?
2. Given a wave function for a particle what is the probability of finding the particle
as a function of spatial coordinates.
3. Why cant we measure the position and momentum simultaneously?
4. know how to check if two operators commute.
5. Why cant we measure the position and momentum simultaneously?
Math tools covered today
1. The Dirac Delta function (see handout).
2. Commutation of operators.
3. Properties of operators that commute (common eigenfunctions)
Review of last lecture: Example from vector space:
We have a state:
0
1

| |
=
|
\
Wed like to predict the result of a physical measurement (energy) associated with the
following operator:
What are the possible outcomes of the energy measurement?
1 1
2 2
1
1
1, u
1
2
1
1
3, u
1
2

| |
= =
|

\
| |
= =
|
\
1 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
0 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
c c
u u
u u u u
| | | | | |
= + = +
| | |

\ \ \




The probability of obtaining the measurement
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1
2
2
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1, 1 1, 1
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
u u u
P u

| | | |
= = + =
| |

\ \

1 2

2 1
H
(
=
(

Fourth Postulate (continuous non-degenerate): When the physical quantity ais
measured on a system in the normalized state ( ) , r t

the probability ( ) dP a of obtaining
a result between a d + is
( ) ( ) ( )
2
dP u x x d

=
where ( ) u x

is the normalized eigenvector of A associated with the eigenvalue .

Fifth Postulate (discrete non-degenerate):
If the measurement of a physical quantity aon the system in the state ( ) , r t

gives the
result
n
a the state of the system immediately after the measurement is ( )
n
u x .
Consequences:
(i) The state of the system right after a measurement is always an eigenvector
corresponding to the specific eigenvalue which was the result of the measurement.
(ii) The state of the system is fundamentally perturbed by the measurement process.
( ) , 0 x
( )
0
, x t
( )
0
,
n
u x t
( )
1
, x t
Average quantities (or what would be the average result of physical measurement
performed over many identical states)
The average of a physical quantity represented by

A of a system in state is given by-

A
An example:
( ) ( )
( )( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 2 2 3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
2
1 1 2

...
,

... ...
... ...
n n
n n n
n n
n n n
n n n
H
c u c u c u c u
where
H u E u
H c u c u c u c u H c u c u c u c u
c u c u c u c u c E u c E u c E u c E u
c c E c c E c c E c c E
c E c

=
= + + + +
=
= + + + + + + =
= + + + + + + =
= + + +
= +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3
...
...

n n
n n
E c E c E
P E E P E E P E E P E E
H E
+ + +
= + + + +
= =
Example
What are the position observables X eigenvalues and eigenfunctions in the x
representation? how can we capture the fact that our particle is at a particular position
0
x ?
Look back at the definition of eigenvectors of an operator.
0

Xu x u =
we also know that the definition of the position operator (observable) is:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
0

x
X x x x u x x x = =
where the Dirac function is defined as:
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
x x x dx x

Discuss the physical reasoning behind the choice of the dirac delta function.
What are the momentum observables P eigenvalues and eigenfunctions in the x
representation?
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
0

Pu x p u x
u x p u x
i x
=

The free particles solution

ikx
e is a momentum eigenstate since:

ikx ikx ikx

p
e k e pe
i x

= =

This leads to the physical interpretation of the wavefunction squared.

When the position (corresponding to the observable X) is measured on a system in the
normalized state ( ) , r t

the probability ( )
0
dP x of obtaining a result between
0 0 0
x x dx + is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
2
2
2
0 0 0 0 0 x
dP x u x x dx x x x dx x dx

= = =

which is the probability density.

Commutation
Definition:
Two observables commute if

, 0 AB BA A B AB BA
(
= =

Do X and P commute?
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

,

,
X P x x x x x
i x i x
x x x x x
i x i i x
i x
X P i

(
=



=

=
(
=

Fundamental theorem (from algebra): If two operators A and B commute one can
construct a basis of the state space with eigenvectors common to A and B
Important Consequences:
A. One cannot measure X, P simultaneously!
Explanation: Once one performs a position measurement the system has to be in a
position eigenstate.
Lets try to rationalize this by an example pertaining to the infinite well: In this example
the particle is going to be described by a localized wave function f(x) described below
centered around
0
x and of width
Note: check if this function satisfies the definition of the delta function at the limit 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0
1
by construction
x x f x dx f x x x dx




=

The energy eigenfunctions are of the following form:

( )
2
2 2
odd cos cos
2 2
even sin sin
2
n
n
n
n
n
n x
n k x
d d d
u x
n x
n k x
d d d
mE n
k
d

= =

x
( ) f x
0
x
For simplicity we will assume that the particle is located around the origin, now we can
expand the wavefunction in terms of energy eigenfunctions:
( )
( )
1
2
2
2
2
2
cos
2 1 2
cos cos
2
sin
1 2 2
2
sin sin
2
2
n
n
n
n x
f x c
d d
n x n x
c f x dx
d d d d
n
d n x n
d d
n
n d d d d
d

=
= =
= = =

A parameter which represents the degree of confinement is:

d

let us now consider two limiting cases

1
d

= low confinement, and 1

d

<< high confinement

B. The effects of symmetry on the properties of the eigenfunctions.
Define a parity operator:
( ) ( )

x x =
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of this operator:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

1 u x u x u x u x u x = = = =
The eigenvectors of the parity operator all have definite parity either odd or even.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
even
odd
f x f x
f x f x
=
=
Look at the infinite well problem does H commute with the parity operator?
Know that
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
V x V x
m x m
x

+ = +

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

, ?

0
V X V X V X
V X x V X x V x x V x x
V x x V x x


(
= =

=
= =
Which means that that one can always find a set of eigenfunctions which are common to
both H and .