IRREGULAR VERBS Infinitive Arise Awake Be Bear Beat Become Begin Bend Bet Bind Bite Bleed Blow

Break Bring Build Burn Burst Buy Catch Choose Come Cost Creep Cut Deal Dig Do Draw Dream Drink Drive Eat Fall Feed Feel Fight Find Fly Forbid Forget Forgive Freeze Get Give Go Grind Grow Hang Past simple Arose Awoke Was/were Bore Beat Became Began Bent Bet Bound Bit Bled Blew Broke Brought Built Burned, burnt Burst Bought Caught Chose Came Cost Crept Cut Dealt Dug Did Drew Dreamed, dreamt Drank Drove Ate Fell Fed Felt Fought Found Flew Forbade Forgot Forgave Froze Got Gave Went Ground Grew Hung Past participle Arisen Awoken Been Borne Beaten Become Begun Bent Bet Bound Bitten Bled Blown Broken Brought Built Burned, burnt Burst Bought Caught Chosen Come Cost Crept Cut Dealt Dug Done Drawn Dreamed, dreamt Drunk Driven Eaten Fallen Fed Felt Fought Found Flown Forbidden Forgotten Forgiven Frozen Got Given Been/gone Ground Grown Hung

Have Hear Hide Hit Hold Hurt Keep Kneel Know Lay Lead Lean Leap Learn Leave Lend Let Lie Light Lose Make Mean Pay Put Quit Read Ride Ring Rise Run Say See Seek Sell Send Set Sew Shake Shine Shoot Show Shrink Shut Sing Sink Sit Sleep Slide Sling Slit Smell Sow

Had Heard Hid Hit Held Hurt Kept Knelt Knew Laid Led Leant Leapt Learnt, learned Left Lent Let Lay Lit Lost Made Meant Paid Put Quit Read Rode Rang Rose Ran Said Saw Sought Sold Sent Set Sewed Shook Shone Shot Showed Shrank, shrunk Shut Sang Sank Sat Slept Slid Slung Slit Smelt Sowed

Had Heard Hid Hit Held Hurt Kept Knelt Known Laid Led Leant Leapt Learnt, learned Left Lent Let Lain Lit Lost Made Meant Paid Put Quit Read Ridden Rung Risen Run Said Seen Sought Sold Sent Set Sewn Shaken Shone Shot Shown Shrunk Shut Sung Sunk Sat Slept Slid Slung Slit Smelt Sown

Speak Speed Spell Spend Spill Spin Split Spoil Spread Spring Stand Steal Stick Sting Stink Strike Swear Sweep Swell Swim Swing Take Teach Tear Tell Think Throw Thrust Tread Understand Upset Wake Wear Weave Weep Wet Win Write

Spoke Sped Spelt Spent Spilt Spun Split Spoilt Spread Sprang Stood Stole Stuck Stung Stank Struck Swore Swept Swelled Swam Swung Took Taught Tore Told Thought Threw Thrust Trod Understood Upset Woke Wore Wove, weaved Wept Wet Won Wrote

Spoken Sped Spelt Spent Spilt Spun Split Spoilt Spread Sprung Stood Stolen Stuck Stung Stunk Struck Sworn Swept Swollen Swum Swung Taken Taught Torn Told Thought Thrown Thrust Trodden Understood Upset Woken Worn Woven, weaved Wept Wet Won written

REPORTED SPEECH Direct: He said, Present Simple She works at the hospital. Present Continuous She is working at the hospital. Present Perfect Simple She has worked at the hospital. Present Perfect Continuous She has been working at the hospital. Past Simple She worked at the hospital. Past Continuous She was working at the hospital. Past Perfect Simple She had worked at the hospital. Past Perfect Continuous She had been working at the hospital. Future Simple She will work at the hospital. Future Continuous She will be working at the hospital. Can She can work at the hospital. May She may work at the hospital. Must/Have to She must/have to work at the hospital. Indirect: He said that Past Simple she worked at the hospital. Past Continuous she was working at the hospital. Past Perfect Simple she had worked at the hospital. Past Perfect Continuous she had been working at the hospital. Past Perfect Simple she had worked at the hospital. Past Perfect Continuous she had been working at the hospital. NO CHANGE NO CHANGE Future Past Simple she would work at the hospital. Future Past Continuous she would be working at the hospital. Could she could work at the hospital. Might she might work at the hospital. Had to she had to work at the hospital.

Note: The following modals and semi-modals do not change: Should, could, would, might, ought to and used to. Direct Speech Now Today Yesterday Tomorrow Next week/month Last week/month A week/month ago This These Here Indirect Speech Then That day The day before, the precious day The next day, the following day, the day after The following week/month The previous week/month, the week/month before The week/month before That Those There

Ask, advise, beg, invite, order, remind, tell, warn. He advised me not to tell She asked me to

MODAL VERBS Estructura En los verbos infinitivos no usamos el to excepto en ought to

We must save some money before we buy any new games. Games should be cheaper. BUT Shops ought to reduce their prices. En los verbos modales no se aade la s de la tercera persona del singular

He can break the code. Los verbos modales no usan el verbo auxiliar do/does para hacer formas negativas, interrogativas ni respuestas cortas.

She shouldnt play games all evening. May I help you? Yes, you may. They can swap files, cant they? We neednt upgrade the computer its good enough. Ability and permission Can, could, be able to, be allowed to Usamos el verbo modal can para hablar de habilidades en el presente

I can download any song, DVD, game or program I like. I cant see it. Usamos el verbo modal could para hablar de habilidades en el pasado

20 years ago you couldnt download music from the internet. BUT NOT I didnt see anything. Can y could no se pueden usar en todas las oraciones para hablar de habilidad. Podemos usar be able to en las otras oraciones.

He hadnt been able to watch DVDs on his PS2. He will never be able to beat me! Usamos el verbo modal can para hablar de permiso en el presente

Can I borrow this game, please? Yes, but you cant borrow that one.

Usamos el verbo modal could para hablar de permiso en el pasado

In the summer holidays we could play on the computer all day. Can y could no se pueden usar en todas las oraciones para hablar de permiso. Podemos usar be allowed to (el cual no es un verbo modal) en las otras oraciones.

Soon you will be allowed to download anything for a small fee. I have never been allowed to visit chatrooms. Usamos mustnt para expresar una fuerte prohibicin

You mustnt download music illegally, you might get caught. Possibility and deduction May, might, can, could, must Usamos may, may not, might, might not y could para referirnos a posibilidad en el presente o futuro

The Government might put a tax on the internet. Taxes may not succeed in stopping pirating. They could even put a tax on blank DVDs. NOT The can even put a tax on blank DVDs. Usamos cant cuando creemos que algo es imposible

That cant be true. It cant be easy to be a champion gamer. Usamos must y cant cuando hacemos deducciones lgicas

You must play a lot you play really well. It must be exciting to be a hacker but you could get into trouble. Company secrets cant be safe if hackers can steal them. Obligation and necessity Must, have to, need, should, and ought to Usamos must (o have to) para hablar de obligacin

All students must pay to go online. You must install anti-virus software. Usamos neednt (o dont have to) cuando no hay obligacin

You neednt be an expert to pirate songs or films.

You dont have to know much about computers at all. El verbo modal need (sin to), solo se usa en las formas negativas y interrogativas. En las afirmativas usamos need to para expresar necesidad

Someone needs to find a solution to reduce piracy. You need to know a lot about computers to be a hacker. Usamos ought to, should y shouldnt para advertir y dar recomendaciones.

People ought to pay to download music. You shouldnt turn the computer off before shutting down properly. Comparatives and superlatives Estructura Los adjetivos de una sola silaba terminados en e, en la forma comparativa se le aade r, y en el superlativo st Los adjetivos de una sola silaba terminados en consonante, en la forma comparativa se le aade er, y en el superlativo est Los adjetivos de dos silabas terminados en y, en la forma comparativa se le quita la y, y se le aade ier, y en el superlativo tambin se le quita la terminacin y, y se aade iest Los adjetivos de dos o ms silabas, en los comparativos aadimos more, y en el superlativo the most COMPARATIVE Nicer Cheaper Heavier More expensive Worse Better Farther/further SUPERALTIVE The nicest The cheapest The heaviest The most expensive The worst The best The farthest/the furthest

ADJECTIVE Nice Cheap Heavy Ex-pen-sive IRREGULAR Bad Good Far

CONDITIONALS If, unless, even if, as long as, providing that If I were all alone in a dark street, I would feel very afraid. = I would feel very afraid if I were all alone in a dark street. Tambin podemos usar ifnot o unless para expresar negatividad

If you dont tell your parents the truth, you cant expect them to trust you. = Unless you tell your parents the truth, you cant expect them to trust you. Para reemplazar if tambin podemos usar even if, as long as, o providing that

Even if Even if I won millions, I wouldnt give you a cent. (Present/future) Even if I had won millions, I wouldnt have given you a cent. (Past) Even if you tell the truth now, nobody will believe you. (Present/future) Usamos as long as o providing that para referirnos a but only if. Suelen usarse en el primer condicional

You can take me to the concert but only if you pay. You can take me to the concert as long as you pay. I will return the wallet but only if theres a reward. I will return the wallet providing that theres a reward. Zero conditional Estructura <If/when + present simple>, <present simple/imperative> O <Present simple/imperative> <if/when + present simple> If you have a strong campaign, the public listens. When you see the police coming, run! = Run when you see the police coming! Usamos el condicional cero para: Referirnos a una situacin que siempre es verdad

If I stay up all night, I cant concentrate the next day. Dar ordenes

If you see Marta, tell her Im waiting. First conditional Estructura <if/unless + present simple>, <will/infinitive> OR

<will/infinitive> <if + present simple> You will have to stay in your room if your behaviour doesnt improve. If your behaviour doesnt improve, you will have to stay in your room. Uso Usamos el primer condicional para: Hablar de posibles o probables eventos futuros

If you are honest, people will respect you. If you are unkind, I wont have any respect for you. Hacer promesas y dar advertencias

If you drink and drive tonight, I will take a taxi home. If you smoke in a bar in Ireland, you will be fined! Second conditional Estructura <if + past simple>, <would + infinitive> OR <would + infinitive> <if + past simple> Uso Usamos el segundo condicional para hablar de situaciones hipotticas (imaginarias o improbables) del presente y el futuro

If I found a wallet, I had keep the money. = I had keep the money if I found a wallet. Remember! Usamos were y no was en la primera y tercera persona del singular en el lenguaje formal

If I were president, I had ban smoking in all public places. If alcohol were illegal, people might drink more. A veces usamos was en la primera y tercera persona para el lenguaje informal

If I was you, I had tell the truth. Third conditional Estructura <if + past perfect>, <would have + past participle>

OR <would have + past participle> <if + past perfect> If you had got drunk, I wouldnt have got in the car with you. I would have forgiven you if you had told me the truth straight. Uso Usamos el tercer condicional para hablar de hipotticos eventos en el pasado (que no han pasado)

If they had sentenced him to death, it would have been immoral. If he had broken the speed limit, the police would have caught him on camera. Wish + past / past perfect / would Usamos wish y if only + past simple/continuous o could cuando queremos que una situacin o cosa en el presente sea diferente o cambie

I wish I didnt have to hurry. I wish he was going out with me. I wish I could respect you. Usamos wish + would para quejarnos sobre una cosa o situacin

I wish you wouldnt be so intolerant. I wish my father would drive more slowly. He wishes his children would behave. Usamos wish y if only + past perfect simple/continuous o could have + past participle cuando queremos que una situacin o cosa sea diferente o cambie en el pasado

I wish we hadnt missed the train. (We missed the train.) I wish I could have gone to university, but I didnt study hard enough at school. (I couldnt go to university.) If only tiene ms nfasis que wish

If only I could have been there. = I really wish I could have been there. (I couldnt be there.) If only I could sing. = I really wish I could sing. (I cant sing.) Remember! Para deseos en el futuro, usamos hope

I hope I can prove my innocence.

I hope they dont introduce the death penalty in my country. RELATIVE CLAUSES Relative pronouns That, when, where, which, who, whose Usamos who y that para referirnos a personas

The player who/that endorsed the computer game must apologize publicly. Usamos which y that para referirnos a cosas

Heres the gold medal which/that she won for the 800 m. Usamos where para referirnos a espacios y lugares

This is the new stadium where Oxford United play. Usamos when para referirnos al tiempo

The World Cup is the time when the best players become world famous. Usamos whose para expresar posesin

Whose kit is this? NOT Of who is this kit? Thats the player whose leg was broken last season. Remember! Whos Who is/who has Whos that player? = Who is that player? Thats the player whos just left Manchester United = Thats the player who has just left Manchester United. DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING CLAUSES Defining relative clauses Son aquellos que nos dan informacin necesaria, es decir, que sin ellos la oracin estara incompleta

There are players. There are players who make more money from advertising than from playing. Beckham is the player. Beckham is the player who advertisers prefer. Non-defining relative clauses Son aquellos que nos dan informacin extra, es decir, que sin ellos la oracin seguira estando correcta (siempre va entre comas)

Events like the Gran Prix attract sponsors and advertisers. La oracin ya est completa, pero podemos aadir informacin extra

Events like the Gran Prix, which have huge audiences, attract sponsors and advertisers. Remember! No podemos usar that en las non-defining relative clauses. Siempre usamos who o which

Basketball, which is my favourite sport, isnt on TV very often. NOT Basketball, that is my favourite sport, isnt on TV very often. Prepositions with pronouns En el lenguaje formal se aade una preposicin delante del pronombre relativo, pero en el lenguaje informal se suele poner al final de la oracin

Wembley is the stadium in which they were defeated. Wembley is the stadium that they were defeated in. For whom did they play? Who did they play for? Who y that no se usan despus de las preposiciones

The team for whom I played never won a match. NOT The team for who I played never won a match.