Module

7 Screw threads and gear manufacturing

Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur

methods

Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur

Lesson
32 Manufacturing of Gears.
Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur

Instructional objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to (i (ii (iii (iv (v !tate the basic purposes of use of gears "ite the general applications of gears "lassif# the t#pes of gears of co$$on use !pecif# gears %escribe the different $ethods of $anufacturing various t#pes of gears (a &refor$ing (b &roducing gear teeth b# $achining (c 'inishing gear teeth

(i

(asic &urpose )f *se )f +ears

+ears are widel# used in various $echanis$s and devices to trans$it power and $otion positivel# (without slip between parallel, intersecting ( a,is or non-intersecting non parallel shafts, without change in the direction of rotation with change in the direction of rotation without change of speed (of rotation with change in speed at an# desired ratio )ften so$e gearing s#ste$ (rac. / and / pinion is also used to transfor$ rotar# $otion into linear $otion and vice-versa0

Fig. 7.2.1 Features of spur gears and involute tooth profile

Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur

+ears are basicall# wheels having, on its peripher#, e1uispaced teeth which are so designed that those wheels trans$it, without slip, rotar# $otion s$oothl# and unifor$l# with $ini$u$ friction and wear at the $ating tooth / profiles0 To achieve those favourable conditions, $ost of the gears have their tooth for$ based on involute curve, which can si$pl# be defined as 2ocus of a point on a straight line which is rolled on the peripher# of a circle or 2ocus of the end point of a stretched string while its unwinding over a c#linder as indicated in 'ig0 30204 (ii +eneral Applications )f +ears

+ears of various t#pe, si5e and $aterial are widel# used in several $achines and s#ste$s re1uiring positive and stepped drive0 The $ajor applications are 6 !peed gear bo,, feed gear bo, and so$e other .ine$atic units of $achine tools !peed drives in te,tile, jute and si$ilar $achineries +ear bo,es of auto$obiles !peed and 7 or feed drives of several $etal for$ing $achines Machineries for $ining, tea processing etc0 2arge and heav# dut# gear bo,es used in ce$ent industries, sugar industries, cranes, conve#ors etc0 &recision e1uip$ents, cloc.s and watches Industrial robots and to#s0

(iii T#pes )f +ears And Their "haracteristics

+ears are broadl# classified (a) According to configuration ('ig0 30202 E,ternal gear Internal gear

Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur

(b)

(a) Fig. 7.2.2 Configuration of (a) external and (b) internal gears

Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur

(b) According to axes of transmission Spur trans$itting rotation between parallel shafts as showngears in 'ig0 / 30208 o !traight toothed o 9elical toothed !ingle helical

double helical (herringbone

Fig. 7.2.3 (a) Straight toothed (b)Helical and (c) Double helical gears "o$pared to straight toothed gears, helical toothed gears run $ore s$oothl# and can trans$it larger tor1ue0 %ouble helical gears are of large si5e and used for heav# tor1ue trans$ission0 (evel gears / trans$itting $otion between intersecting shafts (a,es ('ig0 3020: o !traight toothed o 9elical toothed !piral bevel gear 9#poid gear 9elical toothed bevel gears are used for s$oother and larger tor1ue trans$ission0 +ears trans$itting $otion and power between non-parallel nonintersecting shafts ('ig0 3020; o <or$ and wor$ wheel o !piral gears o !.ewed or h#poid bevel gears

<or$ and wor$ wheel are generall# used for speed reduction but are irreversible i0e0, rotation can be trans$itted onl# fro$ the wor$ to the wor$ wheel unless the heli, angle is tool large0 !piral gears are used when tor1ue or power to be trans$itted is insignificant0

(c) According to pattern of motion =otation to rotation 6 - ('ig0 3020> wheel t#pe gears =otation to translation or vice versa / e0g0 rac. and pinion o !traight toothed o 9elical toothed

(a)

+ +

(b)

(c)

Fig. 7.2.4 Bevel gears; (a) straight toothed, (b) spiral and hypoid gears

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 7.2.5 ears trans!itting po"er bet"een non#parallel non intersecting shafts$ (a) "or! and "or! "heel, (b) hypoid gear and (c) spiral gears$

(a) Fig. 7.2.6 (iv

(b)

earing syste!s transfor!ing (a) rotation to rotation and (b) rotation to translation

!pecification )f +ears

+ears are generall# specified b# their T#pe? e0g0 spur, bevel, spiral etc0 Material !i5e or di$ensions +eo$etr# !pecial features, if an#

Type of gears / has alread# been discussed in the previous section (iii

Gear materials The $aterials of $ost of the gears used for trans$itting reasonable tor1ue and speed $ainl# need to be $echanicall# strong in shear and bending, sufficientl# tough and resistant to wear, fatigue and che$ical degradation0 9owever, the $aterial for an# gear is selected based on, The wor.ing condition ie, power, speed and tor1ue to be trans$itted <or.ing environ$ent, i0e0, te$perature, vibration, che$ical etc0 Ease of $anufacture

)verall cost of $aterial and $anufacture The $aterials generall# used for $a.ing gears are 6 'errous $etals / for high loads +re# cast iron / preferred for reasonable strength and wear resistance, ease of casting and $achining and low cost 'orged or rolled high carbon steels and allo# steels (@i-"r, Mo etc0 which are either full# hardened or surface hardened for use under high stresses and speed0

@on ferrous $etals / for light load Alu$iniu$, bron5e and brass are used for $a.ing gears having fine teeth and wor.ing at ver# light load / e0g0, in e1uip$ents, to#s etc0 or against hard steel $ating gears Alu$iniu$ allo#s li.e alu$iniu$ bron5e, Ainc / Al0 allo# etc0

@on-$etals / widel# used for light load, non-precision and noiseless operation0 &ol#$ers (plastics 6 both the$oplastic and ther$osetting t#pe and various co$posites ($etals, graphite, wood dust or cera$ic powders dispersed in ther$osetting plastics

Size or major dimensions The di$ensional features that are used to e,press or specif# the gears are ? 'or spur gears and wor$ wheels nu$ber of teeth, 5 $odule, $ heli, angle, if an# ( width (b

'or e,a$ple, pitch circle dia$eter (&"% B $A7cos 'or wor$ (single or double toothed gears nu$ber of start $odule heli, angle length

Gear geometry !o$e geo$etrical features also need to be $entioned while specif#ing gears, such as, &ressure angle Addendu$ and dedendu$

Special features If there be an# special feature, that also has to be included with gear specification, such as Tooth bevelling for safe handling Tooth crowning for unifor$ wear and long service life Tooth rounding for eas# engage$ent as indicated in 'ig0 30203

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7.2.7 %odification of spur gear tooth; (a) cro"ning and (b) tooth rounding (V Manufacture )f +ears Manufacture of gears needs several processing operations in se1uential stages depending upon the $aterial and t#pe of the gears and 1ualit# desired0 Those stages generall# are 6 &refor$ing the blan. without or with teeth Annealing of the blan., if re1uired, as in case of forged or cast steels &reparation of the gear blan. to the re1uired di$ensions b# $achining &roducing teeth or finishing the prefor$ed teeth b# $achining 'ull or surface hardening of the $achined gear (teeth , if re1uired 'inishing teeth, if re1uired, b# shaving, grinding etc0 Inspection of the finished gears0 In this section, perfor$ing, producing teeth b# $achining and gear teeth finishing have been discussed in detail0 &refor$ing +ear (lan.s

Casting +ear blan.s and even gears along with teeth re1uiring substantial to little $achining or finishing are produced b# various casting processes0 Sand casting The blan.s of large cast iron gears, if re1uired to be $ade one or few pieces, are produced b# sand casting0 Then the blan. is prepared to appropriate di$ensions and the teeth are produced b# $achining that cast prefor$0 "o$plete gears with teeth can also be directl# produced b# such casting and used at low speed in $achineries li.e far$

$achiner# and hand operated devices where gear accurac# and finish are not that $uch re1uired0 Metal mould casting Mediu$ si5e steel gears with li$ited accurac# and finish are often $ade in single or few pieces b# $etal $ould casting0 !uch unfinished gears are used in several agro-industries0 'or general and precision use the cast prefor$s are properl# $achined0 ie casting 2arge lot or $ass production of s$all gears of low $elting point allo#s of Al, An, "u, Mg etc0 are done $ainl# b# die casting0 !uch reasonabl# accurate gears are directl# or after little further finishing are used under light load and $oderate speeds, for e,a$ple in instru$ents, ca$era, to#s0 !n"estment casting This near-net-shape $ethod is used for producing s$all to $ediu$ si5e gears of e,otic $aterials with high accurac# and surface finish hardl# re1uiring further finishing0 These relativel# costl# gears are generall# used under heav# loads and stresses0 S#ell mould casting !$all gears in batches are also often produced b# this process0 The

1ualit# provided b# this process lies in between that of sand casting and invest$ent casting0 Centrifugal casting The solid blan.s or the outer ri$s (without teeth of wor$ wheels $ade

of cast iron, phosphor bron5e or even steel are preferabl# prefor$ed b# centrifugal casting0 The perfor$s are $achined to for$ the gear blan. of proper si5e0 Then the teeth are developed b# $achining0 Manufacture of gears by

rolling The straight and helical teeth of disc or rod t#pe e,ternal steel gears of s$all to $ediu$ dia$eter and $odule are generated b# cold rolling b# either flat dies or circular dies as shown in 'ig0 3020C0 !uch rolling i$parts high accurac# and surface integrit# of the teeth which are for$ed b# $aterial flow unli.e cutting0 +ear rolling is reasonabl# e$plo#ed for high productivit# and high 1ualit# though initial $achiner# costs are relativel# high0 2arger si5e gears are for$ed b# hot rolling and then finished b# $achining

flat die (rac$ type) gear blan$

Fig. 7.2.8 &roduction of teeth of spur gears by rolling$ %o&d er metall urgy !$all si5e high 1ualit# e,ternal or internal spur, bevel or spiral gears are also produced b# powder $etallurg# process0 2arge si5e gears are rolled after bri1uetting and sintering for $ore strength and life0 &owder $etallurgicall# produced gears hardl# re1uire an# further finishing wor.0

'lan$ing

in

%ress

tool

M a s s p r o d u c ti o n o f s $ a ll a n d t h i n $ e t a ll i c g e a r s r e 1 u i r i n g l e s s a c c u r a c # a n d fi n i s h a r e o f t e n d o n e b # b l a

n.ing fro$ sheets b# suitabl# designed die and punch0 !uch gears are used for cloc.s, watches, $eters, to#s etc0 9owever, 1ualit# gears can also be produced b# slight finishing (shaving after blan.ing0

%las

tic

mou

ldin

g !$all to $ediu$ si5e plastic gears with or without $etal core are $anufactured in large 1uantit# b# injection $oulding0 !uch $oderatel# accurate and less nois# gears, both e,ternal and internal t#pes, are used under light loads such as e1uip$ents, to#s, $eters etc0

(xtru

sion

proce

ss 9igh 1ualit# s$all $etallic or non $etallic e,ternal gears are often produced in large 1uantit# b# e,trusion0 @u$ber of gears of desired width are obtained b# parting fro$ the e,truded rod of gear / section0

 )ire ( M +eo$etricall# accurate but $oderatel# finished straight toothed $etallic spur gears, both e,ternal and internal t#pe, can be produced b# wire t#pe Electro- discharge Machining (E%M as shown in 'ig0 3020D

Fig. 7.2.9 &roduction of teeth of external and internal spur gears by 'ire# (lectrodischarge !achining ((D%) %roduction of Gear Teet# by Mac#ining It appears fro$ the previous section that gears are $anufactured in several routes ? The prefor$ed blan.s of appro,i$ate shape and irregular surface are $achined to desired di$ensions and finish and then the teeth are produced generall# b# $achining and occasionall# b# rolling0 'ull gears with teeth are $ade b# different processes and then finished b# further $achining and 7 or grinding Accurate gears in finished for$ are directl# produced b# near / net / shape process li.e rolling, plastic $oulding, powder $etallurg# etc0 re1uiring slight or no further finishing0 The $ost co$$onl# practiced $ethod is prefor$ing the blan. b# casting, forging etc0 followed b# pre-$achining to prepare the gear blan. to desired di$ensions and then production of the teeth b# $achining and further finishing b# grinding if necessar#0 +ear teeth are produced b# $achining based on *orming / where the profile of the teeth are obtained as the replica of the for$ of the cutting tool (edge ? e0g0, $illing, broaching etc0 Generation / where the co$plicated tooth profile are provided b# $uch si$pler for$ cutting tool (edges through rolling t#pe, tool / wor. $otions, e0g0, hobbing, gear shaping etc0

Met#ods of production of gear teet# by mac#ining on *orming principle

S#aping+ planing and slotting 'ig0 30204E sche$aticall# shows how teeth of straight toothed spur gear can be produced in shaping $achine, if necessar#0 (oth productivit# and product 1ualit# are ver# low in this process which therefore, is used, if at all, for $a.ing one or few teeth on one or two pieces of gears as and when re1uired for repair and $aintenance purpose0 In principle planning and slotting $achines wor. on the sa$e principle0 &laning $achine is used, if re1uired at all, for $a.ing teeth of large gears whereas slotting, generall#, for internal gears0 Milling +ear teeth can be produced b# both disc and end $ill t#pe for$ $illing cutter as shown in 'ig0 302044 &roduction of gear teeth b# for$ $illing are characterised b# 6 use of 9!! for$ $illing cutters use of ordinar# $illing $achines low production rate for need of inde,ing after $achining each tooth gap slow speed and feed low accurac# and surface finish inventor# proble$ / due to need of a set of eight cutters for each $odule / pressure angle co$bination0 End $ill t#pe cutters are used for teeth of large gears and 7 or $odule0

Fig. 7.2.10

ear teeth cutting in ordinary shaping !achine$

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 7.2.11 &roducing external teeth by for! !illing cutters (a) disc type and end !ill type for (b) single helical and (c) double helical teeth *ast production of teet# of spur gears

%arallel multiple teet# s#aping In principle, it is si$ilar to ordinar# shaping but all the tooth gaps are $ade si$ultaneousl#, without re1uiring inde,ing, b# a set of radiall# infeeding single point for$ tools as indicated in 'ig0 302042(a 0 This old process was highl# productive but beca$e al$ost obsolete for ver# high initial and running cutting tools costs0 gear

(a)

(b) Cutting stro$e

Fig. 7.2.12 High production of straight teeth of external spur gears by (a) parallel shaping (for!ing) and (b) broaching

 'roac#ing Teeth of s$all internal and e,ternal spur gears? straight or single helical, of relativel# softer $aterials are produced in large 1uantit# b# this process0 'ig0 302042 (b sche$aticall# shows how e,ternal teeth are produced b# a broaching in one pass0 This $ethod leads to ver# high productivit# and 1ualit# but cost of $achine and broach are ver# high0 %roduction of gear teet# by mac#ining on Generation principle +eneration $ethod is characterised b# auto$atic inde,ing and abilit# of a single cutter to cover the entire range of nu$ber of teeth for a given co$bination of $odule and pressure angle and hence provides high productivit# and econo$#0 Sunderland met#od using rac$ type cutter 'ig0 302048 sche$aticall# shows the principle of this generation process where the rac. t#pe 9!! cutter (having ra.e and clearance angles reciprocates to acco$plish the $achining (cutting action while rolling t#pe interaction with the gear blan. li.e a pair of rac. and pinion0 The favourable and essential applications of this $ethod (and $achine include 6 $oderate si5e straight and helical toothed e,ternal spur gears with high accurac# and finish cutting the teeth of double helical or herringbone gears with a central recess (groove

cutting teeth of straight or helical fluted cluster gears 9owever this $ethod needs, though auto$atic, few inde,ing operations0

Fig. 7.2.13

(xternal gear teeth generation by rac) type cutter (Sunderland !ethod)

Gear s#aping In principle, gear shaping is si$ilar to the rac. t#pe cutting process, e,cepting that, the linear t#pe rac. cutter is replaced b# a circular cutter as indicated in 'ig0 30204:, where both the cutter and the blan. rotate as a pair of spur gears in addition to the reciprocation of the cutter0

+eneration $ethod is characterised b# auto$atic inde,ing and abilit# of a single cutter to cover the entire range of nu$ber of teeth for a given co$bination of $odule and pressure angle and hence provides high productivit# and econo$#0 The gear t#pe cutter is $ade of 9!! and possesses proper ra.e and clearance angles0 The additional advantages of gear shaping over rac. t#pe cutting are 6 separate inde,ing is not re1uired at all straight or helical teeth of both e,ternal and internal spur gears can be produced with high accurac# and finish productivit# is also higher0

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7.2.14

ear teeth generation by gear shaping (a) external and (b) internal spur gear

,obbing The tool-wor. configuration and $otions in hobbing are shown in 'ig0 30204;, where the 9!! or carbide cutter having teeth li.e gear $illing cutter and the gear blan. apparentl# interact li.e a pair of wor$ and wor$ wheel0 The hob (cutter loo.s and behaves li.e a single or $ultiple start wor$0 9aving lesser nu$ber (onl# three of tool / wor. $otions, hobbing $achines are $uch $ore rigid, strong and productive than gear shaping $achine0 (ut hobbing provides lesser accurac# and finish and is used onl# for cutting straight or helical teeth (single of e,ternal spur gears and wor$ wheels0

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 7.2.15 eneration of external gear teeth by Hobbing * (a straight tooth (b helical tooth and (c wor$ wheel

 Manufacture of &orm The screw li.e single or $ulti-start wor$s (gears $ade of steel are generall# $ade b# $achining li.e long thread $illing or b# cold rolling li.e thread rolling followed b# heat treat$ent for surface hardening and finishing b# grinding0 Manufacture of be"el gears In $anufacture of bevel gears, first the blan.s are prefor$ed b# casting or forging followed b# $achining to desired di$ensions in lathes or special purpose $achine0 Then the teeth are produced in the blan. b# $achining0 The wa# of $achining and $achine tool are chosen based on the for$ of teeth and volu$e of production as follows 6 !traight toothed bevel gear o 'or$ing b# $illing cutter / low productivit# and 1ualit# hence e$plo#ed for production re1uiring less volu$e and precision o +eneration / high accurac# and finish, hence applied for batch to $ass production0 'ig0 30204> sche$aticall# shows the principle of for$ing and generation of teeth of straight toothed bevel gear0 In generation process, the inner flan.s of two adjacent teeth are developed with involute profile b# the straight teeth of the cutters under rolling action0 Teeth of spiral and h#poid bevel gears are produced b# al$ost the sa$e generation principle but the cutter rese$bles face $illing cutter as shown in 'ig0 3020430

(a) Fig. 7.2.16

(b) &roduction of teeth of straight toothed spur gear by (a) for!ing and (b) generation

Fig. 7.2.17

eneration of teeth of spiral and hypoid bevel gear$

*inis#ing of Gear Teet# 'or s$ooth running, good perfor$ance and long service life, the gears need to be accurate in di$ensions and for$s to have high surface finish and to be hard and wear resistive at their tooth flan.s which are achieved b# so$e gear teeth finishing wor. after near accurate prefor$ing and $achining0 !$all gears $ade b# cold rolling generall# do not re1uire further finishing0 If a rolled gear needs further surface hardening onl# then little finishing b# grinding and 7 or lapping is done after hardening0 +ears produced to near-net-shape b# die casting, powder $etallurg#, e,trusion, blan.ing etc0 need little finishing0 (ut $achined and hardened gear teeth are essentiall# finished for accurac# and surface finish0 "o$$on $ethods of gear teeth finishing +ear teeth, after prefor$ing and $achining, are finished generall# b#? for soft and unhardened gears gear shaving gear rolling or burnishing for hard and hardened gears grinding lapping for soft but precision gears shaving followed b# surface hardening and then lapping

 Gear s#a"ing The teeth of straight or helical toothed e,ternal spur gears and wor$ wheels of $oderate si5e and $ade of soft $aterials li.e alu$iniu$ allo#, brass, bron5e, cast iron etc0 and unhardened steels are $ostl# finished b# shaving process0 'ig0 30204C shows the different t#pes of shaving cutters which while their finishing action wor. apparentl# as a spur gear, rac. or wor$ in $esh with the conjugate gears to be finished0 All those gear, rac. or wor$ t#pe shaving cutters are of hard steel or 9!! and their teeth are unifor$l# serrated as shown in 'ig0 30204D(a to generate sharp cutting edges0 <hile interacting with the gears, the cutting teeth of the shaving cutter .eep on s$oothening the $ating gear flan.s b# fine $achining to high accurac# and surface finish0 'or such $inute cutting action, the shaving teeth need an actual or apparent $ove$ent relative to the $ating teeth along their length as indicated in 'ig0 30204D (b 0 Gear rolling or burnis#ing In this $ethod the $achined gear is rolled under pressure with three hardened $aster gears of high accurac# and finish0 The $inute irregularities of the $achined gear teeth are s$eared off b# cold plastic flow, which also helps in i$proving the surface integrit# of the desired teeth0

(b) (a)

(c) Fig. 7.2.18 ear shaving cutters of (a) spur gear type (b) rac) and (c) "or! type

(a) Fig. 7.2.19

(b) Cutting teeth of gear shaving (a) cutter and its (b) action

Gear teet# grinding +rinding is a ver# accurate $ethod and is, though relativel# e,pensive, $ore widel# used for finishing teeth of different t#pe and si5e of gears of hard $aterial or hardened surfaces0 The properl# for$ed and dressed wheel finishes the gear teeth flan.s b# fine $achining or abrading action of the fine abrasives0 2i.e gear $illing, gear grinding is also done on two principles 'or$ing +eneration, which is $ore productive and accurate

Gear teet# grinding on forming principle This is ver# si$ilar to $achining gear teeth b# a single disc t#pe for$ $illing cutter as indicated in 'ig0 30202E where the grinding wheel is dressed to the for$ that is e,actl# re1uired on the gear0 @eed of inde,ing $a.es the process slow and less accurate0 The wheel or dressing has to be changed with change in $odule, pressure angle and even nu$ber of teeth0 'or$ grinding $a# be used for finishing straight or single helical spur gears, straight toothed bevel gears as well as wor$ and wor$ wheels0 Gear teet# grinding on generation principle 'ig0 302024 sche$aticall# shows the $ethods of finishing spur gear teeth b# grinding on generation principle0 The si$plest and $ost widel# used $ethod is ver# si$ilar to spur gear teeth generation b# one or $ulti-toothed rac. cutter0 The single or $ulti-ribbed rotating grinding wheel is reciprocated along the gear teeth as shown0 )ther tool

/ wor. $otions re$ain sa$e as in gear teeth generation b# rac. t#pe cutter as indicated in 'ig0 3020480 'or finishing large gear teeth a pair of thin dish t#pe grinding wheels are used as shown in 'ig0 302024 (c 0 <hatsoever, the contacting surfaces of the wheels are $ade to behave as the two flan.s of the virtual rac. tooth0

&#eel

gear

Fig. 7.2.20

ear teeth finishing by for! grinding

"

(a) Fig. 7.2.21

(b)

(c)

ear teeth grinding on generation principle$

Gear teet# finis#ing by lapping The lapping process onl# corrects $inute deviations fro$ the desired gear tooth profiles0 The gear to be finished after $achining and heat treat$ent and even after grinding is run in $esh with a gear shaped lapping tool or another $ating gear of cast iron0 An abrasive lapping co$pound is used in between the$0 The gear tooth contact substantiall# i$proves b# such lapping0