An Integrated Earth Science, Astronomy, and Physics Course for Elementary Education Majors

Plotnick, Roy E ; Varelas, Maria ; Fan, Qian (Mar 2009): 52! 5". #$rn on %it %i&%li&%tin& 'or s(eakin& )ro*sers +i,e %i&%li&%tin& -%o* ,$(licate ite.s 'ro. ot%er ,ata)ases . Journal of Geoscience Education 57.2

Abstract (summary
#ranslate /)stract P%ysical 0orl, is a one!se.ester co$rse ,esi&ne, 'or ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors, t%at inte&rates eart% science, astrono.y, an, (%ysics. #%e co$rse is (art o' a 'o$r!co$rse set t%at e2(lores science conce(ts, (rocesses, an, skills, alon& *it% t%e nat$re o' scienti'ic (ractice, t%at are incl$,e, in state an, national stan,ar,s 'or ele.entary sc%ool science. 3eoscience conce(ts, s$c% as *ater an, seis.ic *a4es, are $se, to ill$strate &eneral (rinci(les o' (%ysics, s$c% as *a4e trans.ission, re'raction, re'lection, an, inter'erence. 5a)oratories are ,ra*n 'ro. )ot% intro,$ctory (%ysics an, eart% science co$rses an, %a4e )een re,esi&ne, to %a4e a stron& in6$iry co.(onent. Pre!assess.ents *ere $se, to e4al$ate st$,ents7 (rior kno*le,&e o' key i,eas. #%e $se o' (yra.i, tests .eas$ra)ly en%ance, st$,ent (er'or.ance. / .a1or t%e.e o' t%e co$rse is %o* science is re(resente, (an, .isre(resente,) in t%e .e,ia. Pe,a&o&ical c%allen&es enco$ntere, in t%e co$rse are ,$e to 4ario$s 'actors, t*o .ain ones )ein& lack o' (re4io$s e2(erience *it% t%e nat$ral *orl, a.on& a lar&ely $r)an st$,ent )o,y an, t%e ,i4ersity o' .aterial t%at t%e co$rse co4ers. 8P9:5;</#;=> /:-#R/<#?

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#eadnote /:-#R/<# P%ysical 0orl, is a one!se.ester co$rse ,esi&ne, 'or ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors, t%at inte&rates eart% science, astrono.y, an, (%ysics. #%e co$rse is (art o' a 'o$r!co$rse set t%at e2(lores science conce(ts, (rocesses, an, skills, alon& *it% t%e nat$re o' scienti'ic (ractice, t%at are incl$,e, in state an, national stan,ar,s 'or ele.entary sc%ool science. 3eoscience conce(ts, s$c% as *ater an, seis.ic *a4es, are $se, to ill$strate &eneral (rinci(les o' (%ysics, s$c% as *a4e trans.ission, re'raction, re'lection, an, inter'erence. 5a)oratories are ,ra*n 'ro. )ot% intro,$ctory (%ysics an, eart% science co$rses an, %a4e )een re,esi&ne, to %a4e a stron& in6$iry co.(onent. Pre!assess.ents *ere $se, to e4al$ate st$,ents7 (rior kno*le,&e o' key i,eas. #%e $se o' (yra.i, tests .eas$ra)ly en%ance, st$,ent (er'or.ance. / .a1or t%e.e o' t%e co$rse is %o* science is re(resente, (an, .isre(resente,) in t%e .e,ia. Pe,a&o&ical c%allen&es enco$ntere, in t%e co$rse are ,$e to 4ario$s 'actors, t*o .ain ones )ein& lack o' (re4io$s e2(erience *it% t%e nat$ral *orl, a.on& a lar&ely $r)an st$,ent )o,y an, t%e ,i4ersity o' .aterial t%at t%e co$rse co4ers.

;>#R=@9<#;=> #%e 'irst 'or.al e2(os$re to science t%at c%il,ren %a4e is in t%eir ele.entary sc%ool classroo.s. <$rrent state stan,ar,s o'ten re6$ire t%at ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers )e kno*le,&ea)le o' a )roa, s(ectr$. o' scienti'ic to(ics so t%at t%ey can %el( t%eir st$,ents learn. For e2a.(le, ;llinois -tate 5earnin& 3oal 2 states t%at st$,ents s%o$l, A$n,erstan, t%e '$n,a.ental conce(ts, (rinci(les an, interconnections o' t%e li'e, (%ysical an, eart%B s(ace sciences.A For ele.entary &ra,es, t%ese incl$,e conce(ts as ,i4erse as .otion, ener&y, 'orce, *eat%er, eart%6$akes, t%e or,er o' t%e (lanets, an, t%e (%ases o' .oon, as *ell as t%e )asics o' ecolo&y. For .ost (re!ser4ice ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers, t%e nee, to )eco.e 'a.iliar *it% t%is ,i4ersity o' s$)1ects is not .et )y takin& a s$)set o' co$rses o''ere, in t%e scienti'ic ,isci(lines. / st$,ent takin& t*o se.esters o' )iolo&y to .eet a science ,istri)$tion re6$ire.ent *ill )e $n'a.iliar *it% t%e )asics o' astrono.y or c%e.istry. /n $n)alance, e2(os$re to t%e ran&e o' scienti'ic to(ics .ay *ell contri)$te to t%e )elie' a.on& ele.entary teac%ers, as i,enti'ie, )y t%e 2000 >ational -$r4ey o' -cience an, Mat%e.atics E,$cation (-.it%, et al. 2002) t%at t%ey are less 6$ali'ie, to teac% science t%an any o' t%e ot%er s$)1ects 'or *%ic% t%ey are res(onsi)le. Cea&an (200D) attri)$te, t%at to a &enerally acce(te, clai. t%at A='ten, e,$cators at t%e ele.entary le4el ne4er like, science in t%e 'irst (lace,A an, 6$ote, 'or.er Merck <E= P. Roy Va&elos, A7#eac%ers are so 'ri&%tene, o' t%ese s$)1ects t%at t%ey trans.it t%e 'ear to t%e c%il,ren. #%ese ki,s are a'rai, o' science.7A ((. 27). ;n or,er to stren&t%en (ros(ecti4e ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers7 kno*le,&e o' an, attit$,e to*ar,s science (its conce(ts, (rocesses, nat$re, (ractice, %istory, 4al$e, an, i.(act), a &ro$( o' science an, e,$cation 'ac$lty at t%e 9ni4ersity o' ;llinois at <%ica&o (9;<) an, <%ica&o! area co..$nity colle&es ,e4elo(e, a set o' ne* science co$rses 'or ele.entary!e,$cation .a1ors (Varelas, et al. 200"). #%e &oal o' t%ese co$rses is to %el( (ros(ecti4e ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers )eco.e 6$ali'ie, 'or an, co.'orta)le in teac%in& science in t%eir classroo.s, %a4in& e2(erience, learnin& science in *ays $se'$l 'or t%eir '$t$re careers. #%e ,e4elo(.ent o' t%ese co$rses *as en%ance, )y con4ersations *it% 'ac$lty at t%e 9ni4ersity o' Mic%i&an at @ear)orn, *%o %a4e also ,esi&ne, an, i.(le.ente, science co$rses 'or ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors (5$era an, =tto 2005). #%e co$rse set consists o' t%ree 'o$r!cre,it %o$r lect$re an, la) co$rses, kno*n as t%e A0orl,A co$rses, an, a one!cre,it %o$r ca(stone (ro1ect co$rse. #%e t%ree 0orl, co$rses are t%e P%ysical 0orl,, t%e <%e.ical 0orl,, an, t%e :iolo&ical 0orl,. #%e cross!,isci(linary nat$re o' t%ese co$rses is intentional an, e2(licit; eac% incor(orates an, inte&rates conce(ts ,ra*n 'ro. eart% an, s(ace science, en4iron.ental science, )iolo&y, c%e.istry, an, (%ysics. For e2a.(le, t%e P%ysical 0orl, is not a tra,itional (%ysics co$rse, )$t one t%at ill$strates (%ysics conce(ts $sin& eart% science, )iolo&y, an, astrono.y; in ot%er *or,s, it )ot% $ses t%e *orl, to ill$strate (%ysics an, looks at t%e *orl, 'ro. a (%ysics (ers(ecti4e. #%e $se o' t%e *or, A0orl,A t%$s %as .$lti(le ($r(oses. ;n a,,ition, it in,icates t%e rele4ancy o' science to $n,erstan,in& t%e *orl, aro$n, $s, an, si&ni'ies t%at eart% science conce(ts are e2(lore, in all t%ree co$rses. For e2a.(le, 'ossils are ,isc$sse, in t%e :iolo&ical 0orl, an, .inerals an, &lo)al *ar.in& in t%e <%e.ical 0orl,.

#%e 'o$rt% co$rse, t%e Pro1ect!:ase, -e.inar in t%e >at$ral -ciences, ser4es as a ca(stone co$rse, taken a'ter all 0orl, co$rses or conc$rrently *it% t%e last one a st$,ent is takin&. #%ere, st$,ents synt%esiEe kno*le,&e &aine, in t%e A0orl,A co$rses )y ,esi&nin&, con,$ctin&, an, (resentin& t%eir o*n researc% st$,y t%at in4ol4es ,ata collection an, analysis. Recent 4ersions o' t%is co$rse %a4e in4ol4e, t%e st$,ents in *e)!)ase, &ro$( (ro1ects on t%e $r)an en4iron.ent in t%e 4icinity o' t%e ca.($s. ;t s%o$l, )e e.(%asiEe, t%at t%ese classes are not inten,e, to )e teac%in& .et%o,s co$rses. #%ey are, instea,, colle&e!le4el intro,$ctions to t%e content areas o' science t%at st$,ents are e2(ecte, to kno* to .eet state stan,ar,s as ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers. #%ey ,i''er 'ro. ot%er intro,$ctory science co$rses at 9;< )y e.(%asiEin& t%e $nity o', an, relations%i(s a.on&, t%e .any ,isci(lines o' science. #%ey are also 'ar .ore in6$iry!)ase, t%an t%e tra,itional co$rses, an, instr$ctors o' t%ese co$rses .o,el en&a&in& an, .eanin&'$l teac%in& t%at ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers are e2(ecte, to (ractice. #%e ,e4elo(.ent o' all t%e ne* science content co$rses 'or ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors, *%ic% are 'or.ally kno*n as t%e ;nte&rate, -cience <ontent <o$rses (;-<<), *as '$n,e, )y a F!year &rant 'ro. t%e >ational -cience Fo$n,ation, *%ic% en,e, in 200D. #%e co$rses *ere 'irst ta$&%t at 9;< in 200G. Eac% 0orl, co$rse is on a4era&e ta$&%t t*o or t%ree ti.es in a t%ree!year (erio,, *it% t%e ca(stone co$rse )ein& ta$&%t e4ery se.ester. ;n t%is (a(er, *e ,escri)e t%e str$ct$re o' t%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse. #%e ot%er ;-<< co$rses are ,isc$sse, in Varelas et al. (200"). #%e ,etaile, ,e4elo(.ent o' t%e P%ysical 0orl, occ$rre, *%en t%e 'irst a$t%or atten,e, t%e 200G <$ttin& E,&e *orks%o( on @esi&nin& E''ecti4e an, ;nno4ati4e <o$rses in t%e 3eosciences (%tt(:BBserc.carleton.e,$B>/3#0orks%o(sBco$rse,esi&n0GB in,e2.%t.l). Many o' t%e 'eat$res o' t%e co$rse re'lect conce(ts an, i,eas, s$c% as r$)rics an, (yra.i, tests, learne, ,$rin& t%is *orks%o(. ;n t%is (a(er *e ($t 'ort% ,etails a)o$t t%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse, i,enti'yin& s$ccesses an, c%allen&es e2(erience, )y st$,ents *%o %a4e taken t%e co$rse an, one o' t%e instr$ctors *%o %a4e ta$&%t it. =$r &oal is to raise iss$es *ort% consi,erin& *%en (lannin& science co$rses 'or ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors, rat%er t%an to e4al$ate t%e e2tent o' t%e s$ccess o' t%is (artic$lar co$rse. -t$,ent :o,y #%e co$rse enroll.ent consists o' G2!G" ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors, alt%o$&% t%e co$rse is o(en to ot%er non!science .a1ors i' s(ace is a4aila)le. @e.o&ra(%ically, t%e class is o4er*%el.in&ly 'e.ale, *it% ty(ically no .ore t%an t%ree .ale st$,ents. #%e class is et%nically an, racially ,i4erse, re'lectin& t%e $r)an settin& 'ro. *%ic% 9;< ,ra*s its st$,ent )o,y, an, .ost st$,ents co..$te to ca.($s. Moreo4er, .ost st$,ents lack ,irect e2(erience *it% t%e nat$ral *orl,. <=9R-E FE/#9RE<o$rse 3oals an, #ools 9se, to Reac% #%e. #%e o4erarc%in& &oals 'or t%is co$rse are t%at st$,ents )eco.e a)le to a((ly )asic (%ysical (rinci(als to:

. @e4elo( e2(lanations 'or o)ser4ations a)o$t e4ery,ay nat$ral an, %$.an (%eno.ena; 2. Make (re,ictions a)o$t (%eno.ena t%at are not ,irectly o)ser4a)le; an, F. /ssess scienti'ic i,eas enco$ntere, in t%e .e,ia. 3oal is a,,resse, )y $sin& case st$,ies an, e2a.(les ,ra*n 'ro. &eolo&ical an, astrono.ical (%eno.ena, as *ell as, tec%nolo&ical e2a.(les. For instance, t%e (rinci(les o' .ec%anics are ill$strate, $sin& lan,sli,es. Follo*in& a (resentation o' t%e 3ros Ventre lan,sli,e as a case st$,y, to(ics s$c% as 4elocity, acceleration, 'orce, stress, an, strain are ,isc$sse, in t%e conte2t o' lan,sli,e ca$ses an, .otions. -i.ilarly, electrostatics is intro,$ce, t%ro$&% a ,isc$ssion o' t%e %aEar,s (ose, )y li&%tnin& (te2t 'iles o' t%ese lect$res are a4aila)le )y re6$est 'ro. t%e 'irst a$t%or). 3oal 2 'oc$ses on t%e $n,erlyin& conce(ts o' 'act, t%eory, an, %y(ot%esis in science. For e2a.(le, st$,ents are intro,$ce, to t%e i,ea t%at t%e core o' t%e Eart% is a t%eory, since it %as ne4er )een ,irectly o)ser4e,. #%ro$&%o$t t%e co$rse o' t%e se.ester, t%ey st$,y e4i,ence 'ro. &eo.a&netis., seis.olo&y, an, %eat 'lo* t%at are co.(ati)le *it% t%e e2istence o' t%e core. 9sin& t%eir kno*le,&e o' *a4e ty(es an, t%eir (ro(a&ation, t%ey can (re,ict t%at t%e Eart% %as a li6$i, o$ter core. #%ey are aske, to en4isa&e *%at t%e )e%a4ior o' t%e .a&netic 'iel, *o$l, )e i' t%e Eart% %a, a &iant (er.anent .a&net in its interior an, to see i' t%is e4i,ence is co.(ati)le *it% sec$lar 4ariation an, re4ersals o' t%e 'iel,. /'ter )ein& intro,$ce, to t%e conce(ts o' lon&it$,inal an, trans4erse *a4es an, t%eir trans.ission, st$,ents are s%o*n t%e -!*a4e s%a,o* Eone an, aske, to t%ink a)o$t *%y t%is is consistent *it% a li6$i, o$ter core. Finally, 3oal F is a,,resse, in t%e ter. (a(er, in *%ic% st$,ents c%ose a to(ic *it%in science (not necessarily (%ysical science) an, ,eter.ine %o* acc$rately t%is to(ic is co4ere, in t%e .e,ia. Me,ia in t%is case is )roa,ly ,e'ine, to incl$,e .o4ies, *e)sites, an, tele4ision (ro&ra.s. #%e (ro1ect is .o,ele, ,$rin& t%e 'irst *eek o' t%e se.ester, ,$rin& *%ic% st$,ents *atc% a 'i4e!.in$te se6$ence 'ro. t%e 'il. #%e <ore. ;n t%is se6$ence, t%ere is a ra(i,!'ire (resentation o' A'actsA a)o$t t%e core, t%e solar *in,, an, t%e Eart%7s .a&netic 'iel,. #%e st$,ents are aske, to c%oose t%ree o' t%ese i,eas an, to ,eter.ine *%et%er t%ey are scienti'ically 4ali,. -t$,ents %a4e c%osen a *i,e 4ariety o' to(ics 'or t%eir ter. (a(ers, alt%o$&% t%ere are so.e clear 'a4orites. #%e 'il.s #%e @ay a'ter #o.orro* an, /n ;ncon4enient #r$t% ins(ire, a n$.)er o' (a(ers on &lo)al c%an&e, *%ereas .o4ies s$c% as H$rassic Park raise, interest in clonin&. =t%er (o($lar to(ics incl$,e torna,oes (#*ister) an, t%e :er.$,a #rian&le. #%e (a(er is &ra,e, )ase, on a r$)ric s$((lie, to t%e st$,ents at t%e )e&innin& o' t%e se.ester an, s%o*n in Fi&$re . ;nte&ratin& Eart% -cience, /strono.y, P%ysics, an, :iolo&y #%e inte&ration o' .$lti(le tra,itional science ,isci(lines is an i.(ortant si&nat$re o' t%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse an, is .ani'este, in )ot% t%e A,ri4in& 6$estionsA an, t%e corres(on,in& to(ics t%at ,e'ine t%e $nits e2(lore, in t%e co$rse. #%e .a1or to(ics are: 9nit ;. +o* ,o *e Akno*IA #%e $nit intro,$ces as(ects o' t%e (%iloso(%y an, sociolo&y o' science, s$c% as, t%e conce(t o' a scienti'ic t%eory. #%e i,ea o' a scienti'ic .o,el is ,isc$sse,

)y consi,erin& t%e &eneral circ$lation o' t%e Eart%7s at.os(%ere. #%e %istory o' (late tectonics is $se, to ill$strate t%e conce(t o' scienti'ic re4ol$tions. 9nit ;;. +o* ,o t%in&s .o4eI #%e $nit is t%e lon&est, takin& a)o$t se4en to ei&%t *eeks. Mass .o4e.ents on t%e eart%7s s$r'ace are $se, to ill$strate 'orce, .ass, an, &ra4ity. #%e ,isc$ssion o' &ra4ity t%en lea,s into Ce(ler7s la*s o' (lanetary .otion an, t%e ca$ses o' ti,es. #%e ca$ses o' seasons are )rie'ly re4ie*e,. Electricity an, .a&netis. are ,escri)e, in t%e conte2t o' electric .otors, li&%tnin&, an, t%e Eart%7s .a&netic 'iel,. Electrical c$rrents (ro4i,e t%e intro,$ction into t%e 'lo* o' *ater in strea.s an, )loo, in t%e %$.an )o,y. +eat an, ener&y are e2(lore, in relation to cli.ate an, t%e eart%7s interior %eat. #%e $nit concl$,es *it% a ,isc$ssion o' entro(y, e4ol$tion, an, t%e A%eat ,eat% o' t%e $ni4erse.A 9nit ;;;. +o* ,o *e sense t%e $ni4erseI #%e $nit e2a.ines *a4es o' .any kin,s, an, %o* t%ey con4ey ener&y an, in'or.ation. #%e 200G ;n,ian =cean ts$na.i is $se, to intro,$ce *ater *a4es an, t%eir .otions. #%is (ro4i,es t%e )ack&ro$n, 'or t%e (%ysics o' so$n, *a4es t%at is e4ent$ally relate, to t%e )iolo&y o' t%e %$.an ear. #%is to(ic is 'ollo*e,, in t$rn, )y a re4ie* o' seis.ic *a4es an, *%at t%ey re4eal a)o$t t%e Eart%7s interior. >e2t co.es t%e (%ysics o' li&%t t%at incl$,es a ,isc$ssion o' 4ision an, t%e eye as an or&an. / )rie' re4ie* o' s(ectrosco(y 'oc$ses on %o* it re4eals t%e co.(osition o' t%e s$n an, stars. #%is (ro4i,es necessary )ack&ro$n, 'or t%e 'inal t*o $nits. 9nit ;V. +o* 'ar, %o* )i&I #%e $nit 'oc$ses on t%e scale o' t%e Eart% an, t%e $ni4erse, as *ell as t%e o)1ects in it. -tartin& *it% t%e siEe o' t%e Eart%, st$,ents learn %o* t%e ,istances an, siEe o' t%e .oon, s$n, (lanets, an, ot%er o)1ects in t%e $ni4erse are ,eter.ine,. 9nit V. +o* ol, are t%in&sI #%e 'inal $nit e2a.ines t%e %istory (an, '$t$re) o' t%e Eart% an, t%e 9ni4erse. #ec%ni6$es o' relati4e ,atin& are )rie'ly e2(lore,. Ra,ioacti4ity is ,isc$sse, in t%e conte2t o' ra,io.etric ,atin&, lea,in& to esti.ates o' t%e a&e o' t%e Eart% an, solar syste.. #%is in t$rn lea,s to a,,ressin& '$sion, an, t%e %istory an, '$t$re o' t%e -$n an, ot%er stars. #%e co$rse concl$,es *it% a ,isc$ssion o' i,eas concernin& t%e a&e an, ori&in o' t%e $ni4erse. 5a)oratories #%e la)oratory e2(eriences also re'lect t%e cross,isci(linary nat$re o' t%e co$rse. +al' o' t%e la)oratories *ere ,ra*n 'ro. t%ose alrea,y in $se in intro,$ctory Eart% an, En4iron.ental -cience (EaE-) co$rses. #%ese incl$,e la)s on *a4es, t%e Eart%7s %eat )$,&et, (aleo&eo&ra(%y, strea. 'lo*, ra,ioacti4e ,ecay, an, siEe an, .ass o' t%e Eart%. #%ese la)s alrea,y (ossesse, a consi,era)le %an,s!on an, in6$iry co.(onent. For e2a.(le, t%e %eat )$,&et la) (Plotnick, 2005) inte&rates conce(ts o' %eat an, li&%t, seasons an, eccentricity o' t%e Eart%7s or)it, (ole!to!e6$ator te.(erat$re &ra,ient, t%e al)e,o, an, ,i''erences in %eat ca(acity )et*een continents an, oceans. -t$,ents are (ro4i,e, *it% solar cells, *%ic% are attac%e, to an a..eter an, a li&%t so$rce. #%e solar cells are .o$nte, on a ,e4ice t%at allo*s t%eir ,istance an, an&le relati4e to t%e li&%t so$rce to )e altere,. -t$,ents (re,ict %o* li&%t intensity c%an&es as a '$nction o' ,istance an, t%en co.(are t%eir (re,iction to e2(eri.ental 'in,in&s. #%is la)oratory allo*s t%e. to ,isco4er t%e in4erse! s6$are la*. #%ey t%en co.(are t%e e''ect o' c%an&in& ,istance, )ase, on t%e Eart%7s a(%elion an, (eri%elion 4al$es, *it% t%e e''ect o' c%an&in& solar an&le ,$rin& t%e seasonal cycle.

;n t%e ne2t (art o' t%e la)oratory, st$,ents .eas$re t%e relati4e a.o$nt o' ra,iation re'lecte, 'ro. )lack an, *%ite s$r'aces an, (re,ict %o* t%ese s$r'aces *ill %eat o4er ti.e. #%eir (re,iction is t%en co.(are, *it% .eas$re, te.(erat$re c%an&es. ;n t%e 'inal (art o' t%e la)oratory, st$,ents ,eter.ine t%e relati4e %eat ca(acities o' *ater an, san, )y trackin& te.(erat$re c%an&es $n,er a %eat la.(. #%ey t%en e2(lore t%e i.(lications o' t%ese res$lts 'or re&ional cli.ates. #%e re.ainin& si2 la)oratories *ere a,o(te, 'ro. t%ose in $se )y an intro,$ctory (%ysics class, an, *ere re4ise, to re'lect c$rrent in6$iry!)ase, stan,ar,s 'or teac%in& science. #%e to(ics e2(lore, in t%ese la)oratories incl$,e 'orces, electricity an, .a&netis., o(tics, s(ectrosco(y, so$n,, (lanetary or)its an, t%e ni&%t sky. @$rin& t%e o(tics la)oratory, st$,ents )$il, a si.(le telesco(e t%at t%ey kee(. -i.ilarly, t%ey constr$ct an, kee( t%e s(ectrosco(e t%at t%ey $se in t%e s(ectrosco(y la), to i,enti'y t%e &as (resent in 'l$orescent li&%ts an, to look 'or solar a)sor(tion lines. :ot% t%e telesco(e an, t%e s(ectrosco(e are a4aila)le 'ro. Pro1ect -#/R (%tt(:BB ***.science'irst.co.B), )$t t%e s(ectrosco(e is no lon&er .an$'act$re,. Parts o' t%e telesco(e la)oratory *ere a,o(te, 'ro. one in $se at -o$t%ern ;llinois 9ni4ersity (5in,ell an, Foster, 200G). =ne o' t%e c%allen&es associate, *it% teac%in& astrono.ical to(ics in an $r)an area is t%e %ea4y li&%t (oll$tion. ;n a,,ition, .ost o' t%e st$,ents li4e an, *ork o''!ca.($s an, 'in, it ,i''ic$lt to ret$rn to ca.($s at ni&%t. #%$s, a <orona,o -olarMa2 D0 solar telesco(e *as ($rc%ase,. #%is allo*s ,irect o)ser4ations o' t%e s$n, incl$,in& s$ns(ots an, (ro.inences, in t%e I!al(%a (art o' t%e s(ectr$.. /ssess.ent 3i4en t%e ,i4ersity o' st$,ents7 (rior kno*le,&e an, e2(erience, it is i.(ortant to (er'or. (re!assess.ents in or,er to ,ia&nose t%eir le4el o' $n,erstan,in& o' t%e conce(ts an, (rocesses to )e st$,ie, in a $nit. -%ort one!(a&e assess.ents containin& a co.)ination o' a 'e* .$lti(le!c%oice an, constr$cte,!res(onse ite.s ser4e t%is ,ia&nostic '$nction. ;n t%ese assess.ents, st$,ents recei4e cre,it 'or )ot% *ron& an, ri&%t ans*ers so t%at t%ey are enco$ra&e, to ans*er t%e 6$estions an, re4eal t%eir t%inkin&. ;t s%o$l, )e e.(%asiEe, t%at t%e (ri.ary &oal o' (er'or.in& t%ese (re!assess.ents %as )een instr$ctional, in or,er to &$i,e t%e instr$ctor, rat%er t%an 'oc$sin& on researc% on st$,ent kno*le,&e an, learnin&. #%e /strono.y @ia&nostic #est (/@#42.0), a4aila)le at %tt(:BBsolar.(%ysics..ontana.e,$BaaeBa,tB (+$'na&le, et al., 2000) is a $se'$l reso$rce. /lt%o$&% relia)ility an, 4ali,ity cannot )e &$arantee, *%en t%e entire test is not $se,, t%e a$t%ors ,o not o)1ect to a,.inisterin& only certain ite.s as (re!assess.ents. Moreo4er, t%ey enco$ra&e instr$ctors to $se t%e /@# as a (osttest to assess teac%in& e''ecti4eness on to(ics a,,resse, in class an, on /@# ite.s. /n e2a.(le o' an /@# ite. $se, in t%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse is: /strona$ts insi,e t%e ;nternational -(ace -tation 'loat aro$n, as it or)its Eart% )eca$se: /. #%ere is no &ra4ity in s(ace :. #%ey are 'allin& in t%e sa.e *ay as t%e station <. #%ey are a)o4e t%e Eart%7s at.os(%ere

@. #%ere is less &ra4ity insi,e t%e station. ;n t%ree se(arate iterations o' t%e co$rse, 0D o$t o' F st$,ents c%ose / an, only G c%ose : ,$rin& (re!assess.ent. /not%er 6$estion aske, *%et%er t%ere *o$l, still )e seasons i' t%e Eart%7s or)it *ere (er'ectly circ$lar. =4er t%ree classes, only a)o$t 50J ans*ere, yes. #%$s, (re!assess.ents, *%ic% incl$,e, so.e /@# ite.s, clearly %i&%li&%te, areas t%at nee,e, (artic$lar attention *%ic% *as, t%ere'ore, (ro4i,e, ,$rin& t%e co$rse. Poolin& ,ata 'ro. t%ree classes, #a)le s%o*s t%e relati4e s$ccess o' t%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse in %el(in& st$,ents $n,erstan, certain to(ics 'or *%ic% (re!assess.ent ,ata *ere collecte,. =ne o)4io$s area o' ,i''ic$lty, e4en a'ter .$lti(le a((roac%es to e2(lainin& it in )ot% la) an, lect$re, is t%e in4erse s6$are, la* as a((lie, to eit%er ra,iation or &ra4ity. F$rt%er.ore, to (ro.ote st$,ent s$((ortin& o' eac% ot%er7s learnin&, all e2a.s in t%e co$rse are &i4en $sin& t%e coo(erati4e or (yra.i, test str$ct$re (K$retic%, 200 ; Li((, 2007). Forty! 'i4e .in$tes are allocate, to 'irst takin& t%e e2a. in,i4i,$ally. #%e ans*er s%eets are t%en collecte, )$t st$,ents retain t%e 6$estion s%eets an, a ne* set o' ans*er s%eets is %an,e, o$t. -t$,ents t%en %a4e F0 .in$tes to *ork on t%e e2a. to&et%er in s.all &ro$(s. -t$,ents7 'inal scores re'lect )ot% t%eir in,i4i,$al an, &ro$( (er'or.ance, *it% "0J o' t%eir 'inal score co.in& 'ro. t%eir score on t%eir in,i4i,$al e2a., an, 20J 'ro. t%eir score on t%eir &ro$( e2a.. #%e (yra.i, test str$ct$re %as )ot% 6$alitati4e an, 6$antitati4e i.(acts on st$,ent learnin&. -t$,ents acti4ely ,isc$ss an, ,e)ate ans*ers to 6$estions, an, teac% eac% ot%er. F$rt%er.ore, t%e a4era&e (ercenta&e o' correct ans*ers in t%e &ro$( a,.inistration rises 20J to F0J a)o4e t%at in t%e in,i4i,$al a,.inistration. /n iss$e *ort% consi,erin& is *%at &ro$( co.(osition )est s$((orts (eer learnin&. Many ti.es, i' le't to c%oose t%eir &ro$(s, lo*er!(er'or.in& st$,ents ten, to na4i&ate to*ar,s *orkin& *it% %i&%!(er'or.in& (eers an, (assi4ely acce(tin& t%eir ans*ers as t%e &ro$( consens$s. Ran,o. &ro$( assi&n.ent 'orces st$,ents to *ork *it% 4ario$s (eers an, 'oc$s .ore on .akin& .eanin& rat%er t%an on A'is%in&A 'or t%e Ari&%tA ans*er. -#9@E># RE/<#;=>- #= #+E <=9R-E Practice an, researc% s%o* t%at st$,ents constr$ct t%eir e2(erience in class in a 4ariety o' *ays a''ecte, )y a 4ariety o' 'actors (:rans'or,, et al. 999; @ono4an an, :rans'or, 2005). #%ese incl$,e t%e inten,e, c$rric$l$. an, instr$ction t%at t%e teac%er enacts, an, st$,ents7 o*n e2(erience, kno*le,&e, )elie's, (er'or.ance, an, i,entity. #%ese are consi,ere, to )e a 'e* o' t%e .any (syc%olo&ical, sociolo&ical, socio!c$lt$ral, an, ot%er ,i.ensions t%at s%a(e in,i4i,$als7 *ays o' relatin& to t%e content, (eo(le, arti'acts, kno*le,&e, an, relations%i(s t%at are enco$ntere, in a class. ;n t%e P%ysical 0orl,, *e %a4e assesse, st$,ent res(onse to t%e co$rse $sin& t%e -t$,ent /ssess.ent o' 5earnin& E2(erience (-/5E) s$r4ey. #%is instr$.ent *as ori&inally ,e4elo(e, at 9;< to assess t%e st$,ent e2(erience in co$rses ta$&%t )y instr$ctors *%o *ere (artici(atin& in a (ro'essional ,e4elo(.ent (ro&ra.. >ine o(en! en,e, 6$estions ask st$,ents: *%et%er t%e co$rse .et t%eir e2(ectations, *%y or *%y not; to i,enti'y t%e .ost %el('$l an, least %el('$l as(ect(s) o' t%e co$rse; to in,icate t%e &reatest str$&&le(s) t%ey 'ace,; an, to t%ink a)o$t an, s%are so.e i.(ortant i,eas &aine, in t%e co$rse t%at t%ey co$l, )rin& to C! 2 classroo.s. ;n t*o se.esters, GD st$,ents co.(lete, t%e s$r4ey an, consente, so t%at *e co$l, $se t%ese ,ata 'or e4al$ation an, researc% ($r(oses. #%ese st$,ents o''ere, a 4ariety o' res(onses i,enti'yin& se4eral co$rse ele.ents as t%e .ost or least

%el('$l 'or t%eir learnin& in t%e co$rse, an, as t%e ele.ents t%at t%ey str$&&le, *it%. #a)le 2 s%o*s t%e 're6$encies an, (ercents o' t%e 4ario$s 'eat$res i,enti'ie,. -t$,ents notice, 4ario$s instr$ctional tools $se, in t%e co$rse (e.&., la)s, (yra.i, test, notes, an, &ro$( *ork) an, note, t%at t%ese 'acilitate, t%eir .eanin& an, connection .akin&. =$t o' t%e 5D co$rse ele.ents i,enti'ie, as .ost %el('$l, a)o$t %al' (GDJ) o' t%e. *ere t%e la)s. /lt%o$&% a)o$t G0J o' t%e ans*ers t%at i,enti'ie, t%e la)s as .ost %el('$l ,i, not o''er s(eci'ic reasons, t%e rest (ro4i,e, co&niti4e (FFJ), a''ecti4e ( 0J), an, (racticality ( 7J) reasons. Pro4i,in& co&niti4e reasons, st$,ents note,: At%e la)s *ere %el('$l )eca$se t%ey *ere 4ery %an,s!on an, %el(e, .e )etter $n,erstan, t%e lect$re;A A#%e la)s *ere a &reat *ay to rein'orce .aterial co4ere, in lect$res;A Ala)s *ere &oo, ti.es o' learnin& ne* .aterial.A /''ecti4e reasons incl$,e, la)s )ein& '$n, an, (racticality reasons s%o*e, a link )et*een st$,ents7 learnin& o' science an, (re(ararion 'or t%eir teac%in& career (A8t%ey *ere? ki,! oriente, learnin& la)sA; Aso.e o' t%e la)s *e ,i, see.e, '$n to teac% in C! 2 classesA). /lt%o$&% t%e co$rse is a AcontentA an, not a A.et%o,sA co$rse, t%e st$,ents notice, t%e (artic$lar c$rric$lar, instr$ctional, an, assess.ent 'eat$res an, .a,e connections *it% t%eir o*n '$t$re teac%in& (ractices. #%ey in,icate, t%at t%is co$rse %el(e, t%e. )eco.e .ore (re(are, to A.ake certain as(ects o' t%e science an, a)stract i,eas accessi)le to ki,sA an, t%at t%ey *o$l, a,a(t so.e la)s t%ey ,i, ,$rin& t%is co$rse 'or t%eir C! 2 classroo.s. -t$,ents also notice, t%e inter,isci(linary nat$re o' t%e co$rse (A; like t%e 'act t%at it incl$,e, t%in&s t%at *ere learne, in t%e ot%er >/#- classesA) an, t%e rele4ance to t%e science t%ey *ill %a4e to teac% as ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers, )$t also t%e %i&%er ,e(t% o' t%e co$rse c$rric$l$. (A.aterial a)o$t t%e (%ysical *orl, &enerally learne, in &ra,e sc%ool *as ta$&%t %ere. :$t it *ent )eyon,A). +o*e4er, t%ere *ere . also str$&&les t%at st$,ents e2(resse, in t%eir co..ents. 0%ile so.e st$,ents *ere e2cite, a)o$t At%e ne* kno*le,&e o' t%e science o' t%e *orl, an, %o* it *orksA an, acclai.e, t%at Ascience really can )e '$n,A so.e ot%ers str$&&le, *it% t%e content, note takin&, an, tests (2 J, 2 J, an, GGJ res(ecti4ely o' 5F res(onses &i4en to t%e 6$estion a)o$t t%e ele.ent t%ey .ost str$&&le, *it% *%ere so.e st$,ents note, .ore t%an one str$&&le). -t$,ents also note, t%at it *as %ar, to st$,y so .any to(ics an, conce(ts in s$c% a s%ort ti.e (AMy &reatest str$&&le in t%is co$rse *as to kee( $(... too .$c% .aterial to co4er in one se.esterA). -tr$&&lin& *it% content an, str$&&lin& *it% tests see.e, to )e relate, 'or so.e st$,ents, '$se, to&et%er *it% t%e %i&% ,ensity o' co$rse i,eas. #%e latter is a c%allen&e t%at not only t%e st$,ents, )$t also t%e instr$ctor i,enti'ies as s$c%. F$rt%er.ore, t%e te2t)ook acco$nte, 'or "J o' t%e st$,ent res(onses in t%e 6$estion a)o$t t%e least %el('$l ele.ent, yet anot%er area t%at coinci,es *it% t%e instr$ctor7s o*n c%allen&es. / st$,ent note,, At%e te2t)ook 8is t%e least %el('$l? )eca$se *e took e2tensi4e notes.A F$rt%er.ore, note takin& *as an ele.ent t%at ,re* )ot% (ositi4e an, ne&ati4e st$,ent reactions. >ote takin& *as .ostly associate, *it% a least %el('$l ele.ent an, a str$&&le. /lt%o$&%, so.e st$,ents 'o$n, note takin& $se'$l to t%eir $n,erstan,in&, t%ey co$l, not kee( $( *it% it an, .ake sense o' t%e i,eas at t%e sa.e ti.e. #%is is in,ee, a co.(le2 tension in learnin&, na.ely )alancin& )et*een $n,erstan,in& an, .akin& sense o' i,eas as instr$ction $n'ol,s an,, at t%e sa.e ti.e, kee(in& a ric% recor, o' i,eas e2(lore, an, ,isc$sse, so t%at t%ey can )e re4isite, an, .a,e .ore sense o' at a later ti.e. P=--;:;5;#;E- />@ <+/55E>3E-

#%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse is 'ille, *it% o((ort$nities 'or t%e st$,ents, )$t it also (resents c%allen&es t%at nee, to )e consi,ere, )y an instr$ctor. /s (ointe, o$t )y t%e st$,ents, t%ere is a &reat ,eal o' content to )e a,,resse, in a sin&le se.ester, as at t%e sa.e ti.e t%e co$rse nee,s to %a4e a (ace con,$ci4e to in6$iry!)ase, science teac%in& an, learnin&. F$rt%er.ore, t%e content nee,s to )e a,,resse, *it% t%e ri&or o' a colle&e science co$rse, as at t%e sa.e ti.e t%e co$rse nee,s to also ens$re a ,ee( an, .eanin&'$l $n,erstan,in& o' t%e conce(ts an, (rocesses t%at t%e (ros(ecti4e ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers *%o take t%e co$rse are e2(ecte, to teac% to t%eir st$,ents. #%ese ,e.an,s necessitate a ,elicate )alance t%at t%e instr$ctor nee,s to ac%ie4e )et*een ,e(t% an, )rea,t% o' to(ics e2(lore, an,, o' co$rse, e2(eriences. 0%ile teac%in& s$c% a co$rse, t%e instr$ctor s%o$l, also )e .in,'$l o' t%e li.ite, con'i,ence in .at%e.atics s%o*n )y .any st$,ents. #%e co$rse, in (artic$lar t%e la)oratories, %as a .o,erate .at%e.atics co.(onent. For e2a.(le, ri&%t trian&les are $se, to ,eter.ine t%e siEe o' t%e Eart% an, t%e ,istance to t%e stars ((aralla2). -t$,ents also *ork *it% e6$ations s$c% as =%.7s 5a* an, t%e relations%i(s a.on& 'orce, *ork, an, (o*er. /lt%o$&%, co$rse (artici(ants are e2(ecte, to %a4e %i&%!sc%ool le4el co.(etency in al&e)ra, &eo.etry, an, tri&ono.etry, .any st$,ents str$&&le *it% a '$n,a.ental $n,erstan,in& in t%ese areas. /t 9;<, t%is %as )een *i,ely ackno*le,&e, as an iss$e t%at nee,s attention, an,, t%ere'ore, ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors are re6$ire, to take t*o .at%e.atics co$rses t%at 'oc$s on t%ese co.(etencies. -e6$encin& s$c% co$rses a((ro(riately relati4e to t%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse *ill contri)$te to lessenin& st$,ents7 str$&&les *it% t%e .at%e.atics as(ects o' t%e science co$rse. /.on& a lar&ely $r)an raise, st$,ent )o,y, t%e instr$ctor s%o$l, not ,is.iss st$,ents7 li.ite, ,irect e2(erience *it% t%e nat$ral *orl,. ;n t%e 200" class at 9;<, none o' t%e st$,ents %a, e4en seen t%e Milky 0ay. /lt%o$&%, o' co$rse, t%ere are (lenty o' reso$rces t%at st$,ents .ay $se to Ae2(erienceA i,eas 'or *%ic% t%ey ,o not or cannot %a4e 'irst!%an, kno*le,&e, s$c% reso$rces are not e6$i4alent to 'irst!%an, e2(eriences (5o$4 200"). <%oice o' a te2t)ook is also a .a1or iss$e. /lt%o$&% a A(%ysical scienceA te2t)ook %as )een a,o(te, at 9;< (P%ysical -cience )y :ill 0. #illery), t%is te2t ,oes not (resent an inte&rate,, inter,isci(linary a((roac% to science t%at rea,ily len,s itsel' to $se in t%is co$rse. -t$,ents are tol, to $se t%e te2t)ook as an Aencyclo(e,iaA t%at *ill (ro4i,e rein'orce.ent an, a,,itional in'or.ation on to(ics st$,ie,. +o*e4er, a te2t)ook t%at *ill closely .a( onto t%e co$rse &oals an, sylla)$s .ay )e .ore %el('$l in s$((ortin& an, e2ten,in& st$,ent learnin& in an, o$t o' t%e classroo.. 5earnin& is &reatly en%ance, *%en st$,ents *ork on t%eir ter. (a(er. +o*e4er, in or,er to assess t%e 6$ality o' science (resente, in t%e .e,ia, it is necessary 'or st$,ents to cons$lt relia)le so$rces o' scienti'ic in'or.ation. /lt%o$&% t%e ;nternet (ro4i,es a (let%ora o' so$rces, t%e (otential inacc$racies an, )iases o' so.e o' t%e. can )e %ar.'$l to, rat%er t%an s$((orti4e o', st$,ent learnin&. #%$s, takin& .eas$res to*ar,s .akin& s$re t%at t%e *e) ,oes not )eco.e t%e al.ost e2cl$si4e so$rce o' in'or.ation 'or st$,ents is 4ery i.(ortant. /t 9;<, in or,er to ,eal *it% t%is, st$,ents *ere &i4en lists o' so$rces o' acc$rate in'or.ation, incl$,in& *e)sites linke, to (ro'essional societies an, &o4ern.ent a&encies an, na.es o' 1o$rnals s$c% as /.erican -cientist, >at$re, an, -cience. #%ey *ere also (ro%i)ite, 'ro. $sin& sites s$c% as 0iki(e,ia as so$rces o' in'or.ation an, *ere li.ite, to no .ore t%an t%ree stan,!alone *e)sites as so$rces (i.e., *e)sites not linke, to a (ro'essional or&aniEation, 1o$rnal, or &o4ern.ent a&ency).

Finally, co$rses like t%e P%ysical 0orl, necessitate instit$tional str$ct$res t%at s$((ort t%eir cross!,isci(linary an, inte&rati4e nat$re. ;t is $s$ally aty(ical 'or ,isci(line!'oc$se, ,e(art.ents, es(ecially at researc% $ni4ersities to reco&niEe t%e 4al$e o' cross!,isci(linary co$rses, es(ecially since (ros(ecti4e .a1ors are not t%e tar&et a$,ience. #%is can '$rt%er lea, to ,i''ic$lty in sta''in& an, '$n,in& s$c% co$rses. F$rt%er.ore, la)oratories an, lect$res s%o$l, )e ta$&%t in t%e sa.e roo. an, ti.e in or,er 'or .aterial to )e inte&rate,. +o*e4er, in .any $ni4ersities, incl$,in& 9;<, it is ty(ical to %a4e a lar&e in'le2i)le lect$re roo. an, la)s at ,i''erent la)oratory roo.s in .$lti(le sections. /s a res$lt, lect$res an, la)oratories on a (artic$lar s$)1ect are o'ten se(arate, )y as .$c% as t*o *eeks. ;n or,er 'or inte&ration an, )$il,in& on i,eas an, $n,erstan,in&s to )e n$rt$re,, in'rastr$ct$re c%an&es see. to )e necessary. E>@;>3 >=#E /s increasin&ly .ore attention is (lace, on (re(arin& C! 2 teac%ers, an, es(ecially ele.entary sc%ool teac%ers (as t%e ones res(onsi)le 'or t%e 'irst 'or.al e,$cational e2(erience o' c%il,ren), scientists an, science e,$cators nee, to increasin&ly ,e4ote .ore e''orts in t%inkin& a)o$t t%e colle&e science e2(eriences t%at *ill contri)$te to &ra,$atin& %i&%ly 6$ali'ie, teac%ers. #%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse, t%at *e (resente, in t%is article, is )$t one .o,el o' s$c% an e2(erience, a co$rse *it%in a set o' ot%er science co$rses t%at *as .a,e (ossi)le )eca$se o' t%e collecti4e e''ort o' a ,i4erse &ro$( o' 'ac$lty in science an, e,$cation ,e(art.ents. ;t is 'ar too early to 1$,&e its lon&!ter. s$ccess, since an i.(ortant .eas$re o' s$c% s$ccess is t%e ele.entary e,$cation &ra,$ates7 o*n (ractice in t%eir C!" classroo.s an, t%eir o*n st$,ents7 science learnin& an, en&a&e.ent. /ckno*le,&e.ents #%is (ro1ect %as )een s$((orte, )y a >ational -cience Fo$n,ation <<5; &rant, @9E! 0F D2G, an, )y a 9.-. @e(art.ent o' E,$cation -#2 &rant, PFFD:0F00" . #%e i,eas, ,ata, state.ents, 4ie*s, an, reco..en,ations (resente, are solely t%e res(onsi)ilities o' t%e a$t%ors an, ,o not necessarily re'lect t%e 4ie*s o' t%e '$n,in& entities. #%e a$t%ors *is% to t%ank t%e ;-<< (;nte&rate, -cience <ontent <o$rses), tea. t%at incl$,es @onal, 0ink, Mary /s%ley, Marlynne >is%i.$ra, an, -tacy 0enEel (9ni4ersity o' ;llinois at <%ica&o); H$lie Elle'son!C$e%n (+ar(er <o..$nity <olle&e, Palatine); K4onne +arris (#r$.an <o..$nity <olle&e, <%ica&o); @ennis 5e%.an, @ana Perry an, -an&%a.itra -a%a (+arol, 0as%in&ton <o..$nity <olle&e, <%ica&o); an, @a4i, Loller (=li4e +ar4ey <o..$nity <olle&e, <%ica&o), 'or t%eir i,eas an, s$((ort in ,esi&nin& t%e P%ysical 0orl, co$rse. #%e instr$ctors an, (artici(ants o' t%e 200G <$ttin& E,&e *orks%o( on @esi&nin& E''ecti4e an, ;nno4ati4e <o$rses in t%e 3eosciences, or&aniEe, )y :ar)ara H. #e*ks)$ry an, R. +eat%er Mac,onal,, .a,e .any in4al$a)le s$&&estions. 0e t%ank re4ie*ers -te4e <arson, Cat%y :r$ner, Ric%ar, -.osna, an, one anony.o$s re4ie*er 'or t%eir $se'$l co..ents t%at &reatly i.(ro4e, t%is .an$scri(t. $eferences REFERE><E:rans'or,, H. @., :ro*n, /. 5., an, <ockin&, R. R. (E,s.), 999, +o* (eo(le learn: :rain, .in,, e2(erience, an, sc%ool, 0as%in&ton, @<: >ational /ca,e.y Press.

@ono4an, M. -. an, :rans'or,, H. @. (E,s.), 2005, +o* st$,ents learn: -cience in t%e classroo., 0as%in&ton, @<: >ational /ca,e.y Press. +$'na&el, :., -later, #., @entin&, 3., /,a.s, H., /,rian, R., :rick, 5., an, Leilik, M., 2000, Pre!co$rse res$lts 'ro. t%e astrono.y ,ia&nostic test, P$)lications o' t%e /strono.ical -ociety o' /$stralia, 4. 7, (. 52! 55. Cee&an, R.0., 200D, 5ookin& 'or a la)!coat i,ol, #i.e, 4. D7, no. 7, (. 2D!27. 5in,ell, R. an, Foster, #., 200G, +an,s!on in6$iry!)ase, astrono.y acti4ities: :$il, yo$r o*n telesco(e, ;n: Fraknoi, /. an, 0aller 0., e,itors, <os.os in t%e <lassroo. 200G, /strono.ical -ociety o' t%e Paci'ic, -an Francisco, (. 99! 02. 5o$4, R., 200", 5ast <%il, in t%e 0oo,s: -a4in& =$r <%il,ren Fro. >at$re!@e'icit @isor,er: <%a(el +ill, >.<, /l&on6$in :ooks o' <%a(el +ill., F90 (. 5$era, 3. R. an, =tto, <. /., 2005, @e4elo(.ent an, e4al$ation o' an in6$iry!)ase, ele.entary science teac%er e,$cation (ro&ra. re'lectin& c$rrent re'or. .o4e.ents, 1o$rnal o' -cience #eac%er E,$cation, 4. D, (. 2G !25". Plotnick, R., 2005, #%e Eart%7s %eat )$,&et, %tt(:BBna&t.or&Bna&tB(ro&ra.sBteac%in&.aterialsB92DD.%t.l ( /(ril 200"). -.it%, P. -., :anilo*er, E. R., McMa%on, C. <, an, 0eiss, ;. R., 2002, #%e >ational -$r4ey o' -cience an, Mat%e.atics E,$cation: #ren,s 'ro. 977 to 2000, <%a(el +ill, ><: +oriEon Researc%, ;nc., %tt(:BB2000s$r4ey.%oriEonresearc%.co.Bre(ortsBtren,s.(%( Varelas, M., Plotnick, R., 0ink, @., Fan, Q. an, +arris K., 200", ;n6$iry an, connections in inte&rate, science content co$rses 'or ele.entary e,$cation .a1ors, Ho$rnal o' <olle&e -cience #eac%in&, 4.F7, no. 5, (. G0!GD. K$retic%, R. F., C%an -. /., 5eckie R. M., an, <le.ent H. H., 200 , /cti4e!learnin& .et%o,s to i.(ro4e st$,ent (er'or.ance an, scienti'ic interest in a lar&e intro,$ctory oceano&ra(%y class, Ho$rnal o' 3eoscience E,$cation, 4. G9, (. ! 9. Li((, H. F., 2007, 5earnin& )y e2a.s: t%e i.(act o' t*o!sta&e coo(erati4e tests. #eac%in& -ociolo&y, 4. F5, (. D2!7D.