Chapter 14

System model representation

This chapter is about the most commonly used forms of
representing the mathematical model of dynamic systems. While
the actual derivation of a system model is not covered by the
present chapter, this chapter emphasizes the treatment of the
model once the system's governing equations have been
obtained successfully. The following forms will be introduced
and applied to systems:
1. onfiguration form
!. "tate#space representation
$. %nput#output equation
&. Transfer function
Throughout most of this chapter, it will be assumed that the
systems under consideration are linear. 'onlinear systems, as
well as linearization procedures, will be discussed later or in
other chapters.
14.1 Configuration form
(efinition: ) set of independent coordinates that completely
describes the motion *dynamics+ of a system is referred to as a
set of generalized coordinates.
'otation:
+ , $ , ! , 1 * n i q
i

denote the generalized coordinates for a
system with
n
degrees of freedom, where the number of
degrees of freedom *(,-+ is equal to the minimum number of
independent coordinates required to describe the position
*status+ of all elements of a system.
.eometrically spea/ing, generalized coordinates,
+ , $ , ! , 1 * n i q
i

,
define an n#dimensional artesian space that is referred to as the
configuration space.
onsider an n#degree#of#freedom system whose governing
*second#order+ differential equations are given as
+ , , , , , , , , *
+ , , , , , , , , *
! 1 ! 1
! 1 ! 1 1 1
t q q q q q q f q
t q q q q q q f q
n n n n
n n

*1&#1+
where i
q
and + , , ! , 1 * n i q
i

denote the generalized coordinates

and generalized velocities, respectively. -unctions
+ , , ! , 1 * n i f
i

, generally nonlinear, denote the generalized forces and are
algebraic functions of + time and , , t q q
i i

. The system of
differential equations represented by 0quation *1&#1+ is sub1ect
to initial conditions
+ 2 * , , 2 s velocitie d generalize %nitial
+ 2 * , +, 2 * s coordinate d generalize %nitial
1
1
n
n
q ) ( q
q q

*1&#!+
0quation *1&#1+ together with 0quation *1&#!+ describes the
system's configuration form.
Example 14.1
onsider a simple mechanical system, shown in -igure 1&#1,
sub1ect to initial conditions
2
2
+ 2 * , + 2 *

x x x x
where 2
x
and
2

x
denote the prescribed initial displacement and
velocity, respectively. 03press the system's equation of motion
in configuration form, as defined by 0quation *1&#1+.
-igure 1&#1 "ingle#degree#of#freedom mechanical system.
Solution
The governing differential equation, describing the motion of
the system, is given by
2
2
+ 2 * , + 2 * conditions %nitial
2



+ +
x x x x
kx x b x m
*1&#$+
(ividing by
m
and rearranging terms in 0quation *1&#$+, one
obtains
2
2
+ 2 * , + 2 * ,

x x x x x
m
k
x
m
b
x
*1&#&+
,bserve that the only one generalized coordinate e3ists,
x q
1 ,
and 0quation *1&#&+ is in agreement with the general form of
0quation *1&#1+. 4oreover, the generalized function
x
m
k
x
m
b
t q q f

+ , , *
1 1 1 is e3pressed as a linear combination of
x

and

x
, and hence is linear.
Example 14.2
onsider the two#degree#of#freedom system shown in -igure
1&#!, sub1ect to initial conditions
!2 !
!2 !
12 1
12 1
+ 2 * , + 2 * , + 2 * , + 2 *

x x x x x x x x
03press the governing equations in configuration form.
-igure 1&#! Two#degree#of#freedom mechanical system.
Solution
The differential equations describing the motion of this
mechanical system are given as
2 + * + *
1 !
! 1 ! ! 1 1
1
1
1
1
+ +

x x b x x k x k x b x m
*1&#5a+
2 + * + *
1 ! !
1 !
!
!
!
+ +

x x k x x b x m
*1&#5b+
(ividing 0quation *1&#5a and b+ by m
1
and m
!
separately and
rearranging yields
+ , , , * +6 * + * 7
1
+ , , , * + * + * 7
1
! 1
! 1 ! 1 ! !
1 !
!
!
!
! 1
! 1 1
1 !
! 1 ! ! 1 1
1
1
1
1



+ +
x x x x f x x k x x b
m
x
x x x x f x x b x x k x k x b
m
x
*1&#8+
,bserve from this formulation that there are two generalized
coordinates, q
1
9x
1
and q
!
9x
!
, and that 0quation *1&#8+ is in the
general form of 0quation *1&#1+. 4oreover, the generalized
forces f
1
and f
!
are e3pressed as linear combinations of
generalized coordinates x
1
and x
!
and generalized velocities
1

x

and
!

x
, and hence are linear.
Second-order matrix form
) convenient and commonly used form of representing an
n n3

system of second#order differential equations is standard
second#order matri3 form, defined as
f kx x c x m + +

*1&#:+
where m 9 mass matri3 *n3n+, c 9 damping matri3 *n3n+, k 9
stiffness matri3 *n3n+, x 9 configuration vector *n31+ 9 vector of
generalized coordinates, and f 9 vector of e3ternal forces *n31+.
Example 14.3
onsider the single#degree#of#freedom system of 03ample 1&.1
when sub1ected to an applied force
+ *t f
, as shown in -igure 1&#
$. ;epresent the equation of motion in second#order matri3
form.
-igure 1&#$ 4echanical system sub1ected to an applied force.
Solution
The equation of motion of this system is given as
+ *t f kx x b x m + +

<ecause there is only one generalized coordinate, 3, matrices
and vectors in 0quation *1&#:+ are scalars. %n particular,
comparing the equation of motion with 0quation *1&#:+, yields
m 9m, c 9 b, k 9k, f 9 f, x 9x
03ample 1&.&
"uppose the mechanical system of 03ample 1&.! is sub1ected to
an applied force
+ *t f
, as shown in -igure 1$#&. 03press the
system's equations of motion in second#order matri3 form as
given by 0quation *1&#:+.
-igure 1&#& 4echanical system of 03ample 1&.! sub1ected to an
applied force.
"olution
The equations of motion, a slight modification of 0quation *1&#
5+, are
2 + * + *
1 !
! 1 ! ! 1 1
1
1
1
1
+ +

x x b x x k x k x b x m
*1&#=+
+ * + * + *
1 ! !
1 !
!
!
!
t f x x k x x b x m + +

The system of equations in 0quation *1&#=+ can then be
e3pressed using matri3 notation into the standard second#order
matri3 form, 0quation *1&#:+, as
f kx x c x m + +

or, equivalently,
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

+
+
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

+
+
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

f x
x
k k
k k k
x
x
b b
b b b
x
x
m
m 2
2
2
!
1
! !
! ! 1
!
1
! !
! ! 1
!
1
!
1
Problems
1&.1 onsider the two#degree#of#freedom mechanical system in
-igure >1&.1. (erive the governing equations of motion and
e3press them in configuration form and identify the generalized
forces. )ssume the following parameter values: m
1
9 1/g, m
!
9
1/g, b
1
9 !'.s?m, k
1
9 1'?m, k
!
9 1'?m.
-igure >1&.1 4echanical system.
1&.! ) mechanical system e3periencing translational and
rotational motion is governed by
2 + *
+ * + *
+
+ + +


x R k x b x m
t Ru x R Rk K B J

where
b k m R B K J and , , , , , ,
denote physical parameters and are
regarded as constants,
and x
represent displacement and
angular displacement, respectively, and
+ *t u
is an applied force.
03press the equations in second#order matri3 form.
14.2 State-space representation
The concept of state#space relies on what are /nown as state
variables.
Definition: The smallest possible set of independent variables
that completely describes the state of a system is referred to as
the set of state variables. These variables at some fi3ed time
+ *
2
t t
and system inputs for all o
t t
will provide a complete
description of system behavior at any time o
t t
. <ecause
independence is essential, state variables cannot be e3pressible
as algebraic functions of each other and the inputs. 4oreover,
the set of state variables for a certain system is not unique.
The ob1ective, through introduction of suitable state variables, is
to rewrite a system's equations of dynamics *motion+ as a larger
system of first#order differential equations. 0ach of these
differential equations consists of the time derivative of one of
the state variables on the left#hand side and an algebraic
function of the state variables, as well as the system inputs, on
the right#hand side. These differential equations are then
referred to as state#variable equations.
ethodology
.iven a set of differential equations describing a certain
dynamic system, the two /ey questions are:
*@
1
+ Aow many state variables are thereB
*@
!
+ What are the state variablesB
!"
1
# $o% many state &ariables are there'
The number of state variables is equal to the number of initial
conditions required in order to completely solve the differential
equations of dynamics. -or instance, if a single second#order
differential equation describes a dynamic system, two initial
conditions are required. Aence, there are two state variables.
!"
2
# (hat are the state &ariables'
Those variables for which initial conditions are required
7in *@
1
+6 are chosen as state variables.
Example 14.5
-or the mechanical system discussed in 03ample 1&.$,
determine the state variables.
Solution
The equation of motion is given as
+ *t f kx x b x m + +

. %n order to
completely solve this second#order differential equation,
/nowledge of two initial conditions is required, namely,

x x and + 2 *
Aence, there are two state variables *according to @
1
+.
-urthermore, because initial conditions correspond to
x
and

x
,
state variables should be chosen, according to @
!
, as
x
and

x
C
i.e.,

x x x x
! 1
,
03ample 1&.8
"uppose that the governing equations for a certain dynamic
system are found to be

'

+
+ +

2 !
2
! 1
!
! 1
1 1
x x x
x x x x
where 1
x
and !
x
represent displacements, and
1

x
and
!

x
denote
velocities. (etermine the state variables.
"olution
<ecause the highest order of differentiation is two for 1
x
and
one for !
x
, the required initial conditions are
+ 2 *
1
x
,
+ 2 *
!
x
, and
+ 2 * 1

x . Therefore, there are a total of three state variables, and

they are chosen to be
1
! 1
and , ,

x x x .
%t is important to distinguish between state variables and
physical variables such as displacement and velocity. "tate
variables are generally mathematical quantities that are
employed to represent a system's governing equations in a
convenient form. "ometimes the conventional notation of i
x
,
which is reserved for state variables, may indeed coincide with
some of the physical variables involved in a system model. -or
instance, in the current e3ample there are three state variables
which, by convention, will be denoted by $ ! 1
and , , x x x
.
Aowever, we note that 1
x
and !
x
also represent displacements
of the bloc/s. This should not cause any concern because we
have determined that
>hysical quantities chosen as state variables:
1
! 1
, ,

x x x

4athematical quantities denoting state variables: $ ! 1

, , x x x
)ll that remains is to ma/e one#to#one assignments between the
elements of the two sets. %n this process, it is customary to use
up the physical variables in increasing order of derivatives. %n
the current problem, this means 1
x
and !
x
, followed by
1

x
. To
that end, the assignments are made as follows:
-irst state 1
x
9 -irst displacement 1
x
"econd state !
x
9 "econd displacement !
x
Third state $
x
9 -irst velocity
1

x
)eneral formulation
,nce the state variables are appropriately selected, the ne3t tas/
is to construct the state#variable equations. %n general, let us
consider a multi#input?multi#output *4%4,+ system with
n

state variables, x
1
, x
!
, D,3
n
, m inputs, u
1
, u
!
, D,u
m
, and p
outputs, y
1
, y
!
, D, y
p
. Then, the state#variable equations are in
the following general form:
"tate#variable equations
+ C , , C , *
+ , , C , *
+ C , C , , *
1 1
1 1 !
!
1 1 1
1
t u u x x f x
t u u x x f x
t u u x x f x
m n n
n
m n
m n

*1&#E+
where f
1
, f
!
, D, f
n
are nonlinear, in general.
"ystem outputs:
+ C , , C , , *
+ C , , C , , *
+ C , , C , , *
1 1
1 1 ! !
1 1 1 1
t u u x x h y
t u u x x h y
t u u x x h y
m n p p
m n
m n

*1&#12+
where h
1
, h
!
, h
p
are nonlinear in general. %n the event that
nonlinear elements are present in the system, the algebraic
functions
+ , , ! , 1 * n i f
i

and
+ , , ! , 1 * p k h
k

turn out to nonlinear
and quite comple3 in nature, thereby complicating the analysis.
0quations *1&#E+ and *1&#12+ may be presented more
conveniently through matri3 notation. To that end, define
1 3
p
!
1
1 3
p
!
1
1 3
m
!
1
1 3
!
1
1 3
!
1
h
h
h

y
y
y

u
u
u

p p m n
n
n
n
f
f
f
x
x
x
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

h y u f x
so that the state#variable equations are e3pressed as
+ , , * t u x f x

and the system outputs are

+ , * t u x* h y
The comple3ity associated with the general formulation reduces
considerably for the case of linear systems. %n the event that all
elements in the model of a dynamic system are linear, the
algebraic 0quations *1&#E+ and *1&#12+ will ta/e the following
special forms:
Finear state#variable equations:
m nm n n nm n
n
m m n n
m m n n
u b u b x a x a x
u b u b x a x a x
u b u b x a x a x
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +

1 1 1 1
! 1 !1 ! 1 !1
!
1 1 11 1 1 11
1
*1&#11+
Finear system outputs:
m pm p n pn p p
m m n n
m m n n
u d u d x c x c y
u d u d x c x c y
u d u d x c x c y
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +

1 1 1 1
! 1 !1 ! 1 !1 !
1 1 11 1 1 11 1
*1&#1!+
%n order to represent 0quations *1&#11+ and *1&#1!+ in matri3
form, define the following quantities:
tor output vec or, input vect vector, state
1 3
!
1
1 3
!
1
1 3
!
1

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

p
p
m
m
n
n
y
y
y
u
u
u
x
x
x

y u x
matri3
nsmission direct tra
d d d
d d d
d d d
matri3, output
cpn c c
c c c
c c c
matri3 input
!
matri3, state
p3m
pm p! p1
!m !! !1
1m 1! 11
p3n
p! p1
!n !! !1
1n 1! 11
3
1
! !! !1
1 1! 11
3
! 1
! !! !1
1 1! 11

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

D C
+ ,
m n
nm n n
m
m
n n
nn n n
n
n
b b b
b b b
b b b
a a a
a a a
a a a
)s a result, equations *1&#11+ and *1&#1!+ are e3pressed in
matri3 forms below:
"tate equation
+u ,x x +

*1&#1$a+
,utput equation
Du Cx y +
*1&#1$b+
0quation *1&#1$+ is /nown as the state#space representation or
state#space form of the system model.
03ample 1&.:
onsider the simple mechanical system of 03ample 1&.$.
)ssume that the displacement of the bloc/,
+ *t x
, is the output of
the system. ,btain the state#space form of the system model.
"olution
The governing differential equation is given by
+ *t f kx x b x m + +

*1&#1&+
)s discussed in e3ample 1&.5, the state variables are
x x
1 and

x x
!
. <ecause there are two state variables, two first#order
differential equations are e3pected. The first of these equations
simply gives a relation between the two state variables:
!
1 x x

*1&#15+
which does not depend on the dynamics of the system. The
second equation, however, is obtained directly from the equation
of motion, 0quation *1&#1&+, by substitution of state variables,
as follows:
+ *
1 !
! t f kx bx x m + +

"olving for
!

x
, one obtains
[ ] + *
1
1 !
! t f kx bx
m
x +

*1&#18+
0quations *1&#15+ and *1&#18+ form the state#variable equations
consisting of the time derivatives of the state variables and the
algebraic functions of the state variables and system inputsC that
is,
"tate#variable equations
!
1 x x

*1&#15+
[ ] + *
1
1 !
! t f kx bx
m
x +

*1&#18+
)lso, assuming linearity of the elements has caused these
equations to be in the general form of 0quation *1&#11+. "ystem
output is, by assumption, the displacement of the bloc/C hence
1
x y x y
*1&#1:+
which agrees with the general form of 0quation *1&#1!+.
03pressing the state#variable equations in matri3 form yields the
state equation
f
m x
x
m b m k
x
x
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
1
]
1

? 1
2
? ?
1 2
!
1
!
1
*1&#1=+
so that in relation to 0quation *1&#1$a+ we have
+u ,x x +

where
+ * ,
? 1
2
,
? ?
1 2
,
!
1
t f u
m m b m k x
x

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

+ , x
;ewriting 0quation *1&#1:+ using vector notation yields the
output equation
[ ] u
x
x
y . 2 2 1
!
1
+
1
]
1

and in relation to 0quation *1&#1$b+ we have

Du y + Cx
where
[ ] 2 , 2 1 D C
*1&#1E+
Gltimately, a combination of 0quations *1&#1=+ and *1&#1E+
defines the system's state#space form
+u ,x x +

Du Cx y +
in which all vectors and matrices have been properly defined.
,bserve also that the two state variables are independent,
because it is impossible to e3press displacement as an algebraic
function of velocity.
Example 14.8
onsider the electrical circuit in -igure 1&#!, in which the
voltage
+ *t e
is the input, and 1
q
and !
q
denote electric charges.
The constant parameters R, L
1
, L
!
, C
1
, and C
!
denote resistance,
inductances, and capacitances, respectively.
*1+ <y choosing a suitable set of state variables, obtain the
state equation.
*!+ )ssuming that the system output is q
1
, find the output
equation. ;epeat for the case in which the outputs are 1
q

and
1

q
-igure 1&#! Two#loop electrical circuit.
"olution
The system's governing equations are:
e q
C
q q R q L + +

1
1
! 1 1 1
1
+ *
*1&#!2a+
2
1
+ *
!
!
1 ! ! !
+ +

q
C
q q R q L
*1&#!2b+
*a+ <ecause each differential equation in 0quation *1&#!2+ is
second#order, a total of four initial conditions are requiredC
hence, there e3ist four state variables. Therefore, state variables
should be chosen as
! & 1 $ ! ! 1 1
, , ,

q x q x q x q x
)s a result, the state#variable equations are
1
]
1

1
]
1

!
!
$ &
!
!
&
1
1
& $
1
1
$
&
!
$
1
1
+ *
1
+ *
1
+ *
1
x
C
x x R
L
q x
t e x
C
x x R
L
q x
x x
x x
*1&#!1+
The state equation is obtained by e3pressing 0quation *1&#!1+ in
matri3 form,
u + ,x x +

, as
+ *
2
? 1
2
2
? ? + ?* 1 2
? ? 2 + ?* 1
1 2 2 2
2 1 2 2
1
&
$
!
1
! ! ! !
1 1 1 1
&
$
!
1
t e
L
x
x
x
x
L R L R C L
L R L R C L
x
x
x
x
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

*b+ <y assumption, the output is 1

q
, that is,
1 1
x y q y
and the output equation is
Du y + Cx
, where
[ ] 2 2 2 1 C
and
2 D
. Aowever, for the case of two outputs, 1
q
and
1

q , we have
1
]
1

1
1
]
1

!
1
1
1
x
x
q
q
y y
and the output equation
Du + Cx y
, where
1
]
1

2 1 2 2
2 2 2 1
C
and
2 D
Problems
1&#$ -or the given differential equation
+ * ! ! t f x x x x + + +

, choose a
set of state variables and find the resulting state#variable
equations. Then, e3press in matri3 form to obtain the state
equation.
1&#& onsider the rotational mechanical system shown in -igure
1&#$, in which

is an applied torque.

-igure 1&#$ ;otational mechanical system.
*1+ (etermine the state#space form if the system output is 1

.
*!+ ;epeat for the case in which both 1

and !

are outputs.