CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT 1

REPORT

ANKIT BHANDARI

INDEX
S.NO
1. 2. 3.

TOPIC
LOCATING THE SITE (SURVEYING) SOILS LOCATION OF ACCESS & SITE A ENITIES TE PORARY STRUCTURES FOR #ORK SCAFFOLDING EXCAVATION REFERENCE

PAGE NO.
3 6 7

!.

1"

$. 6.

16 2"

LOCATING THE SITE%

C&'()*+,)-&' (+*./0-'1
C&'()*+,)-&' (+*./0-'1 (otherwise known as "lay-out" or "setting-out") is to stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings. These markers are usually staked out according to a suitable coordinate system selected for the project.

E2/3/')( &4 )5/ ,&'()*+,)-&' (+*./0

Survey e isting conditions of the future work site! including topography! e isting buildings and infrastructure! and underground infrastructure whenever possible (for e ample! measuring invert elevations and diameters of sewers at manholes)"

Stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures

#erify the location of structures during construction"

$onduct an %s-&uilt survey' a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authori(ed was completed to the specifications set on plans.

C&&*6-'7)/ (0()/3( +(/6 -' ,&'()*+,)-&'

)and surveys and surveys of e isting conditions are generally performed according to geodesic coordinates. *owever for the purposes of construction a more suitable coordinate system will often be used. +uring construction surveying! the surveyor will often have to convert from geodesic coordinates to the coordinate system used for that project. C57-'71/ &* ()7)-&' ,n the case of roads or other linear infrastructure! a chainage (derived from -unter.s $hain - / chain is e0ual to 11 feet or /22 links) will be established! often to correspond with the center line of the road or pipeline. +uring construction! structures would then be located in terms of chainage! offset and elevation. Offset is said to be "left" or "right" relative to someone standing on the chainage line that is looking in the direction of increasing chainage. 3lans would often show plan views (viewed from above)! profile views (a "transparent" section view collapsing all section views of the road parallel to the chainage) or cross-section views (a "true" section view perpendicular to the chainage). ,n a plan view! chainage generally increases from left to right or from the bottom to the top of the plan. Profiles are shown with

the chainage increasing from left to right! and cross-sections are shown as if the viewer is looking in the direction of increasing chainage (so that the "left" offset is to the left and the "right" offset is to the right). "$hainage" may also be referred to as "Station". B+-26-'1 1*-6( ,n the case of buildings! an arbitrary system of grids is often established so as to correspond to the rows of columns and the major load-bearing walls of the building. The grids may be identified alphabetically in one direction! and numerically in the other direction (as in a road map). The grids are usually but not necessarily perpendicular! and are often but not necessarily evenly spaced. 4loors and basement levels are also numbered. Structures! e0uipment or architectural details may be located in reference to the floor and the nearest intersection of the arbitrary a es. O)5/* ,&&*6-'7)/ (0()/3( ,n other types of construction projects! arbitrary "north-south" and "east-west" reference lines may be established! that do not necessarily correspond to true coordinates

E8+-93/') 7'6 )/,5'-8+/( +(/6 -' ,&'()*+,)-&' (+*./0-'1

Surveying e0uipment! such as levels and theodolites! are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation! hori(ontal! vertical and slope distances. 5ith computerisation! electronic distance measurement (6+7)! total stations! -3S surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large e tent supplanted) the traditional optical instruments.8citation needed9 The builder.s level measures neither hori(ontal nor vertical angles. ,t simply combines a spirit level and telescope to allow the user to visually establish a line of sight along a level plane. 5hen used together with a graduated staff it can be used to transfer elevations from one location to another. %n alternative method to transfer elevation is to use water in a transparent hose as the level of the water in the hose at opposite ends will be at the same elevation. . The Services that &uilding Surveyors undertake are broad but include.

$onstruction design and building works 3roject 7anagement and monitoring

$+7 $o-ordinator under the $onstruction (+esign : 7anagement) ;egulations <22= 3roperty )egislation adviser ,nsurance assessment and claims assistance +efect investigation and maintenance adviser &uilding Surveys and measured surveys

*andling 3lanning applications &uilding ,nspection to ensure compliance with building regulations >ndertaking pre-ac0uisition surveys ?egotiating dilapidations claims8@9

&uilding Surveyors also advice on many aspects of construction including'

design maintenance repair refurbishment restoration

$lients of a building surveyor can be the public sector! )ocal %uthorities! -overnment +epartments as well as private sector organisations and work closely with architects! planners! homeowners and tenants groups. &uilding Surveyors may also be called to act as an e pert witness. ,t is usual for building surveyors to undertake an accredited degree 0ualification before undertaking structured training to become a member of a professional organisation. 4or $hartered &uilding Surveyors! these courses are accredited by the ;oyal ,nstitution of $hartered Surveyors. Ather professional organisations that have building surveyor members include $,A&! %&6! *B,S and ;,$S. 5ith the enlargement of the 6uropean community! the profession of the $hartered &uilding Surveyor is becoming more widely known in other 6uropean states! particularly 4rance. $hartered &uilding Surveyors! where many 6nglish speaking people buy second homes. D-()-',)-&' 4*&3 27'6 (+*./0&*( ,n the >nited States! $anada! the >nited Bingdom and most $ommonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a distinct profession. )and surveyors have their own professional associations and licencing re0uirements. The services of a licenced land surveyor are generally re0uired for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land! with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicated the creation of new boundary lines and roads).

SOILS
SA,) %T T*6 S,T6 ,S $)%C SA,).

CLAY SOIL%
$lays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in si(e and mineralogy. Silts! which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals! tend to have larger particle si(es than clays! but there is some overlap in both particle si(e and other physical properties! and there are many naturally occurring deposits which include silts and also clay. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline. -eologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle si(e of < Dm (clays being finer than silts)! sedimentologists often use E-F Gm! and colloid chemists use / Gm. -eotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil! as measured by the soils. %tterberg )imits. ,SA /E1HH grades clay particles as being smaller than < Gm and silts larger.

I6/')-40-'1 ,270 (&-2%

$lay soils can be identified by'

$lays feel slightly sticky and dense They feel smooth (not gritty) when a piece is rubbed between finger and thumb % moist fragment can be rolled into a ball and then into sausage shape with no cracking ,f! after being rolled into a clay sausage the moist surface becomes shiny when rubbed! it is likely that the soil is especially rich in clay and is termed a Iheavy clayJ

L&,7)-&' &4 7,,/(( 7'6 (-)/ 73/'-)-/(

S-)/ &44-,/
,t is re0uired for office work and paperwork.

7,5-'/*0
;eady mi concrete! cranes! backhoe loader! e cavator. &ackhoe loaders are very common and can be used for a wide variety of tasks' construction! small demolitions! light transportation of building materials! powering building e0uipment! digging holesKe cavation! landscaping! breaking asphalt! and paving roads. The backhoe bucket can also be replaced with powered attachments such as a breaker! grapple! auger! or a stump grinder. 6nhanced articulation of attachments can be achieved with intermediate attachments such as the tilt rotator. 7any backhoes feature 0uick coupler (0uick-attach) mounting systems and au iliary hydraulic circuits for simplified attachment mounting! increasing the machine.s utili(ation on the job site. Some loader buckets have a retractable bottom or "clamshell"! enabling it to empty its load more 0uickly and efficiently. ;etractablebottom loader buckets are also often used for grading and scraping. The front assembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Aften the bucket can be replaced with other devices or tools. The backhoe loader must be e0uipped with a tool coupler in order to mount different attachments to the loader. % tool coupler consists of two hydraulic cylinders on the end of the loader arm assembly which can e pand and retract allowing different tools to be attached to the unit. %dvanced couplers like the tilt rotator allow for greater articulation of attachments and makes the backhoe an effective tool carrier.

T/39&*7*0 *&76(

They are used for easy moving of machineries! lorry and cars

L7:&+* ,&2&'0

,t is used as an accommodation for labours during contruction.These are normally re0uired during major construction as the construction process takes place in night and day shifts.

C7')//'
,t is used by both labours and engineers for having food !this is temporary structure used during long projects especially in remote areas which are away from towns and cities.

S/,+*-)0
This is essential for major constructions where heavy and e pensive machinery are used. 4encing is also an element used as a part of security at the construction site.
8

P&;/* (+9920
The electrical installation on a construction site is there to provide lighting and power to enable the work to proceed. &y the very nature of the situation! the installation will be subjected to the kind of ill treatment which is unlikely to be applied to most fi ed installations. Those working on the site may be ankle deep in mud and thus particularly susceptible to a shock to earth! and they may be using portable tools such as drills and grinders in situations where danger is more likely than in most factory situations. The difficulty of ensuring that bonding re0uirements are met on construction sites means that 376 supplies must not be used to supply them. ,nstallations will also! by definition! he temporary. %s the construction proceeds they will be moved and altered. ,t is usual for such installations to be subjected to thorough inspection and testing at intervals which will never e ceed three months. % formal visual inspection of //2 # e0uipment should take place monthly" the effectiveness of each ;$+ should be tested before every use by pressing its test button.

#7)/* (+9920
,t is used for the construction activities and should have low chlorine rate and also used for restrooms.

S)&*/
They are used for storing construction materials like cement!steel!machinery tools etc. it is also used for storing temporary structures likes scaffolding! formworks etc.

TE PORARY STRUCTURES
Temporary structures are critical elements of the overall construction plan. % temporary structure in construction affects the safety of the workers on the job and the general public and there is also the relationship of the temporary structure to the finished structure. Temporary structures are sometimes incorporated into the finished work or are removed at the end of the conclusion of their usefulness. ,n either case the contractor will have to deal with supervision work! code re0uirements! contract and legal re0uirements! and perhaps disputes with others over the work being performed. %s far as design! drawings and specifications are concerned! they depend on the temporary structure under consideration. ,n e tremely comple jobs involving such temporary work as cofferdams for bridge piers! the design of the temporary structure will often be done by the designer of the permanent structure. 4or simpler types of temporary structures! such as temporary ramps used by e cavation contractor for a building project! the e cavation contractor will do the design. &etween these two e tremes is the type of temporary structure in which specialty contractors! who make a business of doing a specific type of temporary structure will be employed. The specifications for the temporary structure are usually drawn up by the temporary structure contractor and is re0uired to obtain permits for any work done. % major emphasis will be placed on concrete formwork construction covering detailed design analysis of both vertical and hori(ontal timber formwork systems.

T/39&*7*0 S)*+,)+*/(
D/4-'-)-&'% %ny means or methods which provide temporary support! access! enhancement! or otherwise facilitate the construction of permanent structures. N/,/((-)0% Temporary structures form the interface between design and construction. 7ost permanent structures simply could not be built without temporary structures.
10

I397,) &' S,5/6+2/< C&()< 7'6 =+72-)0% )osses in time and money will occur if the temporary structures are not planned and coordinated with the same degree of thoroughness as the permanent structures. S74/)0 4ailure of temporary structures have been responsible for hundreds of deaths on construction sites. Safety should be the overriding priority of contractors and designers responsible for implementing temporary structures. R/(9&'(-:-2-)0 The norm in the construction industry is to place the responsibility for temporary structures solely on the general contractor. *owever! architects and engineers must at least have formulated their own method of construction. $oordinating the design of permanent structure with the temporary structures that will be re0uired can lead to more efficient and cost effective construction.

D/(-1' C&'(-6/*7)-&'(
S74/)0 +esigners must place the first priority on safety. AS*% codes! as well as other codes in the industry! provide stringent performance specifications (how the system should work) regarding temporary structures. C&() Temporary structures can be the most e pensive part of some construction projects. +esigning cost-effective solutions to temporary structures problems could easily be the competitive advantage a contractor has over others. The designer must have a thorough knowledge of all the options which will sufficiently solve the temporary structures problem. U'-8+/ D/(-1' C5722/'1/( Temporary structures are subject to uni0ue loading conditions which do not apply to a permanent structure (fluctuating or dynamic loads! impact loads! and loads which change position). 5orking within spatial constraints and cramped sites re0uires the most efficient temporary structure so that workers still have room to manoeuvre safely. ,t is always possible that an unforeseen condition could arise during an e cavation due to uncertainty of soil conditions. +esigners must include an appropriate factor of safety in their calculations or they may consider contingency plans for changing soil conditions.

T5/ ,&')*7,)&*
,n many cases the contractor is the only member of the construction team with considerable e perience and practical knowledge of temporary structures. The contractor must hire his or her own engineer! if the specifications or building codes re0uire one! or self-perform the design of temporary structures. The most comple temporary structures are often handled on a design-build basis (design-build approach is a construction techni0ue which allows a single procurement for the design and construction of projects.) The design-build situation is optimal because it guarantees coordination between design and construction. %nyone managing the construction process needs a basic understanding of the engineerJs thinking
11

process and the design intentions and the basic understanding of how a structure behaves. $onstructor must be able to address a number of technical 0uestions at the project site including structural issues that sometimes are not addressed by the design professionals. Since the safety of construction workers as well as the strength and stability of structures during the construction phase is of paramount importance! construction managers need this knowledge.

S)*+,)+*72 D/(-1'
D/4-'-)-&'% +etermination of overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the selection of individual members. R/(9&'(-:-2-)0% The structural engineer is responsible for structural design within the constraints imposed by the architect (number of stories! floor plan! etc.). ,mportant factors in design are' L S74/)0 (the structure doesnJt fall down)" L S/*.-,/7:-2-)0 (how well the structure performs in term of appearance and deflection)" L E,&'&30 (an efficient use of materials and labour)" and Several alternative designs should be prepared and their costs compared. Types of load that structures support are' L D/76 2&76( M permanent" including self-weight! floor covering! suspended ceiling! partitions! etc. L L-./ 2&76( M not permanent" the location is not fi ed" including furniture! e0uipment! and occupants of buildings L #-'6 2&76 (e erts a pressure or suction on the e terior of a building)" L E7*)58+7>/ 2&76( (the effects of ground motion are simulated by a system of hori(ontal forces)" L S'&; 2&76 (varies with geographical location and drift)" L &)5/* 2&76( (hydrostatic pressure! soil pressure) L ,f the load is applied suddenly! the effects of ,73%$T must be accounted for. +esign specifications provide guidance for the design of structural members and their connections. They have no legal standing on their own! but they can easily be adopted! by reference! as part of a building code. i.e.! %$, @/H-NN- &uilding $ode ;e0uirements for Structural $oncrete. The Specifications for +esign of 5ood 7embers are by ?ational +esign Specifications for 5ood $onstruction by %merican 4orest and 3aper %ssociation.

F&*3;&*> 4&* C&',*/)/

4ormwork development has paralleled the growth of concrete construction throughout the <2th century. The increasing acceptance of concrete as a major construction material presents the form builder a new range of problems in the development of appropriate sheathing materials and maintenance of rigid tolerances.

12

4ormwork is a classic temporary structure in the sense that it is erected 0uickly! highly loaded for a few hours during the concrete placement! and within a few days disassembled for future reuse. %lso classic in their temporary nature are the connections! braces! tie anchorages! and adjustment devices which form need. 4or concrete formworks! the notion of "Temporary Structures" does not 0uite portray the reality. 4orms! its hardware and accessories are used over and over again over their life time. &ecause of that it is necessary to use materials with high durability and easy to maintain. The form design should be such that it can be erected and disassembled efficiently in order to ma imi(e productivity. The disassembly or stripping of forms depends on factors such as the bond between concrete and the form! rigidity and shrinkage of concrete. 4orms should! whenever possible! be left in place for the entire curing period. Since early form removal is desirable for their reuse! a reliable basis for determining the earliest possible stripping time is necessary. Some of the early signs to look for during stripping are no e cessive deflection or distortion and no evidence of cracking or other damage to the concrete due to the removal of the forms or the form supports. ,n any event! forms must not be stripped until the concrete has hardened enough to hold its own weight and any other weight it may be carrying. The surface must be hard enough to remain undamaged and unmarked when reasonable care is used in stripping the forms. Traditionally! formwork was erected in place and wrecked after only one time of usage. ,n the >nited States! due to high labour costs! it is more efficient and profitable to prefabricate forms! assemble them in large units using mechanical devices! such as cranes to erect the forms and reuse them as much as possible. &y /N/2 steel forms for paving were being produced commercially and used in the field .

C7+(/( &4 F&*3;&*> F7-2+*/

4ormwork failures are the cause of many accidents and building failures that occur during concrete construction! usually when fresh concrete is being placed. -enerally some une pected event causes one member to fail! then others become overloaded or misaligned and the entire formwork structure collapses. The main causes of formwork failure are' /. ,mproper stripping and shore removal <. ,nade0uate bracing @. #ibration E. >nstable soil under mudsills (% plank! frame! or small footing on the ground used as a base for a shore or post in formwork)! shoring not plumb F. ,nade0uate control of concrete placement 1. )ack of attention to formwork details. 3lease read the case studies presented in 7.B. *urd in $hapter <. S74/)0 4ormwork must be' L Strong to carry the full load and side pressure from freshly placed concrete! together with construction traffic and e0uipment! and L Sound (made of good 0uality! durable materials) To ensure that forms are correctly designed and strong enough for the e pected load AS*% (Accupational Safety and *ealth %dministration) regulations! %merican $oncrete ,nstitute (%$,) recommendations! and local code re0uirements for formwork should be followed.

13

ST66) 4A;75A;B ,? T*6 %&A#6 3,$T>;6 ,T ,S >S6+ %S S*>TT6;S.

14

S,744&26-'1
S,744&26-'1 is a temporary structure used to support people and material in the construction or repair of buildings and other large structures. ,t is usually a modular system of metal pipes or tubes! although it can be from other materials. &amboo is fre0uently used in %sia

T+:/( & C&+92/*( S,744&26-'1

Scaffold couplers are essentially the fundamental component that is used to assemble tubeand-coupler scaffolding. Tube-and-coupler scaffolding is defined as .a scaffold in which individual circular tubes serving as standards! braces or ties are joined together by means of purpose designed couplers.. This basic fitting that is designed to join two scaffold tubes can be used to create a diverse range of scaffolding structures or used as an accessory to prefabricated scaffolding systems. This manual includes basic types of scaffold couplers which join two tubes together as well as special couplers used to connect scaffold tube to other components! e0uipment or structures.

15

EXCAVATION
,n general! e cavation means to loosen and .take out materials leaving space above or below ground . Sometimes in civil engineering term earthwork is used which include backfilling with new or original materials to voids! spreading and levelling over an area

E?,7.7)&*

% typical modern e cavator' 6 cavators are heavy construction e0uipment consisting of a boom! stick! bucket and cab on a rotating platform (known as the "house"). The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels. % cable-operated e cavator uses winches and steel ropes to accomplish the movements. They are a natural progression from the steam shovels and often called power shovels. %ll movement and functions of a hydraulic e cavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid! with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors. +ue to the linear actuation of hydraulic cylinders! their mode of operation is fundamentally different from cable-operated e cavators.

T/*3-'&2&10
6 cavators are also called diggers! O$&s (a proprietary name! in an e ample of a generic trademark)! mechanical shovels! or @12-degree e cavators (sometimes abbreviated simply to @12). Tracked e cavators are sometimes called "track hoes" by analogy to the backhoe. ,n the >B! wheeled e cavators are sometimes known as "rubber ducks."8/9 >sage 6 cavators are used in many ways' P +igging of trenches! holes! foundations P 7aterial handling P &rush cutting with hydraulic attachments P 4orestry work P +emolition P -eneral gradingKlandscaping P *eavy lift! e.g. lifting and placing of pipes P

16

%n old e cavator

% ):T Bomatsu 6 cavator seen in ,ndia

E?,7.7)&* 7))7,53/')(
*ydraulic e cavator capabilities have e panded far beyond e cavation tasks with buckets. 5ith the advent of hydraulic-powered attachments such as a breaker! a grapple or an auger! the e cavator is fre0uently used in many applications other than e cavation. 7any e cavators feature a 0uick coupler for simplified attachment mounting! increasing the machine.s utili(ation on the jobsite. 6 cavators are usually employed together with loaders and bulldo(ers. 7ost wheeled! compact and some medium-si(ed (// to /H-tonne) e cavators have a backfill (or do(er) blade. This is a hori(ontal bulldo(er-like blade attached to the undercarriage and is used for levelling and pushing removed material back into a hole.

N&)7:2/ 37'+47,)+*/*(
P P P P P P P P P &67) )imited $aterpillar ,nc. *itachi $onstruction 7achinery *yundai *eavy ,ndustries Oohn +eere O. $. &amford (O$&) Bomatsu )imited ):T 7itsubishi *eavy ,ndustries

17

B7,>5&/ 2&76/*

The archetypal backhoe loader! a restored O$& @$ 7k,,! showing the conventional arrangement of front loader (left) and backhoe (right) % backhoe loader! also called a loader backhoe! digger in layman.s terms! or collo0uially shortened to backhoe within the industry! is a heavy e0uipment vehicle that consists of a tractor like unit fitted with a shovelKbucket on the front and a small backhoe on the back. +ue to its (relatively) small si(e and versatility! backhoe loaders are very common in urban engineering and small construction projects (such as building a small house! fi ing urban roads! etc.) as well as developing countries. This type of machine is similar to and derived from what is now known as a T)& (Tractor-)oader-&ackhoe)! which is to say! a agricultural tractor fitted with a front loader and rear backhoe attachment.

H-()&*0
The backhoe loader was invented in the >B in /NF@ by Ooseph $yril &amford! founder of O. $. &amford (O$&)! by e0uipping a farm tractor with both a rear mounted backhoe and a frontmounted loading bucket. %lthough based on a tractor! a backhoe loader was and is almost never called a tractor when both the loader and the backhoe are permanently attached. &ackhoe loaders are also not generally used for towing and usually do not have a power takeoff (3TA) as often this is used to drive the hydraulic pump operating the attachments. 5hen the backhoe is permanently attached! the machine usually has a seat that can swivel to the rear to face the hoe controls. ;emovable backhoe attachments almost always have a separate seat on the attachment itself. ,n &ritain! ,reland and ,ndia they are commonly referred to simply as O$&s due to the company being the inventor and major supplier. ,n the >nited States! they are often referred to as "&ackhoes"! although the term .backhoe. only refers to one component. ,n /N=2! *ay-+ynamic now a division of &ucyrus-6rie! manufacturer of the +ynahoe was the first company to incorporate a four wheel drive system into their backhoe loaders! allowing these models to go over almost any terrain with little difficulty. Since the backhoe was
18

invented! several companies such as $aterpillar and Oohn +eere have changed the backhoe.s back arm to be slightly curved as per an e cavator! which can allow more manoeuvrability.

>se &ackhoe loaders are very common and can be used for a wide variety of tasks' construction! small demolitions! and light transportation of building materials! powering building e0uipment! digging holesKe cavation! landscaping! breaking asphalt! and paving roads. The backhoe bucket can also be replaced with powered attachments such as a breaker! grapple! auger! or a stump grinder. 6nhanced articulation of attachments can be achieved with intermediate attachments such as the tilt rotator. 7any backhoes feature 0uick coupler (0uickattach) mounting systems and au iliary hydraulic circuits for simplified attachment mounting! increasing the machine.s utili(ation on the job site. Some loader buckets have a retractable bottom or "clamshell"! enabling it to empty its load more 0uickly and efficiently. ;etractable-bottom loader buckets are also often used for grading and scraping. The front assembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Aften the bucket can be replaced with other devices or tools. The backhoe loader must be e0uipped with a tool coupler in order to mount different attachments to the loader. % tool coupler consists of two hydraulic cylinders on the end of the loader arm assembly which can e pand and retract allowing different tools to be attached to the unit. %dvanced couplers like the tilt rotator allow for greater articulation of attachments and make the backhoe an effective tool carrier. &ecause digging while on tyres intrinsically causes the machine rock! and the swinging weight of the backhoe could cause the vehicle to tip! most backhoe loaders use hydraulic outriggers or stabilisers at the rear when digging and lower the loader bucket for additional stability. This means that the bucket must be raised and the outriggers retracted when the vehicle needs to change positions! reducing efficiency. 4or this reason many companies offer miniature tracked e cavators! which sacrifice the loader function and ability to be driven from site to site! for increased digging efficiency.

7'+47,)+*/*(
P P P P P P P P P P P &harat 6arth 7overs )imited $aterpillar ,nc. Oohn +eere Tractors 4iat 4ord 7otor $ompany *itachi! )td. *uddig )eyland +eere! )td. O. $. &amford (O$&) Bomatsu )T+ 7ahindra

19

REFERENCE
#->-9/6-7 A(@:+-26( A P*&:2/3( & P*&9&(/6 S&2+)-&'( 5))9%BB;;;.07'37*.,&3B,&'()*+,)-&'B9*&6+,)(B/?,7.7)&*(

20