A REPORT OF THE STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is an effective instrument for exposing students to the realities of the work environment in Nigeria especially, and the world in general, in their chosen professions so as to achieve the much needed technological advancement for the nation !o give an account of the activities carried out during the scheme, the trainee su"mits a technical report stating, in details, all the knowledge and experience gained !his report gives a detailed explanation of all the activities carried out "y the trainee #efore giving details of these activities, general "ackground knowledge, as studied from relevant engineering texts availa"le, is "riefly explained !hen followed "y the details of these activities, with each pro$ect "een involved in outlined under each chapter !hereafter, comes the chapter that explains the various pro"lems encountered in executing the afore%mentioned pro$ects and the solutions proffered to solve those pro"lems In order not to distract the line of thought while reading this report and to

further elucidate on what has "een written in the "ody of the report, the appendix section is provided to show calculations made in the course of carrying out these activities &t the end of it all, conclusions are drawn, and recommendations made on how these activities carried out have trained the mind of the trainee in the engineering profession and have given some of necessary experience needed to face the challenges of this profession as well

TABLE OF CONTENTS !itle 'age((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( )etter of !ransmittal((((((((((((((((((((((((((( Executive Summary((((((((((((((((((((((((((( *edication((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( &cknowledgement(((((((((((((((((((((((((((( !a"le of +ontents(((((((((((((((((((((((((((( )ist of ,igures(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( )ist of !a"les(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION --. -/ SIWES (((((((((((((((((((((((( !he +ompany(((((((((((((((((((((((((( 0"$ective and Scope of the report(((((((((((((((((((

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE STUDY .Water Supply and *esign 'rocesses ((((((((((((((((((

.-.-. ..

Water Supply 'rocesses(((((((((((((((((((( ,low 'rocess *esign((((((((((((((((((((

1einforced +oncrete *esign((((((( (((((((((( ..... ../ ..3 ..4 Introduction((((((((((((((((((((((( *esign 0"$ectives(((((((((((((((((((( *esign 2ethods((((((((((((((((((((( 1einforced +oncrete 2em"ers(((((((((((((((( *esign 'rocess(((((((((((((((((((((((

./

5eographic Information System ( (((((((((((((((( ././. .// ./3 ./4 Introduction(((((((((((((((((((((( *efinition of 5IS((((( ((((((((((((( ,undamental of 5IS(((( (((((((((((( 5IS 'rocess((((((((((((((((((((( &pplication of 5IS(((((((((((((((((((

CHAPTER THREE: VILLAGES WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES. //. 'ro$ect #ackground(((((((((((((((((((((((( Work +arried 0ut and Experience 5ained((((((((((((((((

CHAPTER FOUR: PROPERTY IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE FOR LAGOS STATE... 33. 'ro$ect #ackground((((((((((((((((((((((((( Work +arried 0ut and Experience 5ained((((((((((((((((

CHAPTER FIVE: ISSUES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 4+onstruction Site Experience(((((((((((((((((((

4. 4/

*evelopments in +ivil Engineering 'ractice(((((((((((((( 'rinciples of 'ro$ect 2anagement((((((((((((((((( 4/4/. Introduction((((((((((((((((((((((( &pplication of 'artnering to implement 1eid +rowther6s 'ro$ects((

CHAPTER SIX: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND SOLUTIONS PROFFERED 77. 7/ +oncerning 8illages6 Water Supply Scheme((((((((((((( +oncerning the 'IE for )agos State((((((((((((((((( +oncerning +onstruction Site Experience((((((((((((((((

CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 99. +onclusion((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 1ecommendations(((((((((((((((((((((((((

REFERENCES.. APPENDIX A: APPENDIX B: APPENDIX C: We !"#$ O% C&'$#()*# &'+, M+#e( +,$ De$ !' P(&*e$$ %&( #"e D(+ '+!e C"+''e,. De$ !' P(&*e$$ %&( #"e C+'# ,e-e( Re#+ ' '! W+,,.

LIST OF FIGURES ,igure . ,igure . . ,igure . / ,igure / ,igure / . ,igure #,igure #. ,igure #/ ,igure #3 ,igure +,igure +. ,igure +/ +omponents of 5IS(((((((((((((((((((( 2ap showing the coastal areas of )agos State, Nigeria(((((( *iagram showing typical layers of *ata in a 5IS(((((((( 1evised ,low 'rocess *esign for a typical 8illage(((((((( !he *avnor :#iosand6 ,ilter !reatment ;nit((((((((((( !ypical +ross%section of *rainage +hannel(((((((((((( !ypical )oad *istri"ution on *rainage +hannel(((((((((( 1esultant End 2oments on *rainage +hannel6s +ross%section(((( *etailing for a typical *rainage +hannel(((((((((((( 0utline of the 1etaining Wall Site(((((((((((((( +ross%sectional )oad *iagram of the +antilever 1etaining Wall(( *etailing of the +ross%section of the +antilever 1etaining Wall(((

LIST OF TABLES !a"le . )oad +om"ination and their 8alues of 'artial ,actor of Safety for the ;)S(((((((((((((((((((((((( !a"le . . Nominal +over to all 1einforcement (including links) to meet *ura"ility 1e<uirements( (((((((((((((((( !a"le #!a"le #. #ar #ending Schedule of 1einforcement for the *rainage +hannel((( #ar #ending Schedule of 1einforcement for the +antilever 1etaining Wall(((((((((((((((((((((((((((

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ... SIWES !he SIWES was esta"lished as a result of the reali=ation "y the ,ederal 5overnment, in ->9-, of the need to introduce a new dimension to the <uality and standard of education o"tained in the country in order to achieve the much needed technological advancement? "ecause it has "een shown that a correlation exists "etween a country6s level of economic and technological development, and its level of investment in manpower development (0niyide, .@@@) Some of the o"$ectives of SIWES areA !o provide, for the students, opportunities to "e involved in the practical aspect of

their respective disciplines? thus, "ridging the gap "etween the theoretical aspect taught in the class and the real world situations !o expose students to latest developments and technological innovations in their

chosen professions

!o prepare students for industrial working environments they are likely to meet after

graduation ../ T"e C&01+'2 1eid +rowther Nigeria )imited is an employee%owned +anadian company that has "eing offering comprehensive engineering services for over -@ years, with the mission to provide Buality Engineering and 'ro$ect 2anagement Services using creative and innovative solutions that are responsive to client and pu"lic needs "y applying the art of engineering to solve everyday pro"lems !he areas of specialisation of the company can "e grouped into five main areas, namelyA Environmental, 2unicipal, !ransportation, #uilding and Industrial engineering Specifically, these include Water Supply and *istri"ution, Wastewater +ollection and !reatment, Solid Waste 2anagement, 2arine and 1oad !ransportation, Car"our works, *rainage, ,lood 'rotection, Environmental Impact &ssessments, 5eographical Information System (5IS) !he company started operations in Nigeria in ->D7 with its office in )agos alone, "ut various $o"s, through which it has demonstrated its expertise, had created offices in other parts of the country such as Warri, &"u$a, 0ndo and Ekiti states !he company6s staff strength is a"out .@@, made up of expatriates and indigenes !he company has demonstrated its expertise in a num"er of ma$or pro$ects such as the 1edesigning and Supervision of )agos State Water *istri"ution System, +onsultancy service for 0tamiri 1iver Water Supply 'ro$ect, 2apping for 1apid !ransit System in )agos, ;pgrading of Sewage !reatment 'lant and *isposal of !reated Effluent and Stormwater for +hevron6s estate at Satellite !own, ,ront%End Engineering and

2aster 'lan *esign for 'ota"le Water at +hevron Nigeria )imited (+N)) Escravos !erminal, *esign 2odification of Sewage +ollection and !reatment 'lant at +hevron Nigeria )imited (+N)) Escravos !erminal, Water Supply System 1eha"ilitation in ,ederal +apital !erritory, 0ndo and Ekiti states for the ,ederal 5overnment, and so on 1eid +rowther has the vision of constantly demonstrating its high degree of competence as an international consultant in all engineering pro$ects, and is committed to impart the Nigerian environment as well

..3

O45e*# -e +'6 S*&1e &% #"e Re1&(# !he o"$ective of this report is to present, in details, the various activities carried

out "y the trainee at 1eid +rowther Nigeria )imited from 2arch .@@. to &ugust .@@. as well as provide the general "ackground knowledge a"out the aspects of +ivil Engineering applied while undergoing the SIWES programme ,or the reasons stated a"ove, the report covers only the extent of work, in "rief, that has "een done "efore the trainee was involved in the various pro$ects? as well as "ackground engineering knowledge applied in these pro$ects, except in cases where other engineering knowledge not applied cannot "ut "e mentioned, "ecause they are intertwined with the knowledge applied in these pro$ects, and in such cases they are very "rief +onse<uently, no mention is made of any further activities carried out in these pro$ects after the trainee6s completion of training

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE STUDY !his chapter is to serve as a preparatory "ackground of knowledge for the practical training that the trainee went through It provides elementary knowledge of supply and the design processes of water schemes? design processes of reinforced concrete structural units? application of geographical information studies /.. /.... W+#e( S)11,2 +'6 De$ !' P(&*e$$e$ Water Supply Processes Water is essential to life, it also serves as a reference li<uid in science, as the medium for countless chemical reactions and as the conveyor of the vital su"stances, which it needs%% mineral salts, organic molecules ()aing, ->9/) !his makes issues a"out water to "e such important to man6s life that it cannot "e pushed aside !hese issues are "riefly explained in the following sections (a) How much water is needed?

Cammer and Cammer, Er (->>7) states that the amount of water needed "y a community depends on industrial use, climate, economic, social as well as locality conditions It is convenient to divide water consumption, according to !wort et al (->D4), into the following categoriesA DomesticA In%house uses such as drinking, cooking, sanitation, house cleaning, car

and clothes washing, garden watering, etc EconomicA Industrial usage in factories, power stations, etc? commercial usage in

shops, offices, restaurants, etc? institutional usage in schools, hospitals, government offices, etc AgriculturalA ;se of water for crops, livestock, horticulture, dairies etc PublicA ;sage of water in pu"lic parks, for sewer flushing, fire fighting, etc LossesA +onsumer wastages (leakages and wastages from consumers6 premises,

misuse or unnecessarily wasteful use of water "y consumers)? distri"ution losses (leakages and overflows from service reservoir, leakages from mains, service connections, valves and washouts)? metering and other losses Since all these categories of water consumption do not apply to all design situations, !wort et al (op cit ) further explained that it is expedient that a consumption survey (or, its trend "e determined) "e carried out to investigate likely losses from a system, consumers6 lifestyle, forecast future demand "ased on population, and come up with an average daily demand (&**) per capita

!hereafter, a maximum daily demand (2**) is computed It is usually expressed as either a percentage of the &** or, simply, a multiplying factor of &** !his factor ranges from --@ to .@@F &lso, the peak hourly flowrate is calculated, depending on the si=e of area to "e served and the nature of demand !his applies flow factors, as well, to the &**Git ranges from . @ to 3 @ !his is to cater for peak demand during peak flow period, usually in the morning (4 /@ a m%>a m) and the evening (7p m %>p m ) 'eaking factors, as they are called, are not $ust chosen on the "asis of water demand, it must relate to other factors in consideration such as future upgrading ;pon an accurate estimation of daily demand, the design process moves to the next stage of locating water source(s) that will guarantee that demand and proximity to the location of the consumers (") Sourcing for water In assessing the water resources, the modern approach is to consider all the possi"le means of development, and to examine, comprehensively, the hydrology of the catchment involved !wort et al (op cit ) listed the full range of possi"le developments as followsA (-) Surface water (.) 1iver intake, 1eservoir for direct supply, 1eservoir for indirect gravity or pumped inflow, and !anks fed "y collected rainfall

5roundwater

 (/)

Springs, and Wells and "oreholes

Water 1eclamation 1euse of treated sewage effluent

!he evaluation of a source involves an inventory of all water availa"le including rainfall, losses, catchment areas etc !o do this, a hydrological survey, if necessary, must "e conducted in which all flows into and out of the catchment are <uantified and "alanced, so ensuring that all have "een accounted for !he parameters to "e measured for a particular catchment will "e as followsA (i) Inflows (or Gains) !hese include precipitation, surface runoff into the

area, groundwater movement into the area, etc (ii) !utflows (or Losses) !hese include evaporation and transpiration,

surface runoff out of the area, groundwater movement out of the area, irrigation a"stractions, etc (iii) Storage !his includes soil moisture changes, change in contents of

impounding reservoir and a<uifer storage changes In summary, a water evaluation survey provides a means of understanding water use in catchment area, checking that catchment are ade<uate and accurate, and <uantifying average resources In choosing "etween sources of supply, the main factors, according to )aing (op cit ), to "e considered are <uality of the availa"le water, <uantity of the water re<uired, regularity of flow, and cost of finding, transporting, treating, and distri"uting water (c) Estimation of "ield

No source, according to !wort et al (op cit ), can "e said to have a fixed yield "ecause catchment conditions and consumer re<uirements change with time It is essential that a water engineer "e a"le to appraise the net yieldGwater remaining for supply after any compensation water or residual flow has "een left for other riparian interestsGof a catchment prior to planning any new development !he "asic re<uirement of a catchment to "e chosen as a source is that its net yield must "e a"le to meet the 2** in excess, other factors "eing constant In estimating the yield of a source, the nature and type of the source plays an important role In estimating the yield of a surface yield, it necessary to o"tain and study the record of rainfall data, analyse results of runoff measurements at location concerned (&dewumi, .@@@) ,urthermore, hydrographs are to "e studied in order to forecast a future critical event, as well as preparing contingency plans for an existing source? and to provide a convenient tool for the rapid and consistent testing of a variety of schemes to find their likely critical drawdown period and associated yield If all these do not guarantee the design re<uirements in terms of demand, especially during dry periods, !wort et al (op cit ) advised that the option of excess water storage in high flow period should "e considered, such as damming the site ,or underground source, there are two distinct ways in which well or "orehole yields can "e estimated (!wort et al, op cit ) !he first concentrates on well hydraulics and installed pumping plant? while the second attempts to predict yield from the hydrogeology of the "orehole site and the contri"uting catchment !he aim of these methods is to attain the ideal yield, where"y the source output is safely maximised with no more than is necessary in the way of pumps Whatever techni<ue is employed, water

<uality information of source must "e o"tained to indicate whether saline water has "een struck or some other characteristics have "een o"served which makes the yield, however large, useless for the designed purpose(s) +are must therefore "e taken when estimating groundwater yield that the result does not imply a steady encroachment of coastal seawater into the a<uifer or that a poor <uality water =one of the a<uifer will "e drawn upon ,or the "orehole yield to "e esta"lished as "eing suita"le for the design conditions, a pumping test needs to "e carried out with the following o"$ectivesA !o find the a"straction limit of the hole and the rate at which the water level

falls with time? !o define the discharge%pumping level relationship in order to choose an

efficient permanent pump? !o monitor the effect of the use of source on the local environment? !o determine the a<uifer6s permea"ility and storage characteristics

Where the a<uifer is confined under pressure "y an impermea"le layer a"ove it, steadier rates will prevail? so, also, in river"ank a<uifers ,or unconfined a<uifers, a test se<uence for investigation is recommended (!wort et al, op cit ) 0nce it is guaranteed that the "orehole discharge estimate will satisfactorily meet the 2**, over a period of years, a "orehole is sunk, and developed "y pumping 0n a general note, whichever source chosen, the "asic re<uirement is that it must "e a"le to meet the 2**, as well as allow a cost%effective treatment option guaranteed to produce water that meets the *rinking Water Buality StandardsH5uidelines (d) Anal"sis of #aw $ater

*epending on many circumstances, the presence of various su"stances in raw water and their significances vary & thorough consideration of raw water <uality, and sampling fre<uency in conditions of limited resources is important and a prelude to choosing a treatment process of raw water to "e supplied to a community !he likely su"stances, or conditions, according to !wort et al (op cit ), that may "e present in raw water, and needs consideration, areA &cidity &lkalinity &luminium &mmoniacal compounds &rsenic #iochemical 0xygen *emand (#0*) +alcium +ar"on dioxide +hloride salts +hlorine +olour +opper +orrosive Buality +yanide ,luoride

 (e)

Cardness Iron )ead 2agnesium 2anganese Nitrite and Nitrate 0rganic matter pC value Sodium Sulphates Suspended Solids (SS) !aste and 0dour !ur"idity Iinc

Drin%ing $ater &ualit" Standards'Guidelines It is a generally accepted fact that life is dependent on water and that water exists

in nature in many formsGclouds, rain, snow, ice, and fog? however, strictly speaking, chemically pure water does not exist for any apprecia"le length of time in nature Even while falling as rain, water picks up small amount of gases, ions, dust, and particulate matter from the atmosphere !hen as it flows over or through the surface layers of the earth, it dissolves and carries with it some of almost everything it touches, including that which is dumped into it "y man

&ll these impurities, !wort et al (op cit ) stated, may give water a "ad taste, colour, odour, or cloudy appearance (tur"idity), and cause hardness, corrosiveness, etc !hey may transmit disease 2any of these impurities are removed or rendered harmless, however, in municipal drinking water treatment plants in order to provide :pure6 water to consumers :'ure6 water means different things to different people 0ne way of esta"lishing, and assuring the purity and safety of water, which is generally accepta"le to all and sundry, is to set a standardGa definite rule, principle, or measurement that is esta"lished "y governmental authorityGfor various contaminants !hus, we have the ())* Guidelines for Drin%ing $ater &ualit" "y World Cealth 0rganisation (WC0), ()+, Drin%ing $ater #egulations "y ;nited States Environmental 'rotection &gency (;S E'&), ()+) $ater &ualit" #egulations "y ;nited Jingdom, ())) -ational Guidelines and Standards for $ater &ualit" in -igeria "y ,ederal Environmental 'rotection &gency (,E'&), etc !here is no international standard for drinking water <uality, according to WC0 (->>/a), in order to allow the use of a risk%"enefit approach, which would allow nations to esta"lish their own standards and regulations that takes into consideration peculiar local conditions? all with the primary aim of ensuring the protection of pu"lic health WC0 (op cit ) further stated that water is evaluated for <uality in terms of itsA (-) 'hysical 'ropertiesA !ur"idityGsuspended particles !aste 0dour

 (.)

+olour

+hemical 'ropertiesA Inorganic and organic compounds dissolved in water that are harmful

(/)

2icro"iological 'ropertiesA 'athogens, especially coliform "acteria

!here are two categories of standards, namelyA (i) (ii) 'rimary StandardsG"ased on health criteria? and Secondary StandardsG"ased on aesthetic and non%aesthetic conditions ,or all standards, there are guide limitsHlevels for various water <ualities !hese are defined as followsA 2aximum +ontaminant )evels (2+))G!he highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water 2+)s are enforcea"le standards 2aximum +ontaminant )evel 5oal (2+)5)G!he level of a contaminant in drinking water "elow which there is no known or expected risk of health 2+)5s allow for a margin of safety and are non%enforcea"le pu"lic health goals? rather they are intended as guidelines !hey are also known as Secondary 2aximum +ontaminant )evel (S2+)) 2aximum 1esidual *isinfectant )evel (21*))G!he highest level of a disinfectant allowed in drinking water !here is convincing evidence that addition of a disinfectant is necessary for control of micro"ial contaminants (f) $ater .reatment /ethods &ccording to &merican Water Works &ssociation (&WW&) (->D3), the main function of water treatment is to provide a continuous supply of safe, good%tasting, and

cold drinking water that is free of contaminants that can cause disease or "e toxic to a consumer !he water must also "e free of unpleasant things such as colour, tur"idity and odour !herefore, the water treatment processes used in any specific instance must take into account the <uality and nature of the raw water supply source !he intensity of treatment must depend on the degree of contamination of the source water (WC0, ->>/") !his implies that, according to )o (->>>), the fundamental purpose of water treatment is to protect the consumer from pathogens and impurities in the water that may "e offensive or in$urious to human health? and to "ring raw water up to drinking water <uality standards Since there are three categories of contaminants in raw water, there are, correspondingly, three categories of treatment to "ring raw water to the re<uired condition, safe for human consumption and use (!wort et al, op cit ) !hese areA (-) Ph"sical .reatment ProcessesA !hese processes entail the use of physical means to treat water in terms of its physicalHaesthetic properties, which are mostly visi"le to the naked eyes !hey include Screening, &eration, Sedimentation, ,iltration, and *istillation (.) 0hemical .reatment ProcessesA !hese processes involve the addition of chemicals to neutrali=e the effects of harmful organic and inorganic compounds dissolved in the raw water It involves +hlorine, +oagulation and ,locculation, 0=onation, ,luoridation, etc (/) 1iological .reatment ProcessesA !hese involve the use of "iological means to remove pathogens and other micro"ial organisms that cannot "e removed "y the

two processes a"ove !hey use impermea"le mem"ranes, "asically, to achieve this !hey include 1everse 0smosis, 2icro%filters, etc, according to !urner (->>D) It is <uite possi"le for any of the treatment process to perform more than one category mentioned a"ove ,or instance, filtration is "asically a physical treatment process? it can also allow the purification of water contaminated "y pathogenic "acteria (!wort et al, op cit ) !he "asic processes of the water treatment are "riefly explained "elow ScreeningA !his is to remove relatively large floating and suspended solidsHde"ris !his is done through the use of screens which may "e coarse (a"ove .4mm perforations) for removing sticks and other solids which cannot pass through it? andHor fine ("elow .4mm) to remove fine particles that pass through the coarse screens, "ut should not go through the plant (1eynolds, ->>-) AerationA !wort et al (op cit ) explained that aeration is "asically used toA !o increase the dissolved oxygen (*0) content of the water !o reduce taste and odour caused "y dissolved gases in the water, such as

hydrogen sulphide, and also to oxidise and remove organic matter !o decrease the car"on dioxide content of a water and there"y reduce its

corrosiveness and raise its pC value !o convert iron and manganese from their solu"le states to their insolu"le

states, and there"y cause them to precipitate so that they may "e removed "y infiltration

!o achieve this goals, four main types of aerators commonly used are free%fall, spray, in$ection and, surface aerators Plain SedimentationA #asically, sedimentation tanks are designed to reduce the velocity of flow of water so as to permit suspended solids to settle out of the water "y gravity 'lain sedimentation is to allow raw water settle in tanks for a period of 7%D hours so that large and settlea"le SS will "e removed "y gravity aloneGwithout the use of chemicals ()o, op cit ) !wort et al (op cit ) explained that they are designed for continuous supply and the velocity of flow through the tank "eing sufficiently low to permit gravitational settlement of the SS to occur, say maximum velocity of -@cmHs for particle6s diameter not greater than -mm 0hemical 0oagulation and 2locculationA )o (op cit ) explained that chemical coagulation is the addition of chemicals (coagulants) into water in a mixing tank so as to encourage the non%settlea"le solids to coagulate into large particles (chemical flocs) that will more easily settle? while flocculation is a gently mixing process that induces particle collision and allow the formation of large particles of floc !his takes a"out -4 K .@ minutes to complete !wort et al (op cit ) further explained that these floc particles could thereafter "e removed either "y sedimentation andHor filtration !he commonest coagulant is &luminium Sulphate, usually referred to as :alum6? others include Sodium &luminate, ,errous Sulphate, etc 0hemicall" assisted SedimentationA !his, according to 1eynolds (op cit ), is the last stage of the process called clarificationGthe first two stages (coagulation and flocculation) having "een explained a"ove Sedimentation takes place in a sedimentation, or settling, tank in which the produced chemical flocs settle out "y gravity !his implies that the

primary function of a sedimentation tank is to provide settled water with the lowest possi"le tur"idity level, there"y decrease the loading on su"se<uent treatment processes 1eynolds (op cit ) further stressed that efficient sedimentation tanks must "e designed to have a sludge collection system !his is necessary, "ecause as the water move slowly through the tank with low velocity and tur"ulence, the solid flocs settle to the "ottom of the tank and the accumulation of these solids on the floor of the tank forms what is called $,)6!e. It is now the function of the sludge collection system to remove the sludge periodically so that the tank can continue to supply low%load water to su"se<uent treatment processes 2iltrationA 1eynolds (op cit ) explains that the primary purpose of the filtration process is to remove suspended materials (measured in tur"idity) from water !his suspended material can "e floc that hadn6t settled out in the sedimentation tank, microorganisms, and any chemical precipitates such as iron and manganese !hese suspended materials are removed when the water from the sedimentation tanks passes through the filter mediaG usually "eds of granular and fine materials, such as anthracite coal, sand, gravel, etc !he filtration process has two types, !wort et al (op cit ) explained !hese are 1apid Sand filtration and the Slow Sand filtration It is esta"lished ()o, op cit ? !wort et al, op cit ) that the purpose of rapid sand filtration is to filter out, <uickly, chemical flocs that fail to settle in the previous sedimentation tank !he filtered water is normally free of particles and tur"idity? and the removal of the particles is largely "y physical action !hough, !wort et al (op cit ) mentioned that with some contaminated waters, the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate could occur when the water passes through rapid sand filters

Slow sand filter, on the other hand, passes water slowly through a "ed of sands (!wort et al, op cit ) It is an effective method devised for the purification of "ulk waters contaminated "y pathogenic "acteria 'athogens and tur"idity are removed "y natural die% off, "iological action, and filtering !he incoming water is led gently on to the filter "ed and percolates downwards, then the water is expected to maintain the design rate of flow through the "ed Cowever, as suspended material in the raw water is deposited on to the surface of the "ed, organic and inorganic materials "uild up on the surface of the sand and increase the friction loss through the "ed, there"y reducing the efficiency of the filter !o maintain the efficiency, there is need for periodic cleaning of the "ed through scraping, "ackwashing etc !he slow sand filter does not act "y a simple straining process !wort et al (op cit ) explained that it works "y a com"ination of "oth straining and micro"iological action of which the latter is more important 8an de 8laed (->44) gave a clear account of the details of the purification process It distinguishes three =ones of purification in the "ird Gthe surface coatings, the :autotrophic6 =one existing a few millimetres "elow the surface coating, and the :heterotrophic6 =one that is extended some /@@mm into the "ed &s the incoming water into the filter "ed passes through it, during the first few weeks, the upper layers of sand grains "ecome coated with a reddish%"rown sticky deposit of partly decomposed organic matter together with iron, manganese, aluminium and silica !his coating tends to a"sor" organic matter existing in colloidal state &fter some weeks, there exists in the uppermost layer of the sand a film of algae, "acteria, and proto=oa, to which are added the finely divided suspended material, and other organic

matter deposited "y the incoming water !his film acts as an extremely fine, meshed straining mat & few millimetres "elow this film is the autotrophic =one, where the growing plant "reaks down organic matter and uses up availa"le nitrogen, phosphates, and car"on dioxide, providing oxygen in their place !he filtrate thus "ecomes oxidised at this stage #elow this again, a still more important action takes place in the heterotrophic =one, which extends some /@@mm into the "ed Cere the "acteria multiply to very large num"ers so that the "reakdown of organic matter is completed, resulting in the presence of only simple inorganic su"stances and uno"$ectiona"le salts !he "acteria act not only to "reak down organic matter "ut also to destroy each other and so tend to maintain a "alance of life native to the filter so that the resulting filtrate is uniform !he advantages of slow sand filters, according to !wort et al (op cit ), provided that the water they treat, either directly, following storage, or following rapid gravity filters, has relatively good physical and chemical characteristics, then they will produce excellent%<uality water It is efficient in the removal of viruses from contaminated reservoir waters It allows for easier and cheaper disposal of chemical sludge from coagulation plants !he limitation of slow sand filter is that it does not materially reduce the :true colour6 of water (!he term :true colour6 may "e taken as the colour of the filtrate after removing colloidal clay) !hus, they are only suita"le for dealing with waters of relatively low colour &lso, slow sand filter cannot "e expected to "e effective in removing any high concentration of manganese in solution !hey are also not very

suita"le for dealing with any su"stantial amount of finely divided inorganic suspended matter DisinfectionA !his is a means of disinfecting the filtered water so that all pathogenic "acteria will "ecome killed, literally In the true sense, disinfection means the reduction of organisms in water to such low levels that no infection of disease results when the water is used for domestic purposes (!wort et al op cit ) !he efficacy of any disinfection process depends upon the water "eing treated "eforehand having a high degree of purity, as disinfectants will "e neutralised to a greater or lesser extent "y organic matter and readily oxidisa"le compounds in water 2icro% organisms that are aggregated or are adsor"ed to particulate matter will also "e partly protected from disinfection, and there are many instances of disinfection failing to destroy water"orne pathogens and faecal "acteria when the tur"idity was greater than 4 N!;. It is therefore essential that the treatment processes preceding terminal disinfection "e always operated to produce water with a mean tur"idity not exceeding - N!; and maximum of 4 N!; in any water sample Normal conditions of chlorination (i e a free residual chlorine of @ 4 mgHl, at least /@ minutes contact time, pC less than D @, and water tur"idity of less than - N!;) can "ring a"out >>F reduction of E3 coli and certain viruses, "ut not the cysts of parasitic proto=oa (WC0, ->>/") !wort et al (op cit ) stated that the commonly used disinfectants areA
-

+hlorine, +hloramine, Sodium Cypochlorite,

N!; means Nephthelometric !ur"idity ;nit It is used as a unit in determining the intensity of the tur"idity of any water sample

0=one, ;ltraviolet radiation, and Iodine

1eynolds (op cit ) explained that when chlorine is added to water, it forms hypochlorous acid, one of the two forms of free chlorine +hlorine com"ines with impurities in the water and enough chlorine must "e added to react with these impurities to the point where the addition of chlorine results in free chlorine, meaning it has react with everything it is going to react with !he free chlorine indicates enough chlorine is availa"le to disinfect the water It is important to note that the effectiveness of chlorination depends on five factorsGconcentration, contact time, temperature, pC and su"stances in the water !he destruction of organisms is directly related to the concentration and contact time (g) (i) /iscellaneous $ater .reatment methodsA ,luoridationG!his is the addition of fluoride into water, when they are found to "e in short supply of fluoride !his is necessary to strengthen the dental care of "a"y infants and reduce the incidence of dental caries ()o, op cit ? !wort et al, op cit ) (ii) SofteningG!his is a means of removingHreducing the hardness of water, caused "y high concentration of metallic ions, such as +a, 2g, etc ()o, op cit ) (iii) ;se of 'ackage plantsG!he type mentioned here is the *avnor #ioSand ,ilter System It is "ased on a uni<ue intermittently operated slow sand filtration process where the flow through the filter does not need to "e continuous to

achieve the o"$ectives It can remove pathogenic organisms as well as taste, odour, tur"idity etc (2an=, .@@-) (iv) 1everse 0smosisG0smosis is a natural phenomenon in which a li<uid (water, in this case) passes through a semi%permea"le mem"rane from a relatively dilute solution towards a more concentrated solution !his flow produces a mem"rane pressure called the osmotic pressure If pressure is applied on the more concentrated solution, and if that pressure extends the osmotic pressure, water flows through the mem"rane from the more concentrated solution to the more dilute solution !his reversed process of osmosis is called 1everse 0smosis, which removes up to >DF of dissolved minerals !o perform this reversed process, a pump is used to pressurise the feedwater flow through the mem"rane (h) Storage S"stem !wort et al (op cit ) explained that the storage system is an important part of any water treatment and supply system It has two main functionsA !o "alance the fluctuating demand from the distri"ution system against the

output from the source !o act as a safeguard for the continuance of the supply, should there "e any

"reakdown at the source or on the main trunk pipelines !o provide ade<uate contact time for the chlorine added to do its $o" of

disinfection "efore the treated water is distri"uted to the consumers If the service storage system is to "e of maximum value, as a safeguard to the undertaking against "reakdown, then it should "e positioned as near as possi"le to the

area of demand ,rom the service storage tanks, the distri"ution system should spread directly, with such ramification of mains that no single "reakage could cause a severe interruption to the continuity of the supply !here should "e sufficient interconnection "etween the distri"ution mains that, should a "reakdown of any one of the mains occur, a supply may still "e maintained "y rerouting the water Cammer and Cammer Er (op cit ) explained that storage system may "e provided "y the use of elevated tanks, underground "asins, or covered reservoirs !he advantage of elevated tank is the pressure derived from holding water higher than the surrounding terrain !he elevation at which it is desira"le to position a service reservoir depends upon the distance of the reservoir from the distri"ution area, the elevation of the highest "uilding to "e supplied, and the influence of corresponding pump selected !he factors influencing depth for a given storage, according to !wort et al (op cit ), areA (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) *epth at which suita"le foundation conditions are encountered, *epth at which outlet mains must "e laid, !opography of site, 8olume of storage

In designing a storage system, the following are the salient features to "e taken care of, where applica"le, are depth and shape of storage tanks, roofing of the tanks, walls, access manholes, etc 5enerally, storage systems are made from any of these materialsGmetals, plastic, and concrete Whatever the material from which it is produced, storage systems must "e watertight, i e no leakage, in order to "e a"le to ade<uately supply the needed demand

(i)

Distribution -etwor% WC0 (->>/") explained that the distri"ution network transports water from the

place of treatment to the consumers Its design and si=e will "e governed "y the topography, location and si=e of the community !he aim of any distri"ution network should always "e to ensure that consumers receive a sufficient and uninterrupted supply, and that contamination is not introduced in transit *istri"ution network, according to Cammer and Cammer Er (op cit ), includes a network of mains with storage reservoirs, "ooster, pumping stations (if needed), fire hydrants, service connections as well as fittings !wort et al (op cit ) stated that pipes, for the mains, are made of different materials !hese includeA +opper pipesG!hey are expensive, "ut are strong, dura"le, resistant to corrosion, easily $ointed, and capa"le of withstanding high internal pressures Steel pipesG!hey are widely used "ecause they are one of the cheapest forms of pipes and can sustain high pressure u'8+ pipesG!his means unplastici=ed polyvinyl chloride pipes It is used mostly for cold water service piping, "ecause it is not wholly suita"le for working environment with temperatures a"ove .@@+ !hey are corrosion%resistant, light to handle, and easy to $oin 'olyethylene pipesG'olyethylene is a thermoplastic material, which softens with heat 'olyethylene pipes are light in weight and flexi"le, resistant to a"rasion and corrosion, and have a "etter impact resistance at low temperature than u'8+ pipes do !hree types of this pipe are availa"le for water supply purposesA low density

polyethylene ()*'E), medium density polyethylene (2*'E), and high density polyethylene (C*'E) +oncrete pipesG&s the name implies, they are pipes made from concrete !hey are types of it, as wellA 'restressed concrete pipes%noted for its higher pressure resistance? 1einforced concrete pipes%similar to 'restressed pipes, advantageous for relatively high head mains, resistance to a"rasion, etc !he choice of pipe to "e used for a main, according to !wort et al (op cit ), depends on the locality conditions, capacity of mains, cost, length of mains needed, appropriate resistance coefficients, etc ,ittings of a water distri"ution network, according to !wort et al (op cit ), are all the necessary accessories needed to ensure that the distri"ution network meets its o"$ectives !hey includeA &daptors #endsGused to change the direction of flow in a main !hey are usually >@@,

34@, .. 4@, -- .4@ 8alvesGare installed throughout the water distri"ution network, as well as in

the treatment plant and the storage system !his is to control the magnitude and direction of water flow !he various types, according to functions, are 5ate valves, +heck valves, etc (Cammer and Cammer Er , op cit ) ,ire hydrantsG!hey provide access to underground water mains for the

purpose of extinguishing fires, flushing out the water mains (Cammer and Cammer Er , op cit )

'umpsG!hey are used for a variety of functions in water )ow%lift pumps are

used to elevate water from a source to treatment plant, usually Cigh%lift pumps are used to discharge water to various outlets of the distri"ution network? depending on other factors such as si=e of community, length, height of discharge, etc o !he power output of a pump is the work done per unit time in lifting water to a higher elevation !he efficiency of a pump is the ratio of the power output to the power input 2athematically, (Cammer and Cammer Er , op cit ) o

ep LL 'o H 'i

(. -)

whereA ep L efficiency of pump, dimensionless? 'o L power output, horsepower (or kilowatts)? 'i L power input, horsepower (or kilowatts) Service +onnectionGCammer and Cammer Er (op cit ) explained that the

service connections into a property includes a corporation stop tapped into the water main, a service to a gate valve at the cur", as well as a water metre and the metre "ox, which houses the metre 2.1.2 Flow Process Design !his is the aspect that applies the "asic principles of hydraulics in determining the unknown design parameters of water supply processGsuch as mains6 si=es, pipe types, flowrate, power of pumps, si=e of storage si=es, etc G from the known design parametersGsuch as population of consumer, distances, per capita consumption, etc

!his process, according to 1eid +rowther (.@@-), can "e su"divided into four main partsA *esign of mains, *esign of pumps, *esign of storage facilities, and *esign of treatment plant

In hydraulics, there are "oth empirical formulae and fundamental e<uations to solve various pro"lems !hese empirical formulae work well for the practical situations for which they were intended? however, there are occasions where the incorrect use of an empirical formula may lead to gross error in calculations (!wort et al, op cit ) Design of /ains !his entails the determination of the diameters of the pipes, given the flowrate, B, and limiting velocity, 8 !his is done "y using the relationship among the flowrate of fluid, velocity, and the cross%sectional area of flow, given "y e<uation . .A

BL&x8

(. .)

where B L <uantity of water flowing per unit time (cu"ic metres per seconds, m/Hs) 8 L velocity of flow (metres per second, mHs) & L cross%sectional area of flow (s<uare metres, m.) !his formula is known as the continuity e<uation It states that Mfor an incompressi"le fluidN, such as water, Mif the cross%sectional area decreases, the velocity of flow must increase? conversely, if the area increases, the velocity must decreaseN (Cammer and Cammer Er , op cit )

Caving determined the values of B and 8, & is calculated ,rom the value of &, the diameter, d, of the pipe is determined from geometrical formulaA

* LO (3 x &)H P
Design of Pum4s

(. /)

!he design of pumps involves determining the working conditions for which the pumps will operate !hese include calculating, for any given flowrate, (i) (ii) !he total head, C? !he power of the pump

!otal Cead, CA !his is the sum of the elevation head, pressure head, velocity head, and the head losses in flow !he total head is also known as the #&#+, e'e(!2 &% + %,&7. ,or an ideal, incompressi"le fluid flow, the total head (with metres as unit) is calculated from the #ernoulli e<uation, according to ,eatherstone and Nalluri (->D.),

I Q ('HRg) Q (8.H.g) L +
where + L constant I L elevation a"ove datum ' L pressure 8 L velocity of flow g L acceleration due to gravity R L density of fluid

(. 3)

!hat is, the total energy, at all points, along a steady continuous streamline of an ideal incompressi"le fluid flow is constant Simply stated, it is the sum of the elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head? thus the constant + can "e replaced with EGtotal energy !wort et al (op cit ) however cautioned that the limitations of this e<uation must

"e carefully noted It applies only to steady flow, and to flow where no energy is lost through friction ,or a real fluid flow, ,eatherstone and Nalluri (op cit ), stated that the #ernoulli e<uation can "e modified "y (i) introducing a loss term in the e<uation . 3, which would take into account the energy expended in overcoming other resistances due to changes in section, fittings, etc? and (ii) "y correcting the velocity energy term for true velocity distri"ution !he frictional losses depend upon the type of flow, the roughness of the interior surface of the pipe !herefore, the modified #ernoulli6s e<uation for real incompressi"le fluid flow, for two points, is

I- Q ('-HRg) Q (S-8-.H.g) L I. Q ('.HRg) Q (S.8..H.g) Q hf

where hf L total head losses (significantly, frictional losses of the pipe) S L velocity correction factor !herefore, total head, C is determined from

(. 4)

C L I Q ('HRg) Q (S8.H.g)
In computing the value of hf, for a given pipeline, there are generally two types of

(. 7)

formulae, namelyA the dimensionally correct, and the empirical !wort et al (op cit ) stated !he dimensionally correct one is the *arcy6s e<uationA

hf L (f x l x 8.) (. x g x d)
whereA hf L head loss (m head of water) f L *arcy6s coefficient of friction

(. 9)

l L length of the pipeline in metres 8 L velocity of flow (mHs) d L diameter of pipe (m) !he value of f is related to the relative roughness of the pipe material and the fluid flow characteristics (Cammer and Cammer, op cit ) !he empirical formulae are Ca=en%Williams formula and the 2anning6s e<uation, however, the former is more popular, !wort et al (op cit ) stated Ca=en%Williams formula is

hf L (7 9D x l x (8H+)- D4) H (d- -74)

(. D)

whereA + L coefficient of pipe l L length of pipe d L diameter of pipe It can also "e written, conveniently, according to #outhillier (->D-), as

hf L 1 x ) x B- D4
whereA 1 L resistance coefficient for a particular diameter, ) L length in kilometres, B L flowrate, or discharge in )itresHminute !he actual power of the pump is calculated from, according to &l%)ayla (->99),

(. >)

'a L ' t H e p
#ut,

(. -@) (. --)

't L R x g x B x C
whereA 't L theoretical power of pump, or power output (kW)

R L density (kgHm/) g L acceleration due to gravity (mHs.) B L flowrate (m/Hs) C L total head (m) 'aL actual power of pump, or power input (kW) epL efficiency of pump Design of Storage S"stem !he "asic thing to "e done here is determining the total volume of water to "e supplied to the community per day, and getting an appropriate tank si=e that can supply the same volume 2adu (.@@-) explained that this has to do with the discretion of the designer, in colla"oration with list of standard tank si=es from manufacturers Design of the .reatment Process 2acilit" 2adu (op cit ) explained that, having carried out the <uality analysis of the raw water, the treatment process, on the one hand, is designed to take the raw water through the step%"y%step treatment methods that will remove the contaminants, or supply sufficient su"stances as the case may "e, to ensure that the treated water meets the drinking water <uality standards 0n the other hand, the treatment plant structuresHfacility needed to "e designed as well !his involves the structural analysis of various units of the treatment plant such as aeration tank walls and "eds, filtration walls and "eds, etc &ll these come after the capacity and treatment rate of plant has "een calculated, in order to get the volume re<uired and the corresponding forces that will act

/./ /./..

Re '%&(*e6 C&'*(e#e De$ !' Introduction & structure is an assem"ly of mem"ers each of which is su"$ected to "ending or

direct force (either tensile or compressive) or to a com"ination of "oth !hese primary influences may "e accompanied "y shearing forces and sometimes "y torsion K all of which cannot "e ade<uately resisted "y concrete, thus the concept of reinforced concrete 1einforced +oncrete is a com"ination of two dissimilar "ut complementary materials, namelyA concrete and steel (0yenuga, .@@-) +oncrete has considera"le crushing strength, is dura"le, has good fire resistance? "ut has a poor tensile stress, and fair strength in shear 0n the other hand, steel has good tensile properties, poor resistance to fire (due to rapid loss of strength under high temperature), and is very good "oth in shear and compression !hus, a com"ination of these materials results in good tensile and compressive strength, dura"ility and good resistance to fire and shear !o every action of loading on any mem"er of a structure, there is a conse<uential reaction as a result of the com"ination of concrete and steel !he method of com"ining these materials (concrete and steel) in the most economical way on one hand, and safety on the other hand, is referred to as reinforced concrete design (commonly referred to as design or structural design) !his means that, according to 1eynolds and Steedman (->DD), design entails the calculation of, or "y other means of assessing, and providing resistance against the moments, forces, and other effects on the mem"ers (i e analysis of structures) /././ Design Objectives

!he aim of structural design is the achievement of an accepta"le pro"a"ility that structures "eing designed will perform satisfactorily during their intended life (#ritish Standards Institution (#SI), ->>9) With an appropriate degree of safety, they should sustain all the loads and deformations of normal construction and use, and have ade<uate dura"ility and resistance to the effects of misuse and fire ,rom the foregoing, according to 0yenuga (op cit ), a good structural design must satisfy the following functional o"$ectivesA ;nder the worst com"ination of loading, the structure must "e safe ;nder the working condition, the deformation of the structure must not impair the

appearance, dura"ility andHor performance of the structure K i e fits for its intended use !he structure must "e economical K the factor of safety should not "e too large to

the extent that the cost of the structure "ecomes prohi"itive with no additional advantage(s) &chieving these potentially conflicting o"$ectives calls for experience and good sense of engineering, as well as leads to an efficiently designed structure &n efficiently%designed structure is one in which the mem"ers are arranged in such a way that the weights, loads, and forces are transmitted to the foundation "y the cheapest means consistent with the intended use of structure and the nature of the site (1eynolds and Steedman, op cit ) Efficient design means more than providing suita"le si=es for the concrete mem"er and the provision of the calculated amount of reinforcement in an economical manner It implies that the "ars can "e easily placed, that reinforcement is provided to resist the secondary forces inherent in monolithic

construction, and that resistance is provided against all likely causes of damage to the structure !hat is to say, experience and good $udgement may do as much towards the production of safe and economical structures as calculations In summary, these o"$ectives call for good assessmentHestimation of the intending loads, right choice, <uality, and proportion of materials, and sound workmanship !he realisation of these re<uires conformity to clearly defined criteria for materials, production, workmanship, and, also, maintenance and use of the structure in service &ll these re<uirements are "orne out of experienceGfrom a study of existing structures and from comparison of alternative designs /./.3 Design et!ods

!o achieve the o"$ectives of design, according to 0$o (.@@@), the following methods can "e adoptedA (a) #y dividing the ultimate strengths of materials with certain factor (factor

of safety) to provide design stress (strength) !his method is called elastic method of design (or permissi"le stress methodHmodular%ratio method) (") #y multiplying the load that the structure can withstand with certain factor

of safety to give the working load !his is called the load%factor method (c) )imit state method com"ines the advantages of the two methods a"ove "y

applying factor of safety to "oth the materials and loads !his method also allows a varied factor of safety for various types of loading conditions !he limit state design is "ased on the limit state approach or philosophy K the achievement of accepta"le pro"a"ilities that the structure "eing designed will not "ecome unfit for its intended use !his means that all criteria relevant to "oth safety and

servicea"ility are considered in the design process so as to make sure that the structure does not reach a limit state &n easy and usual approach is to design on the most critical limit state, and then to check that the remaining limit states will not "e reached !here are two types of limit state in structural design, namelyA (i) ;ltimate limit state (;)S) K the limit state that ensures that the structure is safe under the worst loading condition !his ensures resistance against collapse, "uckling, sta"ility or overturning, and other accidentalHspecial ha=ards such as earth<uake, explosion or fire (ii) Servicea"ility limit state (S)S) K the limit state that ensures that the structure is fit for normal use, i e servicea"le !his is to ensure that the structure will not fail during service It takes care of deflection, cracking, fatigue, vi"ration, dura"ility, lightning, etc Except in water%retaining structures, the ;)S is generally critical for reinforced concrete structures, while S)S conditions are checked Cowever, in prestressed concrete. design, servicea"ility conditions are the "asis for designing with checks on the ;)S conditions (#SI, op cit ) Structural design is largely controlled "y regulations or codes ("ut, even within such "ounds, the designer must exercise good $udgement in his interpretation of the re<uirements, endeavouring to grasp the spirit of the re<uirements rather than to design to the minimum allowed "y the clauses of the codes) !he various methods of design highlighted a"ove formed the "asis of these codes In Nigeria, the most prominent of these codes is :Structural ;se of +oncrete6 (#S D--@A 'arts -, ., and /), which is "ased
.

'restressed concrete is a concrete to which an internal compressive stress has "een applied "y means of wires or tendons, so that a tensile stress e<ual to the compressive stress can "e applied in service (as live loads) such that the net stress is then =ero

on the limit state design method as stated in clause . - . of the code 0thers include :!he Structural ;se of Normal 1einforced +oncrete in #uildings6 (+' --3), which is partly "ased on the load%factor method, and :!he Structural ;se of +oncrete6 (+' --@A 'arts -, ., and /)

/./.8

"einforced #oncrete

e$bers

& reinforced concrete structural mem"er may "e su"$ected to any (or all, in worst condition) of the structural failures K flexural, "uckling, shear or torsion K depending on the type of mem"er it is and its location in the structure !hus, it is imperative to understand the importanceHnecessity of the various structural mem"ers, which are "riefly outlined in this section as followsA (a) #eamA !his is a hori=ontal mem"er of the whole structure with a rectangular

cross%section usually It, in most cases, supports the loads on the sla", the self%weight of the sla", and its own self%weight K all of which are transmitted to the nearest vertical mem"er, such as column or wall (load%"earing) #eams, generally, resist flexural loading !he fundamental principle involved in the design of a reinforced concrete "eam, according to Nilsor (->>9), is that, at any cross%section, there exist internal forces that can "e resolved into components normal and tangential to the section !hose components that are normal to the section are the "ending stresses (tension on one side of the neutral axis and compression on the other) K their function is to resist "ending moments at the section !he tangential components are known as the shear stresses (they resist the transverse or shear forces)

In reinforced concrete "eams, the concrete usually resists the compressive forces and the steel the tensile forces Cence, the longitudinal reinforcing steels are located close to the tension face to resist the tension force? and, usually, additional steel "ars (shear links) are used to resist inclined tensile stresses caused "y the shear force in the "eam Cowever, reinforcement is also used for resisting compressive forces primarily where it is desired to reduce the cross%sectional dimensions of compression mem"ers Even if no such necessity exists, a minimum amount of reinforcement must "e placed in all compression mem"ers to safeguard them against the effects of accidental "ending moments (Nilsor, op cit ) In general, for the most effective reinforcing action, it is essential that steel and concrete deform together, i e that there "e a sufficiently strong "ond "etween the two materials to ensure that no relative movements of the steel "ars and the surrounding concrete occur *esign of reinforced concrete "eams can "e classified "ased on various factors #ased on reinforcement type, it could either "e singly reinforced (only tension reinforcement is provided) or dou"ly reinforced (tension as well as compression reinforcement is provided) #ased on structural shape and role, it may "e classified into simply supported, continuous, flanged, and cantilever (") +olumnA 'rimarily, columns are compression mem"ers, although some may "e

su"$ected to "ending either due to their slenderness or due to their asymmetric loading from "eams (0yenuga, op cit ) 1einforced concrete columns are generally either rectangular in cross%section with separate links, or circular K and, in some cases, polygonal

,undamentally, columns can "e categorised asA &xially loaded column K when it supports approximately symmetrical "eam arrangement ;niaxial column K when it supports direct loading and "ending in one direction #iaxial column K when it supports a concentric loading and "ending acting a"out two axes that are mutually at right angles &lso, columns can "e classified "ased on its end conditions asA #raced column K when wall, "racing or "uttressing, designed to resist all lateral forces in that plane, laterally supports it ;n"raced column K when it is not laterally supported "y wall, "racing or "uttressing ,urthermore, columns can "e categorised, "ased on the ratio of its effective length to its cross%sectional dimensions, asA Short column K when the ratios lexHh andHor leyH" areHis less than -4 ("raced) and -@ (un"raced), whereA lex L effective height in respect of the ma$or axis ley L effective height in respect of the minor axis h L depth of cross%section measured in the plane under consideration " L width of a column (i e dimension of the cross%section perpendicular to h) Slender column K when "oth the ratios lexHh andHor leyH" areHis greater than -4 ("raced) and -@ (un"raced)

(c)

Sla"A & sla" is a reinforced concrete mem"er that, more often than not, is

su"$ected to shear (0yenuga, op cit ) #ecause sla" is generally a hori=ontal mem"er, its design centres more on flexure rather than direct shear 5enerally, sla"s are similar to "eams except thatA a width of - @m is generally assumed to as to make for a simplified design the section is usually rectangular, hence no flanges shear is generally not considered unless where concentrated or point loads predominate, and the sla" is thicker than .@@mm !here are various types of sla", and the type to "e preferred may depend onA (i) the span of the sla", (ii) the use of the space, which may determine the span, (iii) the load to "e carried, and (iv) the architectural aesthetics re<uired !he various types includeA Solid sla" (cantilever, simply%supported, continuous, one%way, and two% way) 1i""ed sla" ,lat sla" Waffle sla"

Sla" directly carries the load imposed on it and its own self%weight (all in the form of uniformly distri"uted loads) and is supported "y walls, "eams andHor columns Solid sla"s are the commonest, especially in residential areas (d) WallA 5enerally, this is a vertical load%"earing mem"er whose length exceeds

four times its thickness & reinforced concrete wall is one with a minimum reinforcement not less than @ 3F of the area of concrete (#SI, op cit ) &ccording to 1eynolds and

Steedman (op cit ), a "raced wall is one where lateral sta"ility of entire structure, at right angles to plane of wall "eing considered, is provided "y walls (or other means) designed to resist all lateral forces? otherwise, the wall is un"raced Whether "raced or un"raced, a wall can further "e classified as either "eing slender or stocky "ased on its slenderness ratio/ !hus, a stocky wall is one whose slenderness ratio does not exceed -4 ("raced) or -@ (un"raced)? while a slender wall is any one other than stocky, i e greater than -4 ("raced) and greater than -@ (un"raced) (e) ,oundationA !hey are hori=ontal or vertical mem"ers supporting the entire

structure and transmitting the loads to the soil "elow !hey are su"%structures supporting the superstructures of columns, "eams, walls, sla"s, and roofs (0yenuga, op cit ) 5enerally, foundations can "e "roadly classified as either shallow or deep !hese encompass the various types, namelyA pad footing, strip footing, raft foundation, pile foundation, displacement foundation, strap foundation, e t c !he choice of foundation type depends, primarily, on the magnitude of load to "e transmitted from the superstructure and the permissi"le "earing capacity of the soil !he selected foundation type must satisfy two fundamental and independent re<uirementsA !he factor of safety against shear failure of the supporting soil must "e ade<uate !he settlement should neither cause any unaccepta"le damage nor interfere with functionHuse of the structure (i) Pad footingA !his is most common of all the reinforced concrete footings It

supports columns and transmits the loads to the soil evenly It is usually s<uare in plan, "ut where there is a large moment acting a"out one axis, it may "e more economical to have a rectangular "ase It may "e axially or eccentrically loaded When axially loaded,
/

Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the effective height of a wall to its thickness, i e l eHh

the reactions to design ultimate loads may "e assumed to "e uniformly distri"uted (i e load per unit area) When eccentrically loaded, the reactions may "e assumed to vary linearly across the "ase It should "e noted that the actual pressure distri"ution depends on the soil type, and the critical section is taken as that at the face of the column "eing supported (2ac5inley and +hoo, ->>@) (ii) Stri4 footingA 2osley et al (->>>) states that strip foundation is commonly used

under walls or under a line of closely spaced columns Even if it were possi"le to have individual "ases, it is often simpler and more economical to excavate and construct the formwork for a continuous "ase In the general case of a wall footing in which the load is uniformly distri"uted throughout its length, the principal "ending moments are due to the transverse cantilever action of the pro$ecting portion of the footing (1eynolds and Steedman, op cit ) ,or a reinforced concrete wall, the critical section occurs at the face of the wall? hence, the thickness of the footing should "e such that the safe shearing stress is not exceeded Whether the footing is designed for transverse "ending or not, if the safe ground pressure is low, longitudinal reinforcement should "e inserted to resist possi"le longitudinal "ending moments due to une<ual settlement and non%uniformity of the load 0ne method of providing the amount of longitudinal reinforcement re<uired for une<ual settlement is to design the footing to span over a cavity (or area of soft ground) from -m to - 4m according to the nature of the ground 5enerally, the loads for foundation design must "e expressed "oth in the S)S and ;)S !he ground "earing capacity is generally expressed in working state (S)S)? hence, the area of foundation re<uired to sustain the load must "e defined "ased on working

state 0nce the area has "een o"tained, the net pressure exerted on the soil is calculated "ased on the ;)S &ll loads are o"tained from ;)S approach (f) 1etaining WallA 1etaining wall is usually re<uired to resist a com"ination of

earth and hydrostatic loads (2osley et al, op cit ) Simply put, retaining wall is a structure used to retain earth, which could not "e a"le stand vertically unsupported (2ac5inley and +hoo, op cit ) &ccording to 0yenuga (op cit ), they are useful within the "uilt environment, especially at "ridge sites, river"ank areas, ground with sloppy terrain, e t c & retaining wall is essentially a vertical, cantilever structure, and when it is constructed in reinforced concrete, it can "e a cantilevered sla", a wall with counterforts, or a sheet%pile wall (1eynolds and Steedman, op cit ) In general, concrete retaining walls may "e considered in terms of three "asic categoriesA 5ravity wall K usually constructed of mass concrete, and relies on self%weight

to satisfy sta"ility re<uirements "oth in respect of overturning and sliding +ounterfort wall K it is the com"ination of a wall and counterforts Sta"ility is

provided "y the weight of the wall and the "ackfill of the retained material +antilever wall K it is a vertical cantilever spanning from a rigid "ase and

relies on the "ending strength of the cantilevered sla" a"ove the "ase, as well as the weight of "ackfill on the "ase, where applica"le, to provide sta"ility !he principal factors to "e considered, generally, are sta"ility against overturning, "earing pressures on the ground, resistance to sliding, and internal resistance to "ending moments, and shearing forces 2osley et al (op cit ) advises that the "ack faces of retaining walls will usually "e su"$ected to hydrostatic forces from groundwater !his can

"e reduced "y the provision of drainage path at the face of the wall It is usual practice to provide such drain "y a layer of porous medium with pipes to remove the water, or "y providing :weep%holes6 at regular intervals in the wall (g) *rainage +hannelA !his is an open "ox culvert%like structure used to

transport water or li<uid from an unwanted area to a point of discharge !he channel must "e strong enough to resist vertical and hori=ontal pressures from the earth and other superimposed loads 5enerally, there are only two conditions to consideredA When the channel is empty, full load and surcharge on the channel walls6

sides, the weight of the walls, and maximum earth pressure on the walls When the channel is full, minimum load on the walls, minimum earth pressure

on the walls, the weight of the walls, maximum hori=ontal pressure from water in the channel In some circumstances, these conditions may not produce the maximum positive or negative "ending moments at any particular section? hence, the effect of every pro"a"le com"ination should "e considered /./.9 Design Process !his is, generally, a series of steps that are taken to realise the design o"$ective(s) of a structure It considers design as a whole, including design for dura"ility, construction and use in service !he realisation of the design o"$ectives, through the design process, re<uires conformity to clearly defined criteria for materials, production, workmanship and, also, maintenance and use of the structure in service !he design process, chronologically, involves careful estimation of foreseea"le loads, analysis of the structure, design procedures to "e followed in arriving at concrete and reinforcement

parameters, production of a good clear detail drawing and preparation of reinforcement schedule Each of the series of steps is concisely explained as followsA /./.9.. )oad EstimationA !he loads acting on a structure are permanent (or dead)

loads, and imposed (live) loads, which include wind load *ead )oads include the self%weights of the structure "eing considered, and any permanent fixtures, partitions, finishes, superstructures and so on )ive loads include any external loads imposed upon the structure when it is serving its normal purpose !hey vary in magnitude !hey are moving loads that would "e supported "y the structure !hey include weights of occupants, furniture, etc &lso, they include wind load caused "y the effect of wind on the structure !he accurate assessment of the actual and pro"a"le loads is an important factor in the production of an efficient structural design (1eynolds and Steedman, op cit ) !o arrive at the dead load of a mem"er, 0yenuga (op cit ) notes that preliminary si=ing has to "e done and the weight is calculated such that a slight change in the mem"er si=e will not attract a re%design of the structure &ll given values should represent the actual forces, weights of materials !he primary dead load is usually the weight of the concrete, which literatures generally agree to "e .3kNHm/ !he weight of the other materials to "e included as dead loads can "e o"tained from appropriate texts &ppendix & gives the weights of common construction materials !he sum of all the individual weights of the construction materials to "e used permanently in the structure gives the characteristic dead load (5k) )ikewise, the sum of all the individual intensity of expected moving loads on the structure gives the characteristic imposed load (Bk)

In accordance with the philosophy of the ;)S, so as to ensure ade<uate safety of structure, partial factors of safety are applied to the characteristic loads !hese factors are not rigid "ecause of the dynamic nature of various load com"inations !he standard factors for various com"inations of loads are as outlined in !a"le . - It is seen from the

T+4,e /..

L&+6 C&04 '+# &'$ +'6 #"e ( V+,)e$ &% P+(# +, F+*#&( &% S+%e#2 %&( #"e ULS (S&)(*e: BSI: &1. * #.)

L&+6 T21e L&+6 C&04 '+# &' - *ead and Imposed (and earth and water pressure) . *ead and Wind (and earth and water pressure) / *ead and wind and imposed (and earth and water pressure) -3 -3 -. -@ -@ -. -7 %% -. @ %% -. -,3 -3 -. %% -3 -. De+6 A6-e($e8 Be'e% * +,9 I01&$e6 A6-e($e Be'e% * +, E+(#" +'6 W+#e( P(e$$)(e W '6

&dverse partial factor is applied to any loads that tend to produce a more critical design condition at the section considered #eneficial partial factor is applied to any loads that tend to produce a less critical design condition at the section considered

ta"le that ade<uate factor is provided for various load com"inations in order to achieve the ;)S re<uirements !hus the design load, for a given type of loading, can "e o"tained from the sum of 5kT and BkT, where T is the appropriate factor of safety (#SI, op cit ) !his is true, generally, for "eams, columns, sla"s and walls In general, 0yenuga (op cit ) points out that T is introduced to take account of unconsidered possi"le increase in load, inaccurate assessment of load effects, unforeseen stress distri"ution and variations in dimensional accuracy, and the impression of the limit state "eing considered

/./.9./ &nalysis of StructureA

!his is the determination of the forces and moments

as well as deformation that results from the action of loads (0ladepo, .@@-) !e"edge (->D/) defines it as the Mprocess of determining the response of a structure due to specific loadings in order to satisfy the essential re<uirements of function, safety, economy and, sometimes, aesthetics !his response is usually measured "y calculating the reactions, internal forces in the mem"ers and the displacements of the structures N Since the structure is made up of different mem"ers $oined together, the analysis that must "e carried out to $ustify the design of a structure can "e "roken into two stages as followsA &nalysis of the structure (the structure as a unit) &nalysis of the structure (parts of the structure)

!he analysis of the structure, as a whole component, is very tedious and la"orious, and the advantages may not worth the efforts (0yenuga, op cit ) !hus, the analysis is easily dealt with "y considering the various sections !he primary o"$ective of structural analysis is to o"tain a set of internal forces and moments throughout the structure that are in e<uili"rium with the design loads for the

re<uired loading com"inations (#SI, op cit ) !o o"tain this set of internal forces and moments, the determination of the static determinacy of the structure is an essential pre% re<uisite & structure can either "e statically determinate7 or statically indeterminate9 #asically, the static determinacy of a structure is determined "y the following e<uationA

nLrKe
where n L num"er of redundants r L num"er of reactions

(. -.)

e L num"er of e<uations of static e<uili"rium (e L /) Cence, if a section of the structure is found to "e statically determinate (such as in the case of "eams, lintels, e t c ), the internal forces and moments are o"tained from "asic e<uations of static e<uili"rium Cowever, if the section(s) is (are) found to "e statically indeterminate, the internal forces and moments are o"tained from appropriate method(s) of analysis of indeterminate structures 0ladepo (op cit ) explains that there are, generally, two methods of solving indeterminate structures, namelyA (a) the plastic method, and (") the elastic method !he elastic method of analysis of indeterminate structures can further "e divided intoA (i) (ii) +lassic methods, and 2atrix methods

;nder the classical methods, we have the moment%area method, virtual work method, moment distri"ution method, slope%deflection method (S*2), three%moment e<uationsU

Statical determinate structure is one in which the e<uations of static e<uili"rium are sufficient to analyse the structure, i e V,xL@, V,yL@, V2L@
9

Statically indeterminate structure is one in which the e<uations of static e<uili"rium are not sufficient to analyse the structure

method, column analogy method, e t c ;nder the matrix method, we have flexi"ility (force) method, and stiffness (displacement) method !he choice of method to "e used depends on its suita"ility to the type of pro"lem concerned and, to some extent, on its appeal to the particular designer involved (1eynolds and Steedman, op cit ) 2oreover, the method(s) of analysis to "e used should "e "ased on as accurate a representation of the structure as is reasona"ly practica"le ,or the author of this report, the S*2 is the easiest It forms the "asis of the stiffness matrix method In the S*2, the rotations (i e slopes) and relative $oint translationsHdisplacements constitute the unknowns !he moments at the $oints are expressed in terms of these <uantities in the form of the slope deflection e<uations !hese moments are o"tained as the solutions of the resulting slope deflection e<uations, and "ack%su"stitution of the rotation and displacement into the original slope%deflection e<uations !he slope deflections, for two ends & W # of a section of the structure, areA

2&# L 2,&# Q .EIH) (.X& Q X# % /YH)) 2#& L 2,#& Q .EIH) (X& Q .X# % /YH))
where

(. -/) (. -3)

2&# and 2#& are the end moments produced at ends & and # respectively, 2,&# and 2,#& are the fixed end moments (,E2D) EI L flexural rigidity of the mem"er ) L length of the mem"er X&L slope of deformed mem"er &# at & L Z& 2HEI X# L slope of deformed mem"er &# at # L Z# 2HEI

,E2 are the moments at the support of a fixed section (say, "eam) that are produced due to lateral or transverse loads

E L modulus of elasticity of the material I L moment of inertia of mem"er &# at section Y L relative movement of supports 1eynolds and Steedman (op cit ) points out that the principles of the S*2 for analysing a restrained (indeterminate structural) mem"er are that the difference in slope "etween any two points in the length of the mem"er is e<ual to the area of the 2HEI diagram "etween these two points 2oreover, that the distance of any point on the mem"er from a line drawn tangentially to the elastic curve at any other point, the distance "eing measured normal to the moment (taken a"out the first point) of the 2HEI diagram "etween these two points It may suffice to round off this section in this wayA calculating the shearing forces, "ending moments, slopes and deflections caused "y a load in a structural mem"er, "y any method of structural analysis, ensures that the design loads are in e<uili"rium !he analytical procedure involves transforming the whole section to line diagrams in such a way that, under ultimate load conditions, the inelastic deformations at the critical sections remain within the limits that the sections can withstand While, under working loads, the deformations are insufficient to cause excessive deflection or cracking or "oth /./.9.3 *esign 'rocedureA !his section gives the procedures of design methods that

will, in general, ensure that for reinforced concrete structures, the o"$ectives set out in section . . . a"ove are met !hese procedures assume the use of normal%weight aggregate, and are extracts of the provisions in #S D--@ ->>9A 'art - Cowever, in certain cases, the recommendations of the appropriate clauses of the code may "e inappropriate,

it is thus incum"ent on the engineer to adopt a more suita"le method having regard to, and satisfactorily for, the nature of the mem"er in <uestion (#SI, op cit K clause / - - ) !he most important characteristic of any structural mem"er is its actual strength, which must "e large enough to resist all foreseea"le loads that may act on it during the life of the structure without failure or other distresses (Nilsor, op cit ) It is logical therefore to proportion mem"ers (i e to select concrete dimensions and reinforcement) so that mem"ers6 strengths are ade<uate to resist certain hypothetical design loads, significantly a"ove loads expected actually to occur in service !his is the perspective of the limit state method of design 1eynolds and Steedman (op cit ) explains that, when designing in accordance with limit%state principles as em"odied in #S D--@, each reinforced concrete section is first designed to meet the most critical limit state and then checked to ensure that the remaining limit states are not reached ,or the ma$ority of sections, the critical condition considered is the ;)S K at which the strength of each section is assessed on the "asis of conditions at failure When the mem"er has "een designed to meet this limit%state, it should "e checked to ensure compliance with the re<uirements of the various S)S such as deflection and cracking Cowever, since certain servicea"ility re<uirements (e g the selection of an ade<uate spanHeffective depth ratio to prevent excessive deflection and choice of a suita"le "ar spacing to prevent excessive cracks occurring) clearly also influence the strength of the section, the actual design process eventually involves the simultaneous consideration of re<uirements for various limit states Nevertheless, the normal process in

preparing a design is to ensure that the actual strength of each section at failure is ade<uate, while also complying with the necessary re<uirements for servicea"ility Caving identified the critical limit state that governs the design procedures, another vital consideration in the design process is the dura"ility of the concrete &ccording to #SI (op cit), as contained in clause / - 4 -, a dura"le concrete element is one that is designed and constructed to protect the em"edded metal from corrosion and to perform satisfactorily in the working environment for the life%time of the structure !o achieve this, it is necessary to consider many interrelated factors at various stages in the design process (even construction process), particularly in formulating the design procedures !he factors influencing dura"ility of concrete, inter alia5 includeA *esign and detailing of the structure (clause / - 4 . -) !he cover to the em"edded steel (clauses / /) Exposure conditions (clause / / 3)

Specifically important is the depth of concrete cover provided to protect the steel in concrete against corrosion !he code provisions for nominal cover limiting values to meet dura"ility re<uirements is outlined in !a"le . . "elow, as contained in !a"le / / of the code It would "e seen from the ta"le that various degree of exposure for concrete has corresponding nominal cover re<uirement so as to provide an accepta"le dura"ility properties in the concrete Caving explained the general pream"les to design procedures, it is pertinent to outline specific design steps of the various reinforced concrete structural mem"ers, which are dealt with as followsA

T+4,e /./

N&0 '+, C&-e( #& +,, Re '%&(*e0e'# ( '*,)6 '! , ';$) #& 0ee# D)(+4 , #2 Re<) (e0e'#$ (See N&#e .) (E=*e(1#e6 %(&0: BSI: &1. * #.). N&0 '+, C&-e(

C&'6 # &'$ &% E=1&$)(e 2ild 2oderate Severe 8ery Severe 2ost Severe &"rasive 2aximum free waterHcement ratio 2inimum cement content (kgHm/) )owest grade of strength

(D 0e'$ &'$ .4 [[ [[ [[ [[ [[ @ 74 .94 +/@

' 0 ,, 0e#(e$) .@ .@ /4 /@ [[ 3@ [[ 4@ [[ [[ [[ [[ @ 7@ @ 44 /@@ /.4 +/4 +3@

.@ .4 /@ 3@ [[ See Notes . @ 4@ /4@ +34

.4 .@ .4 /@ 4@ See Notes . @ 34 3@@ +4@

(a)

"ectangular %ea$& & rectangular "eam can "e simply supported or continuous

Simply supported "eams are often encountered as lintels, "races "etween walls, e t c !he design procedures includeA +hoose "eam dimensions K In most cases, the working drawings would have specified

these dimensions *etermine the effective depth, d, fromA

d L h K cover K \H. K link diameter

where d L effective depth of "eam h L overall depth of "eam \ L diameter of steel reinforcement

(. -4)

+ompare the design ultimate moment, 2 (o"tained from the analysis of sections) with

the ultimate moment of resistance of concrete, 2u

2u L @ -47fcu"d.
where fcu L characteristic strength of concrete after .D days

(. -7)

If 2 ] 2u (or 2 L 2u), then compression and tension reinforcements are "oth provided? else, only tension reinforcement is re<uired K su"se<uent steps are for this case 0"tain the lever arm, = fromA

I L d ^@ 4 Q O( @ .4 K JH@ >)_
where = ` @ >4d

(. -9)

J L 2H"d.fcu
+alculate the area of steel reinforcement in tension, &s fromA

(. -D)

&s L 2H@ >4fy=

(. ->)

& check is then made to ensure that the area of steel reinforcement provided conforms to

the provisions for minimum percentage of reinforcement re<uired "y the code as stated in clause / -. 4 /, as well as that for maximum percentage of reinforcement as stated in clause / -. 7 +heck for shear stress and design for shear reinforcement where found inade<uate !he

design shear stress, a, at any cross%section is calculated from

a L 8H"d
where 8 L maximum shear force " L "readth of section

(. .@)

&ccording to clause / 3 4 ., in no case should a exceed @ DO fcu or 4NHmm., whichever is the lesser of the two values !hen, the value of a is checked against the design concrete shear stress, ac o"tained fromA

ac L b@ 9> ^-@@&sH("vd)-H/^3@@Hd_-H3cH dm
where dmL - .4 (partial factor of safety for material) -@@&sH("vd) should not "e taken as greater than / 3@@Hd should not "e taken as less than -

(. .-)

!hus, shear reinforcement should "e provided in accordance with clause / 3 4 / and !a"le / 9 of the code +heck for local or anchorage "ond stresses as re<uired "y provisions of clauses / -. D -

K / -. D 3 !he "ond stress, f", is calculated from

f" L ,sH(P\e)) where

,s L force in the "ar or group of "ars \e L effective "ar si=e

(. ..)

) L anchorage length 8alues for design ultimate "ond stress, f"u, may "e o"tained from

f"u L eOfcu where e L coefficient dependent on "ar type (!a"le / .7 of code)

(") '(ially loaded #olu$nA

(. ./)

!he design procedure for a rectangular, short,

un"raced, axially loaded column is as followsA *etermine the ultimate axial load, N, from the analysis of sections +alculate the area of steel reinforcement from

N L @ 3fcu"h Q (@ Dfy K @ 3fcu)&sc

(. .3)

where h L depth of cross%section measured in the plane under consideration fy L characteristic strength of steel &sc L area of vertical reinforcement !herefore, &sc L

(N K @ 3fcu"h)H(@ Dfy K @ 3fcu)

(. .4)

Should e<uation . .4 results in a negative value (i e @ 3fcu"h exceeds N), then the minimum reinforcement re<uired "y clause / -. 4 / is provided No check for shear is re<uired, provided that 2HN does not exceed @ 7h, and a does

not exceed the maximum value given in clause / 3 4 -. &lso, no check is necessary if, in the direction and at the level considered, the

average value of leHh is not more than /@ for all columns (clause / D 4 7) (c) Si$ply supported one)way SlabA !his is a sla" carrying predominantly uniform

loads It is designed on the assumption that it consists of a series of rectangular "eams -m wide spanning "etween supporting "eams or walls Caving satisfied the conditions of clause

/ 4 . /, the deign load o"tained from structural analysis is turned to a uniformly distri"uted loads (kNHm), then the design procedure is as followsA *etermine the ultimate moment, 2 from

2 L wl.HD
where

(. .7)

w L uniformly distri"uted load along the shorter span (kNHm) l L effective span of sla" (the same as that for "eam in clause / 3 - .)

*etermine the effective depth, d from e<uation . -4, if the dimensions have "een

specified in the working drawings *etermine 2H"d *etermine J

.

L 2H("d.fcu)

*etermine = from the lever arm e<uation

I L d ^@ 4 Q O (@ .4 K JH@ >)_
+alculate the area of steel reinforcement, &st from

(. .9)

&st L 2H(@ >4fy=)

(. .D)

+heck the &sre<uired against the &smin using the provisions of clause / -. 4 / *etermine &sprovided for main reinforcement and the appropriate spacing taking into

consideration the rules of section / -. - 'rovide minimum reinforcement as distri"ution reinforcement +heck for deflection through

fs Lffy g (&sre<uiredH&sprovided) g h%where h L moment redistri"ution ratio (L-) fs L estimated design service stress

(. .>)

2odification factor, m f , is then calculated from

m f L @ 4 Q ((399 % fs)H(-.@ g (@ > Q 2H"d.))) ` . @

)imiting spanHeffective depth ratio L #asic spanHeffective depth ratio g m f &ctual spanHeffective depth ratio L Span H effective depth

(. /@)

If actual spanHeffective depth ratio i limiting spanHeffective depth ratio, deflection is o k Else (i e if actual spanHeffective depth ratio ] limiting spanHeffective depth ratio), the section is redesigned either "y providing more than re<uired reinforcement so as to increase limiting value or increasing thickness of sla" so as to reduce actual value (d) +heck for shear, as is the case in the section for "eam "einforced #oncrete WallA 1eynolds and Steedman (op cit ) explains that the

design procedures for reinforced concrete walls are similar to those for columns In the case of reinforced concrete walls, the design axial force, according to #SI (op cit ), may "e calculated on the assumption that the "eams andHor sla"s transmitting loads into the wall are simply supported ,urthermore, considerations must "e given to the appropriate conditions stated in section / > / of the code (e) Pad FootingA ;nlike the structural mem"er already discussed earlier, the design

procedure for pad footings involve the two limit states simultaneously !he ground "earing capacity is generally expressed at the working state (S)S)? hence, the area of the foundation re<uired to sustain the estimated load must "e determined "ased on the working loads !hereafter, the exerted pressure is then expressed in the S)S (0yenuga, op cit ) Caving decided the shape of the footing (specifically from the working drawings), the design procedures are as followsA

+alculate the plan area of the footing using the permissi"le "earing pressure of soil and

the critical loading arrangement for the S)S With the appropriate values for the thickness (h) and the effective depth (d), check that

the shear stress at the column face is less than 4NHmm. or @ DOfcu, whichever is the lesser value +heck the thickness for punching shear, compared with that provided in the code *etermine the ultimate net pressure at the ;)S, through dividing the design ultimate

loads "y the area provided Express the ultimate net pressure in the form of a udl, and o"tain a corresponding

ultimate design moment using the simple cantilever e<uationA

2 L wl.H.
where l L distance from the column6s centre to the edge of the sla"

(. /-)

*etermine the reinforcement re<uired to resist "ending in the same way for "eams 2ake a more accurate check of the punching shear, having esta"lished ac precisely,

according to section / 9 9 of the code +heck the shear stress at critical sections It must "e noted, as stated in clause / -- . .,

that the critical section in an isolated pad footing is taken as that at the face of the column or wall supported &lso, the punching shear =one is considered as the critical perimeter around the column (i e the perimeter at - 4d from the column) (f) #antilever "etaining WallA !he design procedures for a cantilever retaining wall

are generally in two stages, namelyA Sta"ility analysis K ;)S, and #earing 'ressure analysis K S)S It is well esta"lished (0yenuga, op cit ? 2osley et al, op cit ? 2ac5inley and +hoo, op cit ) that the sta"ility re<uirements are in terms of resistance to sliding and overturningA

the effect of the "alancing forces must outweigh that of the sliding forces, and the overturning moments generated "y the sliding forces must "e ade<uately resisted "y the moments generated "y the counter%"alancing forces &lso, the "earing pressure conditions re<uire that the ultimate pressures at the heel and toe of the "ase must not exceed the allowa"le "earing pressure of the soil !he step%"y%step procedure of the fundamental design principle a"ove are as followsA *etermine the active pressure, 'a from

'a L Ja g T g C
where Ja L coefficient of active pressure ,or situation where angle of slope of retained material, h L @, therefore

(. /.)

Ja L tan. (34 K XH.) j (- K Sin X)H(- Q Sin X)

X L angle of repose (internal friction) of soil

(. //)

!ransform all pressures to forces "y multiplying with their respective area of pressure

diagram *etermine the sum of vertical forces and hori=ontal forces respectively +heck for sta"ility as followsA (i) Sliding

k(- @ g N) l - 7Cf
where N L total vertical forces Cf L total hori=ontal forces k L coefficient of friction (ii) 0verturning

1esisting momentH0verturning moment l . @

where 1esisting moment L sum of moments of each of the vertical forces a"out a point &, and 0verturning moment L sum of moments of each of the hori=ontal forces a"out a point & !he values K - 7 and . @ K are conservative factors of safety +alculate the "earing pressures on the ground under the "ase and compare these with the

permissi"le "earing pressures

' L NH#* m 72H#*. '- L NH#* Q 72H#*. '. L NH#* K 72H#*.

(. /3) (. /4) (. /7)

'- and '. are the upper and lower limit values, respectively, of the "earing pressure at any point along the "ase '- and '., to satisfy "earing pressure re<uirements, must "e less than the permissi"le "earing pressure of soil +alculate the moments on mem"ers of the entire structure and, conse<uently, determine

the area of reinforcement re<uired in each of them (g) +heck for deflection, shear, and crack conditions on the wall and heel Drainage %o( #ulvertA !he design procedure for this mem"er is similar to that

of retaining wall, except that the units are $ust su"$ect to pressures due to earth material outside and the pressure exerted "y the li<uid inside 0nce the end moments have "een determined from the appropriate method of structural analysis, the critical moment on each mem"er is determined analytically !hen, the amount of reinforcement re<uired to make the structure perform satisfactorily is provided !o achieve this re<uires experience and good engineering $udgement #ecause, though

sta"ility against floatation is important, the proportion of reinforcement and concrete must fulfil the re<uirements of leak%proof, deflection and freedom from cracking /./.9.8 *etailingA !his is the presentation of the results of the design calculations in

diagrammatic form for the purpose of executing the pro$ect (0yenuga, op cit ) 0ne may wonder, M&fter a demanding design calculations, why is detailing necessarynN #oughton (->9-) answers, M"ecause of the composition of the construction industry, there is danger in $ust conveying the wishes of the design engineer to other mem"ers of the construction team in any wayN !hus, to ensure that the possi"ility of error in conveying ideas, it is advisa"le that the contractor should know the precise re<uirements with regard to si=es and positioning of reinforcement, cover thickness, concrete strengths, e t c !he detail drawing gives all this information and will normally also provide dimensions and outlines of the structural unit Since there is a known variation in the experience of steel reinforcement fixers, it is essential that a detail drawing is easy to read and understand It is of little use, #oughton (op cit ) emphasises, to produce a drawing that looks impressive to an engineer "ut cannot "e fully understood "y the man actually placing and fixing the reinforcement Structural designers, especially engineering students, must not forget the "asic fact that the detail drawing is the only positive link "etween the design engineer and the contractor? and that the site visit and meetings are of secondary importance to good, clear detail drawings & detailed drawing and a thorough working knowledge of reinforced concrete detailing are of vital importance to any reinforced concrete design pro$ect Indeed, the detailing knowledge and re<uirement can often affect the "asic design method !hus, detail drawing, as well as calculations, should "e thoroughly checked (specifically, more) Since with calculations, a safety factor on the "ehaviour of the structure can compensate for an error, whereas a wrongly placed system of reinforcement or the omission of some "ars due to "adly produced drawing can lead to local failure

#oughton (op cit ) lists the following vital points that must "e indicated on a good, clear detail drawingsA & reasona"le scale should "e adopted for each unit 5rid lines, where used, should run in se<uence on plans, num"ers, e t c (from top to "ottom) and letters &, #, +, e t c (from left to right) so that "eams and columns can "e easily referenced when shown in isolation on detail drawings, or called up on schedule sheets 'lans, elevations and sections should "e clearly defined Sections through plans should always, also, "e taken in a uniform direction, usually left downward *imension lines of structural units, where no general layout drawing is provided, should always "e taken outside the mem"er to avoid confusion? however, a general layout drawing is prefera"le in which case the reinforcement drawing will not show unit dimensions ,or clarity sake, section6s outline should "e in thicker line form other than those of the plans and elevations 1einforcement should "e in heavy line since it is the most important item on the drawing &n indication of the reinforcement with one (or two, if alternate) typical "ar only in full should "e shown on plans and elevations !he "ar should also "e fully located on either plan or section #ars should "e called up separately for each unit, and not repeated where a similar "ar is used in another unit on the same drawing

#ars should "e referenced in their likely order of placing to make the steel reinforcement fixers6 $o" more straightforward

Each drawing should start from "ar mark +over should "e shown on the section where it varies from one unit to another on a drawing Where it is constant, it can "e called up in the notes

Where only one type of reinforcement is used throughout a drawing, it is unnecessary to indicate its type on every set of "ars since it can "e called up in the notes6 column

+ertain standard a""reviations can "e used in calling up reinforcement, e g ,or type of reinforcementA (i) (ii) 2ild Steel "ars %%%%%%%%%%% 1 Cigh !ension "ars %%%%%%% o

,or placement of reinforcementA (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) #ottom face %%%%%%%%%%%%%%% # !op face %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% ! Near face %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% N , ,ar face %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% , , Each face %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% E , #oth ways %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% # W

,or arrangement of reinforcementA (i) (ii) cHc %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +entre to centre thro6out %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% !hroughout

(N # &ll these should "e mentioned in the notes6 column ) !he "ar mark and si=e should "e grouped in a single numeral where the diameter precedes the "ar mark

Spacing of reinforcement should "e in .4mm increments from 4@mm a"ove Normal "ar diameters used should "e of the orderA 7, D, -@, -., -7, .@, .4, /. and 3@mm

#ars should "e called up in the following mannerA No re<uiredH !ype of steelH *iameter or si=eH #ar markH spacing (if re<uired)H locationH any special consideration, e g .@ K 1-.@4 K -4@ cHc ! means .@ no of mild steel "ars of -.mm diameter, "ar mark 4, are re<uired at -4@mm centre to centre at the top of the sla" 1eynolds and Steedman (op cit ) points out that it has long "een realised that the

calculated strength of a reinforced concrete mem"er cannot "e attained unless the reinforcement it contains is detailed effectively and efficiently ;nless reinforcement "ars are detailed correctly, tests show that the actual strength of reinforced concrete mem"er is considera"ly lower than calculations indicate &part from o"serving the points that make for a good detail drawing, considerations must "e given to few interconnected salient factors that can make detailing to "e effective and efficient #asically, one must know the length and si=e of "ars that would "ring a"out efficient construction ,or instance, as few different si=es of "ars as possi"le should "e used, thus reducing the num"er of "ars to "e "ent and placed &lso, the longest "ar economically o"taina"le should "e used, "ut regard should "e paid to the facility with which a long "ar can "e transported and placed in position 2oreover, over certain lengths, it is more economical to lap two "ars than to "uy long "ars, as there are standard length for various diameters of "ar /./.9.9 Scheduling of Steel 1einforcementA It is the method "y which steel reinforcements are given dimensions and markings, so that information on <uantity, shape and si=e can "e provided for supply (#oughton, op cit ) It is also referred to as bar bending schedule3 !he

method of scheduling should "e uniform throughout the "ar "ending schedules for any structure !hus, all scheduling of reinforcement must conform to #S 3377A ->7>> 5enerally, a "ar "ending schedule sheet should contain the following informationA 2em"er K the location in which the "ar is used #ar mark K the num"er of the "ar in its se<uence on the detail drawing !ype and si=e K the type of steel used and its diameter Num"er of mem"ers K the num"er of identical units, which can occur in each mem"er !otal num"er K the num"er of mem"ers p the num"er of "ars in each mem"er )ength of each "ar K the overall length in metres and millimetres allowing for "ending tolerances e t c !his should always "e rounded off to the nearest 4mm Shape %% this shows the "ending of the "ar with critical dimensions indicated *imension columns K these relate to the dimension letters shown in shape6s picture It must "e noted that the preparation of "ar "ending schedule, as part of the detail drawings, is the responsi"ility of the engineer (#oughton, op cit ) Schedule sheets are used, not only "y the steel supplier and steel fixers? "ut, also, "y the <uantity surveyor in order to prepare the "ill of <uantities (#0B) #ar shapes should "e within the range of preferred shapes shown in #S 3377(op cit ), since "ending of steel contri"utes considera"ly to the cost of reinforcement !hus, angle cranks should "e avoided, particularly on larger diameters "ars, except where a"solutely necessary #ar lengths should remain within easily managea"le si=es, where possi"le, must not exceed the maximum lengths produced "y steel reinforcement manufacturers #ar num"ers should run in se<uence and should not "e

>

#S 3377A ->7> K #ending, *imensioning and Scheduling of #ars for the 1einforcement of +oncrete

repeated for separate "ars In general, the o"$ective of the "ar schedule is to make every"ody6s $o", in the construction team, a little easier

/.3 /.3..

Ge&!(+1" *+, I'%&(0+# &' S2$#e0 (GIS) Introduction &ll forms of human activity include, and involve, a measure of geography Whether

you are a geologist seeking a well of the :"lack gold6 or a transport planner looking for the shortest and easiest route "etween two places, the pro"lems you will face are the age old <uestion of geographyA where, when and how We, as human "eings, possess a certain understanding of our immediate surroundings, i e our neigh"ourhoods and communities, through a natural sense of place Cowever, as we increase the scale of our vision to a local, national or international scope, our knowledge and a"ility to relate things decreases significantly &t such stage, it "ecomes a daunting task for us to make decisions "ased on the conflicting data o"tained from our environmental features Nowadays, 5IS technology allows us to gather and organise, analyse and manipulate, and interpret large volumes of data a"out geographical features in a way that greatly enhances making a well%informed decision /.3./ Definition of *IS #asically, 5IS *evelopment +entre (.@@@) explains that 5IS is an acronym for specific termsA 5eographical K !his term is used "ecause 5IS tend to deal primarily with

:geographical6, :spatial6 or :graphical6 features !he features can "e referenced or related to

a specific location in space !he features may "e physical, cultural or economic in nature ,eatures on a map, for instance, are pictorial representations of spatial o"$ects in the real world Information K !his represents the large volumes of data, which are usually handled

within a 5IS Every geographical o"$ect has their particular set of data, which cannot "e represented in full details on the map Cence, all these data have to "e associated with the corresponding spatial o"$ect so that the map can "e complete When these data are associated with respective graphical feature, they get transformed to information !his implies that all information is data, "ut all data are not information System K !his term is used to represent the approach taken "y 5IS, where"y complex

features are "roken down into their component parts for ease of understanding and handling? "ut are considered to form an integrated whole ,oote and )ynch (->>4) state that, "ecause of its vast areas of application, there is no single universal definition for 5IS as a technology !hus, various definitions have evolved from the various aspects of 5IS It will "e worthwhile to look at some of these definitions so as to get a proper understanding of the technology & 5IS is an information system that is designed to work with data referenced "y spatial or geographical coordinates (Star and Estes, ->>@) In other words, it is "oth a data"ase system with specific capa"ilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of operations for working with data 5IS *evelopment +entre (op cit ) defines 5IS as a computer%"ased information system used to digitally represent and analyse the geographic features present on the Earth6s surface and the attri"utesHevents (non%spatial attri"utes linked to the geography under study) that take place on it 5IS is a set of tools for collecting, storing, transforming and displaying geographically referenced spatial data with its

corresponding attri"ute information to meet a specific re<uirement (+houchan, .@@.) ,rom another viewpoint, Environmental System 1esearch Institute (ES1I) (->>@) defines 5IS as an Morganised collectionHintegration of computer hardware, software, geographic data and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyse and display all forms of geographically referenced informationN ,rom all these definitions, it will "e noted that, Mevery o"$ectHfeature present on the Earth6s surface can "e geo%referencedN is the fundamental key of associating any data"ase to 5IS? and that the ultimate o"$ective of 5IS is the capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing and displaying of these geographical data, which are spatially referenced to the Earth (+houchan, op cit ) /.3.3 Funda$ental of *IS 5IS is a special%purpose digital data"ase in which a common spatial coordinate system is the primary means of reference !hus, a comprehensive 5IS, according to #urrough (->D7), re<uires a means ofA (i) *ata input from maps, aerial photogrammetry, satellites, surveys and other sources (ii) (iii) (iv) *ata storage, retrieval and <uery *ata transformation, analysis and modelling *ata reporting such as maps, reports, plans, e t c

!hus, 5IS is an integrating technology, "y linking a num"er of discrete technologies into a whole entity that is greater than the sum of its parts !his entails the components of 5IS, devices needed for 5IS, associated technologies for 5IS, and so on /.3.3.. +omponents of 5IS 5IS *evelopment +entre (op cit ) explains that 5IS consists of five key components listed "elowA

Cardware Software *ata 'eople 2ethod

!his is as illustrated in ,igure . - "elow &s clearly shown on ,igure . -, it is seen that the 5IS is a process that needs each of the components to "e effective in carrying out the purpose for which it was "uilt (a) Cardware K It consists of the computer devices and the computer system in which the

5IS will run !he computer and its peripherals form the "ack"one of the 5IS technology !he choice of hardware is influenced "y the si=e of data and the pro$ect type It may include some, or all, of theseA monitor, mouse, key"oard, +entral 'rocessing ;nit (+';), scanners, digitiser, printer, plotter, e t c (") Software K !he 5IS software provides the functions and tools needed to store,

analyse and display geographic information !he common softwares in use are 2apInfo, &rc8iew, &uto+&* 2apping, e t c !he software availa"le can "e said to "e application% defined If the user intends to carry out extensive analysis on 5IS, the &rc8iew is the preferred option (c) *ata K It is a collection of attri"utes (numeric, alphanumeric, figures, pictures) a"out

entities (things, events, and activities) It contains an explicit geographic reference, such as latitude and longitude coordinates or an implicit reference, such as address, owner6s name, area, etc

FIGURE /.. C&01&'e'#$ &% GIS

(d)

'eople K 5IS users range from technical specialists, who design and maintain the

system, to those who can use it to help them perform their every day6s work !he people

who use can "e "roadly into two classes, "ut the more important is the class of +&*H5IS analysts, whose works are to vectorise the map o"$ects (e) 2ethod K &nd a"ove all, a successful 5IS operates according to a well designed

plans and "usiness rules, which are the models and operating principles uni<ue to each organisation !here are various techni<ues used for map creation and further usage for any pro$ect !he map creation can either "e automated raster to vector creator, or it can "e manually vectorised using the scanned images !he source of these digital maps can either "e map prepared "y any survey agency or satellite imagery /.3.3./ 5IS6s &ssociated !echnologies & 5IS, as earlier defined, is a computer%"ased system that is used to digitally reproduce and analyse the features present on the earth6s surface and the eventsHactivities that take place on it In the light of the fact that almost 9@F of these data has geographical reference as its denominator, it "ecomes pertinent to understand, or "e familiar, with the technological means "y which data can "e represented geographically !hese technologies include 5lo"al 'ositioning System (5'S), 1emote Sensing, e t c? each is "riefly explained "elow (a) GPSA !he 5'S consists of .3 Earth%or"iting satellites !hese satellites, in function

with a 5'S receiver, allow the determination of the precise longitude, latitude and altitude of any feature anywhere on the surface of the earth (#rain and Carris, .@@.) !he 5'S satellites determine the coordinates "y which each feature is geographically referenced from the "asic concept of trilateration !rilateration is a "asic geometric principle that allows a point to "e located if its distances from other already determined locations are known !he strength of a 5'S receiver lies in its a"ility to find the receiver6s distance from four (or more) 5'S satellites 0nce it determines its distance from the four satellites, the receiver can calculate its exact location and altitude on Earth If the receiver can only find

three satellites, then it can use an imaginary sphere to represent the Earth and can give you location information (latitude and longitude), "ut no altitude information ,or a 5'S receiver to know the location of any feature, it has to determine two thingsA !he location of at least three satellites from the feature !he distance "etween the feature and each of the satellites

!o measure distances, 5'S satellites send out radio signals that the 5'S receiver can detect !he receiver measures the amount of time it takes for the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver? and knowing that the signals, "eing electromagnetic radiations, travel at the speed of light (/ @ x -@DmHs), the receiver can then "asically calculate the distance "etween the satellites and the feature &lthough, some complex mathematical models of a wide range of atmospheric conditions are involved (#rain and Carris, op cit ) !o find the satellites, the receiver simply stores an almanac that tells it where every satellite should "e at any given time !he most essential function of the 5'S receiver is to pick up the transmissions of at least four satellites and com"ine the information in those transmissions with the information in its almanac so that it can automatically determine the receiver6s position on Earth (invaria"ly that of the feature, since the receiver is placed on it) !hus, the "asic information that 5'S receiver provides is the latitude, longitude and altitude of its current position Cence, 5'S has evolved to "ecome a vital technology to ac<uire raw, positional data that can "e inputted into 5IS data"ase !hese data are the coordinates of the featureHpoint on the Earth6s surface in the form of latitude-@ and longitude-- and altitude

-@

)atitude is one of the axes of an imaginary coordinate system of the Earth to determine the distance of a point from the e<uator It is actually the degree of the angle formed "etween a line from the point to the centre of the Earth and a line from the e<uator to the centre of the Earth -)ongitude is the other axis in the imaginary coordinate system of the Earth It is the degree of the angle formed "etween a line from the point to the centre of the Earth and a line from the prime meridian to the centre of the Earth

(")

#emote SensingA

!his is the science and art of o"taining useful information

(spatial, spectral, temporal) a"out an o"$ect, area or a point through the analysis and interpretation of image data ac<uired "y a recording device that is not in physical, intimate contact with the o"$ect, area or point under surveillance (+houchan, op cit ) Simply put, 1emote Sensing is any means, other than direct o"servation, that determines the attri"utes and location of a feature !his implies that, without direct contact, some means of transferring information through space must "e utilised In remote sensing, information transfer is accomplished "y using electromagnetic radiation 1emote Sensing is a complementary technology to aerial photogrammetry, where"y :remotely sensed6 information gathered "y satellites in outer space is used for geographical analysis and cartographic production Cence, remote sensing technology is also an important tool for the collection of geo%spatial data of an entity for use in 5IS, which analyses and manages these data 1emote Sensing produces large volumes of spatial data, which can "e handled only "y efficient geographic handling and processing system that will transform these data into usea"le information 5IS utilises these maps as its primary source of spatial data and 1emote Sensing produces such spatial data in the form of maps & typical of such maps from 1emote Sensing is the map showing the coastal areas of )agos State as shown in ,igure . . !he map is taken "y one of the various remote sensing satellites to o"serve and collate the ma$or roads in )agos and 8ictoria Islands &s seen from the map, the features range from "arely visi"le to invisi"le, "ecause of the altitude of the remote sensing satellites and the si=es of the features !he proliferation of 5IS is explained "y its uni<ue a"ility to assimilate data from widely divergent sources, to analyse trends over time, and to spatially evaluate impacts caused "y development !his implies that 5IS, to "e effective, needs the experience and

knowledge of its operatorsHanalysts? since 5IS is an extension of people6s analytical thinking It has no in%"uilt solutions for any spatial pro"lemsq Its work depends upon the outlined processes "y the analysts !hus far, 5IS has "een explained the challenge now is how it works K the process /.3.8 *IS Process 5IS involves complete understanding a"out patterns, space and processes needed to solve a pro"lem It is a tool acting as a means to achieve certain o"$ectives <uickly and effectively Its applica"ility is realised when the user fully understands the overall spatial concept "y which 5IS operates and analyses his specific application in the light of that esta"lished process !his process is what is to "e explained here !wo important similar terms, "ut different really in 5IS, are data and information3 *ata is a collection of attri"utes (numeric, alphanumeric, figures, pictures) a"out entities (things, events, activities) 0n the other hand, information is the

F !)(e /./

M+1 $"&7 '! #"e *&+$#+, +(e+$ &% L+!&$ S#+#e: N !e( +

organisation of data such that it is valua"le for analysis, evaluation and decision%making In other words, information is processed data !his implies that data, in its raw form, is not useful directly to the user Cence, 5IS involves the transformation of data to information !he process "y which 5IS does that entails pro"lem definition, data ac<uisition, data structuring and analysis, interpretation of results, and decision%making information /.3.8.. 'ro"lem *efinition 5IS application is "asically the customisation of existing 5IS software to meet specific needs !he needs may "e as simple as a set of preferences that are stored for each user, or they may "e a very complex <uery that selects a group of layers, identify features of interest, etc Cence, considering the vast areas of application, every 5IS user must define the pro"lem that (s)he wants to solve with the aid of 5IS tool & clear%cut definition of the pro"lem(s) will assist in determining, at the start, whether or not the "asic functions of 5IS

can solve it If not, it can "e programmed using the 5IS macro%language for complex pro"lems (Wahi, .@@@) 2oreover, a clear%cut pro"lem definition will help to fashion out the "est ways to go a"out the remaining stages of the 5IS process, so as to arrive at a well%informed decision and achieve the o"$ectives It will determine the sources of data, its method of collection, etc It will help to identify what parameters play a significant role in the selection of spatial facts and what parameters do not /.3.8./ *ata &c<uisition &s it can "e o"served from the foregoing discussion, without data there can "e no 5IS? "ecause it is a technology that is data%driven &s a result, there is the need to ac<uire the re<uired data from the most appropriate and relia"le source in conformity with the pro"lem definition *ata ac<uisition is the process of identifying data sources, collecting data, verifying collected data and inputting the verified data (#urrough, op cit ) !he sources of data can "e grouped into primary source (field work) and secondary source (other means of getting data) ;sually, primary source of data is adopted 'rimary source involves getting the re<uired data from the exact location of interests, i e mainly "y site surveys !o carryout site surveys, the method of data collection must "e identified *ata can "e collected "y manual (traditional) method of survey, remote sensing, use of 5'S, or photogrammetry ,or simplicity and cost%effectiveness, manual method is predominant in this part of the world Surveys are conducted "y technical personnel, who use compass, linear measurement devices, and maps to esta"lish spatial location, extract spatial data, o"serve and record aspatial data (attri"utes of the spatial feature) ;pon collection of the re<uired data (spatial and aspatial), these data need to "e verified so as to improve its accuracy Importantly, the primary re<uirement for the source

data is that the locations for the varia"les are known !hese locations can "e annotated "y x, y and = coordinate of longitude, latitude and altitude (elevation) !he verification of the data must entail identifying the essential and correct data, and filtering out the irrelevant data !his stage is very important to the 5IS process, "ecause the relia"ility of 5IS mainly depends upon the accuracy of the data collected, the way it is integrated and displayed for the purpose of extracting information for decision%making (+houchan, op cit ) !hus, the verification of the collected data must ensure the completeness, accuracy and consistency of these data !he stage of data verification prepares the data to "e accepta"le to the 5IS data"ase !his acceptance is "y inputting them into the data"ase *ata input involves transforming the data from :physical6 form to :digital6 form It entails key"oard entry of aspatial attri"utes and locational data into the system, scanning the field information into the system (i e converting the data from an existing map to a digital, raster representation), use of digitiser, etc !he choice of mode of data input depends on the type of data source, the data"ase model of the 5IS (scanning is easier for raster representation, while digitising is for vector representation), density of data, etc !he success of the data ac<uisition stage results in a prepared data format that can "e analysed modelled and restructured to achieve the desired o"$ectives, leading to well% informed decisions /.3.8.3 *ata Structuring and &nalysis *ata structuring, in 5IS, involves storage, retrieval and manipulation of data, so that they can "e analysed on certain "asis !he 5IS has a data of multiple information layers that can "e manipulated, to evaluate relationships among the desired elements in a computer system 5IS uses layers, called :themes6, to overlay different types of information Each theme represents a category of information !his is illustrated in ,igure . / ,rom the

diagram, it can "e seen that 5IS data"ase handles large volume of data, process them and transform them into a wide variety of usa"le informationA geographical, social, political, environmental and demographic 2oreover, each layer has "een carefully overlaid on the others so that every location is precisely matched to its corresponding locations on all the other maps (,oote and )ynch, op cit )

FIGURE /.3

D +!(+0 $"&7 '! #21 *+, ,+2e($ &% 6+#+ ' + GIS

5IS stores these layers, connected "y a common geographical frame of reference, and allows the information displayed on the different layers to "e compared and analysed in com"ination Not all analyses will re<uire using all of the map layers simultaneously? hence, this simple yet powerful mode of a"straction K 5IS K allows the users to capture on the information that are of interest to them ,or instance, with regards to figure . /, users may want to consider the relationship "etween the layers of land use and infrastructure ,urthermore, information from two or more layers might "e com"ined and then transformed into a new layer for use in su"se<uent analyses In general, the analysis functions of 5IS use the spatial and aspatial data in the data"ase to answer <uestions a"out the real world, "ased on the o"$ectives of the process (i e the pro"lem definition) !he analysis facilitates study of real%world processes developing and applying models Such models illuminate the underlying trends in geographical data, and thus make new information availa"le Essentially, the o"$ective of geographical data analysed is to transform data into useful information to satisfy the re<uirements or o"$ectives of decision%makers at all levels &n important use of the analysis is the possi"ility of predicting events in another location or at another point in time & ma$or method of data analysis is the data"ase <uery *ata"ase <uery simply asks to see already stored information in the 5IS data"ase !he <uery may "e "y attri"ute (relational data) or "y geometry (locational data) !he data"ase <uery is usually performed "y a sophisticated function known as Standard Buery )anguage (SB)) to search a 5IS data"ase

!he power of 5IS, as it has "een explained, lies in its a"ility to identify relationships "etween features "ased on their locations and their attri"utes ;pon analysis of these data, the results are displayed K waiting for them to "e acted upon ,or users to act on these results, they must "e a"le to interpret them /.3.8.8 Interpretation of 1esults 5IS results are displayed in the form of digital maps, which are produced from the layers of data stored in the 5IS data"ase !hese layers are stored using one of two distinctly different data models, known as raster and vector In raster model, according to 5IS *evelopment +entre (op cit ), a feature is defined as set of cells on a grid &ll of the cells on the grid are of the same shape and si=e, and each one is identified "y a coordinate location and a value which acts as its identifier (features are represented "y a cell or a group of cells that share the same identifier) In vector model, a feature is represented as a collection of "egin and end points used to define a set of points, lines or polygons, which descri"es the shape and si=e of the feature !he vector model is particularly useful for representing highly discrete data types such as roads, "uilding and the like !hese digital maps represent geographical features or other spatial phenomenon "y graphically conveying information a"out locations and attri"utes )ocational information descri"es the position of particular geographical features on the Earth6s surface, as well as the spatial relationship "etween the features &ttri"ute information descri"es characteristics of the geographical features represented such as its name, or num"er, and <uantitative information such as its area or length )ocational information is usually represented "yA 'oint ,eature K for discrete feature represented as single location It defines map o"$ect too small to show as a line, e g tree, telephone pole, etc

)ine ,eature K is a set of connected, ordered coordinates representing the linear shape of a map o"$ect that may "e too narrow to "e displayed as an area, such as roads, fence, etc

&rea ,eature K is a closed figure with length and width, whose "oundary enclosed a homogeneous area, such as lake, state, etc

In addition to feature locations and their attri"utes, other technical characteristics that define maps and their uses, and that aids in the correct interpretation of 5IS results, areA 2ap Scale K !his indicates how much the given area has "een reduced !he map scale, or extent of magnification, is expressed as a ratio & typical type I sthe representative fraction of the formA -A r implies that :-6 is a single unit of distance on the map, and :r6 is the distance on the ground Examples are -A-.4@, -A.4@,@@@, etc 2ap &ccuracy K !his refers to the relationship "etween the geographical position on a map and its real%world position measured on the surface of the Earth 2any factors are responsi"le for this, including <uality of source data, map scale, etc !he most important issue to remem"er a"out map accuracy is that the more accurate the map, the more it costs in time and money to develop 2ap Extent K !he aerial extent of map is the area on the Earth6s surface represented on the map It is the limit of the area covered, usually defined "y rectangle $ust large enough to include all mapped features !he si=e of the study area depends on the map scale !he smaller the scale, the larger the area covered !he stage of interpretation of result of analyses makes 5IS more of mapping software that links information a"out where things are with information a"out what things are like, so as to give a "etter understanding of things

/.3.8.9 *ecision%2aking Information !he old adage M"etter information leads to "etter decisionsN is as true for 5IS as it is for other information systems & 5IS, however, is not an automated decision%making system "ut a tool to <uery and analyse map data in support of the decision%making process !o get that information, you need the right set of tools, which 5IS provide !he decision on where, when and how to develop a land%use policy, locate a landfill, or a sewage treatment facility, "uild a water treatment plant, all involve a process that rely heavily not only on the understanding of critical environmental, socio%cultural, political factors, etc? "ut also the a"ility to integrate these factors into a common decision%making process for well%informed decision to "e taken &lmost all of the <uestions and issues faced in real%world situations have a geographical component in them Buestions such as when, how, why, or what, all have an o"vious or hidden geographical component !herefore, a 5IS with its a"ility to link and display different data sets on the "asis of a common geography apparently "ecomes the perfect set of tools for supporting a decision%making process /.3.9 'pplication of *IS + to #ivil ,ngineering5IS6s are "eing used widely applied to Natural Environment, #uilt Environment, and Cuman Environment 5IS applications can "e undertaken only when three%piece geographical information are collected and stored for every aspect under studyA what is it, where is it and how is it related to other aspect (5IS *evelopment +entre, op cit ) 5IS technology has ena"led us to integrate social, economic, demographic and environmental data"ase, and to understand the complexities and interrelationships "etween features of natural and human environments ,or +ivil Engineering purposes, 5IS is used in the following areasA

'lanning and maintenance of transportation facilities including roadways and railways, "ridges and tunnels, air and sea ports? as well as improving the efficiency of transportation means

)and ;se planning K this involves =oning policies, land ac<uisition, maintenance and regulation of ownership of land development regulations

,acilities 2anagement K this includes locating and improving the state of facilities, such as locating underground networks of pipes and water distri"ution

'ro$ect 2onitoring and Supervision

5IS applications are extensive 5IS is now used in research and "usiness for a wide range of expertise including environmental resource analysis, tax assessment, real estate analysis, archaeological analysis, natural resources management, street network etc

CHAPTER THREE VILLAGES WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES 3.. P(&5e*# B+*;!(&)'6 +N) is planning to provide pota"le water to a variety of villages in its area of operation !hus, +N) contracted 1eid +rowther, in ->>>, to come up with a feasi"ility

report on the pro$ect 1eid +rowther carried out the feasi"ility study with an affirmative result for the supply of water to the pro$ect area !he pro$ect area is situated in the 1iver Niger delta in *elta State !he pro$ect area is generally swampy and covered with mangroves, containing numerous river su"%channels 8illages are mostly constructed on small man%made or natural islands &ccess into the villages is "y "oat or canoe +N) approved the report, and 1eid +rowther was retained to carry out the preliminary design for the 8illages6 Water Supply Scheme with the o"$ective to provide water to the <uality that meets WC0 1ecommendations !he preliminary design process, as re<uired "y +N), commenced in Euly .@@- !he villages are divided into schemes for easy design process and coordination Scheme- includes !isun, JoloJolo, *eghele and #ateren? Scheme . includes 0pia and Ikenyan? Scheme / includes 2akara"a and 0koyitoru? while Scheme 3 includes &dag"ra=a and &santuwag"ene Each design process is centred on each scheme taking the "est arrangement of the water supply units which "est minimise cost and allows for easy construction process, without $eopardising the o"$ective of the pro$ect &fter su"mitting the preliminary design report, +N) undertook an evaluation, in colla"oration with the villages of the implications of the various options 1eid +rowther developed for the villages !his resulted in a set of local considerations needed to "e included in a revised design report to "e prepared "y 1eid +rowther

& series of correspondence ensued "etween +N) and 1eid +rowther on those issues "etween &ugust .@@- and &pril .@@. !his led to the production of 1evision & of the design report on the 8illages6 Water Supply Scheme, which the trainee was actively involved in, as illustrated in ,igure / - &s it can "e seen from the figure, the flow process involves a"straction from "orehole, aeration, filtration, chlorination, storage and distri"ution 3./ W&(; C+(( e6 O)# +'6 E=1e( e'*e G+ 'e6 !he work carried out under the production of the 1evision & of the 8illages6 Water Supply Scheme6s revised design report centres around the design of the reinforced concrete units associated with the water supply scheme Specifically, they includeA 1eview of the water treatment flow process )oad estimation for the structural design of the reinforced concrete mem"ers 1oof truss analysis of filter "uilding6s roof *esign, detailing and preparation of "ar "ending schedule of "eams, walls and wall footing for the aerator%supporting structure *esign, detailing and preparation of "ar "ending schedule of sla", column and column footings for the filter "uilding *esign, detailing and preparation of "ar "ending schedule of retaining wall for the water treatment site *esign, detailing and preparation of "ar "ending schedule of the tank supports for the treated water tank on the ground *esign, detailing and preparation of "ar "ending schedule of the drainage channel for the filter "uilding

FIGURE 3..

,or the sake of "revity, complete design packages for the drainage channel in the filter "uilding and the retaining wall of the water treatment site are provided under &ppendix # and + !he experience gained while involved in this pro$ect is enormous and includesA & practical understanding of what detailing entails #ars are "ought in weight specifications (in tonnes) and not in length Standard lengths of the various diameters of "ars, namelyA (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 7m for \Dmm "ars and less? Dm for \Dmm K \-.mm "ars? -.m for \-7mm and \.@mm "ars? -Dm for \.4mm "ar? and .@m for \/@mm "ar and a"ove

& practical understanding of the water treatment process, especially having to understand the operations of the *avnor #ioSand ,ilter "etter, as shown on ,igure / . &s seen from the figure, the *avnor :#ioSand6 ,ilter ;nit is a modern innovative technological product with different operational mode from the conventional filters Cence, there are various steps to "e taken for various water conditions in order to achieve the minimum water <uality standards ,or instance, unlike the slow%sand and rapid%sand filters, which are used for specific raw water <ualities, the *avnor :#ioSand6 ,ilter ;nit for all raw water <ualities providing that they are used at the appropriate stage of the water treatment process

F !)(e 3./ T"e D+-'&( >B &S+'6 F ,#e( T(e+#0e'# U' #

CHAPTER FOUR PROPERTY IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE FOR LAGOS STATE 8.. P(&5e*# B+*;!(&)'6 5enerally, "ig cities have "ig pro"lems ,rom New oork, 'aris, )ondon, #an$ul, #ei$ing, Eohannes"urg, to )agos, the list of mega cities is growing steadily &mong these, )agos is ranked to "e among the largest metropolitan cities in the world alongside such places as )os &ngeles, 2exico city, *elhi and 'eking It is estimated, "y international organisations, that )agos, currently, is a city of a"out -4million people &lso, "y pro$ection, that )agos would "e home to a"out .4million people "y the year .@-4 &t that time, )agos would "e the third largest city in the world "ehind !okyo and 2um"ai !hese high figures pose great pro"lems to government in making life meaningful to the residents (popularly called )agosians) In order to effectively plan for the provisions of infrastructure, such as improved health and welfare facilities, good network of roads, controlled use of land resources, improved environmental facilities, and so on, the )agos State 5overnment initiated the 'roperty Identification Exercise ('IE) in ,e"ruary .@@- !he pro$ect was contracted out to 1eid +rowther through its su"sidiary company ()1+ Nigeria )imited) !o effectively tackle the complex and conflicting aspects of )agos as an entity, 1eid +rowther set up a 5IS data"ase for )agos State6s geographic information on land development !his implies that the whole exercise revolves around data K its collection, storage, integration, retrieval and transformation K to arrive at well%informed decision% making policies on the geographical entity called )agos State

+onsidering the kind of society we are in, it has "een agreed, right from the onset, to employ the simplest techni<ues to achieve the o"$ectives of the pro$ect !hus, against its wish of using the latest technologies such as 5'S and 1S, )1+ has to employ manual method of data collection including taking of photographs to run the 5IS process 8./ W&(; C+(( e6 O)# +'6 E=1e( e'*e G+ 'e6 !he work carried out under the 'IE pro$ect includesA Spot location of map features on site +ollection of geometrical data and other relevant information pertaining to

land parcels and their usage &nalysis and verification of field data for upgrading old maps to show

existing features on site Input of field data into 5IS data"ase ;pdating and maintenance of 5IS data"ase

!he experience gained from this pro$ect revolves around a technology that is data%driven It includes paying careful attention to minute details of data, understanding the dynamics of data, methods of collection and analysis of data, application of 5IS to manage engineering pro$ects, map reading and importance of site visits to get proper interpretation of data

CHAPTER FIVE ISSUES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICE +ivil Engineering, as an entity, is a widely ranged profession encompassing many individually demanding disciplines such as Structural Engineering, 5eotechnical Engineering, !ransportation Engineering and Environmental Engineering In spite of these various disciplines, civil engineering practice is generally of two types in all the disciplines, vi=A +onsultancy and +onstruction !o lack training and experience in any of these types of practice, even if well%versed in the other, depicts the non%completeness of one6s practice of the civil engineering profession In order to gain a complete experience of this profession, the trainee undertook the last two months of the 7%month industrial training on a construction site? having "een trained in the consultancy field during the first four months of the training !he work carried out and experience gained on the construction field is outlined in the following section? thereafter, other important issues of civil engineering practice experienced in the consultancy field are explained 9.. C&'$#()*# &' S #e E=1e( e'*e !he construction site experience was gained during the construction of a two% storey "uilding located in one of )agos su"ur"s !he construction of the "uilding was handled "y a small%scale (-%man%owned) construction company, whose owner is closely connected to the client (also, an individual) &t the time the trainee $oined this site, construction had almost reached the finishing stage, where"y only a few concrete

structures were yet to "e cast Simultaneously, the company was also handling the partial demolition of an existing structure in another su"ur" of )agos Cence, the trainee had to shuttle "etween the two sites in order to have a wide range of experience In all, the work carried out includesA +asting of parapet wall of the roof structure +asting of roof "eams 5auging, plastering and screeding works Estimation of "atching <uantities of constructional materials +onstruction of roof structure Supervision of partial demolition of existing structure and reconstruction to fit new design !he experience gained during this time of the construction field includesA Candling and organisation of manpower (i e la"ourers) for construction activities Candling and placing of concrete ,or thickness such as that of parapet wall (a"out 94mm and "elow), reinforcements are placed at the centre of the structure6s cross%section ;nderstanding of locations where )%"eams and !%"eams are used in "uilding structure Buality control of "uilding construction ;se and condition for use of :upstand6 "eam and drop "eam, where headroom re<uirement is important or not

In summary, the construction field is a necessity for the completeness of the practice of civil engineering practice It can "e referred to as :"attling and overcoming reality6 to achieve set designs (the consultancy6s output) 0n the construction field, engineering personnel are expected to "e creative, innovative, to manage independent teams and to have the potentials to manage disciplines outside their own specialist area &"ove all, to have a grip on the manpower (i e la"ourers), they should "e a"le to exercise professional $udgement at all times 9./ De-e,&10e'#$ ' C - , E'! 'ee( '! P(+*# *e !he way a discipline such as civil engineering is practiced as a profession and the impact it has on society will clearly depend on its evolution as a technical su"$ect, and, in particular, the way it is taught and how its values are passed on to new mem"ers of the profession !his peculiarity of engineering distinguishes it from science Science evolved mainly as a search for understanding and knowledge (often grandly designed as a search for truth) Cowever, engineering is a"out creating new product or service K i e a new design Since there is usually a large range of options that can meet each desira"le design, it effectively "ecomes a search for compromise (*avies, .@@.) !hus, the difference "etween scientists and engineers is that scientists will artificially constrain their world until they have something they can handle and then deal with that? however, engineers have to deal with the reality of what is, and this includes people, who have the capacity to do the unexpected 2oreover, engineering professionals have a duty to keep their knowledge current 0ne key issue for engineering is how to make use of new technology, such as information

technology, to improve the effectiveness of more :traditional6 engineering and to take it forward to tackle the massive challenges in the future !his is very important for a successful practice of the engineering profession It is evident that engineering students of this generation are more computer literate than their counterparts of previous generations !his is reflected in their approach to information retrieval and knowledge assimilation !hey do not expect to work on drawing "oards !heir tool of first recourse is the computer, and the first place they would think of looking for information is the Internet &s such, everything has to "e "alanced up? "ecause, computers are very good at storing and manipulating data "ut are still poor at creating knowledge Cumans, on the other hand, have the a"ility to create knowledge "y processing information from a variety of sources 'erhaps a "etter perspective of the practice of engineering is the one that com"ines the "est attri"utes of computer%"ased data manipulation to assist humans in their pursuit of knowledge In other words, computer should "e seen as tools that help engineers do their $o"s and not doing the $o" for engineers !he evolution of techniciansHdraughtsmen into computer%aided drawing (+&*) operators is a classic example !he arrival of +&* software meant that many of the people previously known as technicians leave the profession and +&* operators took "ecame :draughtsmen6 #ut, unlike the modern%day generation of +&* operators, the old draughtsmen knew how structures "ehave, "ecause they were the ones detailing the reinforced concrete and the structural steelwork !hey could spot potential pro"lems as well as identify savings at an early stage of the

pro$ect life span through their ac<uired knowledge as draughtsmenHtechnicians in the real sense ;nfortunately, the wrong application of technology has led to the loss of their skills in the engineering profession It has left a vacuum of knowledge, which is difficult to replace and it now adds more to the responsi"ilities of the design engineer 5one are the days when the design engineer would pass his engineering $udgements to the techniciansHdraughtsmen and, in most cases, the latter would produce a clear and detailed drawings without the assistance of the former Nowadays, with +&* operators, the engineer has to vet drawings so as to ensure that his ideas are properly and correctly stated in the drawingsq &s such, the only safe method of passing engineering knowledge to students of engineering is that they should "e e<uipped to thrive in whatever working environment they find themselves? and that engineering professionals must know more a"out their su"$ects than their clients or the general pu"lic and, therefore, there are responsi"ilities that go with knowledge !his was an issue that the trainee "attled with in his training in the consultancy field, as most +&* works had to "e vetted again, "ecause of the knowledge of the +&* operator 9.3 4/P( '* 1,e$ &% P(&5e*# M+'+!e0e'# Introduction Every construction pro$ect is different 0n one hand, no two pro$ects are the same in respect of stakeholders, the finished product or its environment? however, on the other hand, all pro$ects have a greater or lesser commonality of the processes used to create them 'ro$ects have large num"ers of different participants, each of whom have their own

goals and perceptions as to what constitutes success "oth for the pro$ect itself and for themselves as organisations !he key to achieving satisfaction is therefore to optimise alignment of these potentially conflicting o"$ectives "y ensuring initial understanding and M"uy inN "y all the pro$ect stakeholders to clearly define pro$ect success factors &greeing on, and then achieving these common o"$ectives is the essence of Partnering?.ea$wor/ approach in pro$ect management !his approach is highly dependent on mutual attitudes of mind, open communication, trust and cooperation It is founded on an agreed strategy and "uilt "y working together on a fair "asis to implement integrated pro$ect processes (#lockley and 5odfrey, .@@@) 'rocesses are what we do to get what we want !he output of a process is a product such as a new design for a facility !hus, there is a great "enefit "y thinking of everything as a process 2any complex engineering pro"lems involve using the :ing6 form, i e planning, designing, calculating and checking !hen, the attri"utes are identified "y asking <uestions "ased on who, what, why, when, how and where !he answers to the :why6 <uestions drive the process K they are the reasons for the change and they define what is important !he answers to :what6, :when6 and :where6 <uestions are the descriptors K they are the state varia"les !he :how6 <uestions define the method K the transformations !he implication is that decisions on facility management, data management, construction methods, e t c , taken through this approach will "ecome more effective Cown We engineers often neglect the why <uestions Cence, we sometimes do not appreciate what the client really wants 0f course, he wants our "uilding, roads, e t cG

"ut the structure is only something he needs on the way to getting what he really wants, which is to add value to his life and "usiness Partnering is "est considered as a "usiness ethic that can "e adopted for all pro$ects regardless of procurement route or contractual form It needs to "e emphasised Working in a team re<uires that all team%mates have a dependa"le perception of each other and mutual recognition that the outcome will "e "etter than working separately in competition !o achieve this, in a pro$ect, it is necessary toA !ake an interest in each other Work together to earn trust Share knowledge and information ;nderstand and measure as dependa"ly as possi"le the "enefits of

partnering ;nlike sport (which is win K lose), engineers must strive for win K wins in pro$ect implementation !hinking win%win is not a techni<ue, "ut a philosophy of life &dversarial approaches need to "e replaced "y teamworkHpartnering, trust has to push aside suspicion It is important to separate the people from the pro"lem, focus on interest (and not on positions) to identify options for mutual "enefits !he seven pillars that support the :partnering6 approach to successful pro$ect management areA Strategy, 2em"ershipHStakeholders, E<uity, Integration, #enchmarks, 'ro$ect 'rocess and ,eed"ack It must "e noted that "enchmarking of outcomes is used to provide feed"ack and to, there"y, foster continuous improvement in product and services? and, most importantly, in relationship "etween satisfied stakeholders !his, in turn, promotes ongoing profita"le "usiness (e<uity) for all concerned (Smith, .@@.)

9././

'pplication of Partnering to i$ple$ent "eid #rowt!er0s Projects #eing a leading player on the consultancy field, 1eid +rowther has evolved its

uni<ue method and principle of management in whatever pro$ects it is involved in ,or the period that this report covers, this report tries to explain how this philosophy is applied in the pro$ects handled, where applica"le, during the period (a) 8illages6 Water Supply SchemeA ;pon su"mission of the preliminary design

report "y 1eid +rowther to +N), the latter undertook an evaluation of the report vis%s%vis proper consideration of locality conditions !he grey areas were sent to 1eid +rowther to evolve solutions to them !his onerous task is not a"out forces of nature, for which engineering always look for means to control It is a"out peopleGthe people of the oil%producing areas in the Niger *elta 'art of the agreement in the oil exploration licence issued to +N) is to improve the living conditions of these people #ut corruption, at all tiers of government, has not allowed this to yield dividends to these people? thus, their anger is usually any form they deemed fit !o reduce this incessant violence and allow the successful construction of the pro$ect, 1eid +rowther applied some of the features of partnering in the management of the 8illages6 Water Supply Scheme & forum of all stakeholders K +N), NN'+, *elta State 5overnment, 8illages6 representatives, e t cGis initiated to discuss vital factors pertinent to the success of the pro$ect In this forum, the aim is a :win%win6 resolution on these issues? such that it is cost%effective to +N), improves the living conditions of the

villagers and reduce violence to the "arest minimum, "ecomes a key point for the *elta State 5overnment in its account of stewardship to the state 2oreover, feed"ack means are provided to all stakeholders in the construction process !his led to the production of a construction philosophy for the pro$ect, which all stakeholders agreed to, as followsA !he pro$ect will "e completed "y the most cost%effective means It will maximise the opportunities for local contractors in the villages to

"ecome involved and to develop relevant skills Its construction activities will "e "roken down into small independent units

that can "e done "y local contractors It must ensure that the maximum percentage of the capital expenditure is

retained in the communities in the form of wages and earnings (1eid +rowther, .@@.a) ,urthermore, considering the highly volatile personality of these villagers in +N)6s areas of operation "ased on tri"al differences (particularly, I$aws and Itsekiris), 1eid +rowther (.@@.") emphasises that per capita consumption "e increased "y an amount needed to cater for an estimated -@@@ persons to account for the satellite communities close to the villages considered !his is to avoid any ill%feelings and conse<uent disruption of the pro$ect construction in the area In conclusion, the adoption of the 4artnering approach in the management of the 8illages6 Water Supply Scheme "y 1eid +rowther promotes and ensures ongoing profita"le "usiness (e<uity) for its client and improved "enefits for the villages in terms of provision of infrastructures

CHAPTER SIX PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND SOLUTIONS PROFFERED @.. C&'*e(' '! V ,,+!e$ W+#e( S)11,2 S*"e0e In carrying out the design of reinforced concrete units of this pro$ect, a ma$or pro"lem is working with specified dimensions of units !hese restraints arose from locality consideration, which are paramount to the successful constraint of this pro$ect !he pro"lem lies in reaching a compromise "etween laid%down design procedures, as stated in #S D--@, and the specified dimensions that the units must take ;sually, design aims at achieving the most economical, "alanced section in which the maximum stresses in "oth reinforcement and concrete are reached together "efore failure Cence, dimensions are chosen purely from the consideration of this design principle? and it leads to an economical structure that is safe, within a reasona"le factor of safety, at the least cost of material and workmanship Cowever, this pro$ect has assumed dimensions with which an unreasona"ly high factor of safety is introduced "ecause of political considerations of past communal clashes !he solutions proffered at every encounter with these conse<uential pro"lems include looking for optionsHalternatives that "alance the code re<uirements with locality considerations, through the experience of the professional engineers in the design team !hese are evident in the design results of the drainage channel and the retaining walls as

contained in &ppendices # and + respectively In line with the principles of 'artnering, every important details are discussed with the client (+hevron Nigeria )imited) so as to achieve the general o"$ectives of the pro$ect

@./

C&'*e(' '! #"e PIE %&( L+!&$ S#+#e !he 'IE pro$ect is a"out the application of 5IS to land%use development Cence,

it is data%driven In executing the pro$ect, the pro"lems encountered centred on the 5IS processA data ac<uisition, data structuring and analysis, interpretation of results !he only ready source of data is the aerial map of land parcels in )agos State, and it was taken in ->D7 for the Water Supply pro$ect !he difference n time "etween when the maps were produced and the current year is too wide apart for the maps to "e used as a data source for the 'IE pro$ect !he solution to this pro"lem is site visitsHsurveys toHof such land parcels to update the records of the old maps 2oreover, in collecting data on site, technical personnel experience, in some cases, frosty welcome from land occupiers, despite the legislative "acking given to the pro$ect Cence, the difficulty in esta"lishing spatial location, and extracting spatial and aspatial data !o overcome this, the personnel were trained to use manual surveying methods in arriving at the linear and area measurements on site as well as putting to good use their instincts in determining the relevant data of the land parcel in <uestion &lso, a good interpretation of knotty map drawings is re<uired to solve these pro"lems ,urthermore, pro"lems were encountered in the data verification and input stage )and parcels that are not prepared in an unaccepta"le format "ecome stum"ling "locks to the 5IS process ,or this type of pro"lem, data collected are checked to ensure their

completeness, accuracy and consistency If any of these isHare found missing, the locations would "e re%visited to o"tain the data in accepta"le format !his is mainly dependent on the fastidiousness of the technical personnel, and is important to the success of the pro$ect one way or the other @.3 C&'*e(' '! C&'$#()*# &' S #e

*uring the course of construction site experience, the ma$or pro"lems encountered includeA source, purchase and transportation of raw constructional materials to site? wayward "ehaviours of la"ourers? <uality assurance? and irregular provision of finance for construction activities In solving these pro"lems, the solutions proffered include precautionary purchase and storage of constructional materials? good management of, and formal relationship with, la"ourers? and close supervision of activities &s to provision of finance for construction, one cannot "ut trust in divine providence in order to "e kept in "usiness

CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS A.. C&'*,)$ &' SIWES was esta"lished to provide opportunities for students to "e involved in the practical aspect of their respective disciplines in the industrial working environments *uring the 7%month industrial training, the trainee gained a wide range of experience from the various pro$ects implemented and assignments undertaken such as the flow process design of the 8illages6 Water Supply Schemes, design of reinforced concrete mem"ers, application of 5IS to land%use development and construction site activities &ll the experience gained help to fulfil the o"$ectives of SIWES ,rom all these, it is evident that good design results when there is harmony among the artistic, the scientific and the practical facets of civil engineering 2oreover, civil engineering consultancy is a multi%disciplinary practice that offers a vast array of general and specialist services to the construction industry A./ Re*&00e'6+# &'$ Caving gone through the 7%month industrial training, the trainee has the following suggestions for the effectiveness of SIWESA !rainees should endeavour always to "e involved two types of civil engineering practice (i e consultancy and construction) !his really goes a long way to ensure the completeness of one6s experience in this profession +ompanies should show more commitment to the training of engineering students so as to improve the <uality of training given

5overnment should endeavour to improve "usiness relationships with companies that have SIWES students, as a way of adding importance to the scheme, in reality

REFERENCES &dewumi I J (.@@-) Lecture -otes on H"drolog"5 *epartment of +ivil Engineering, 0"afemi &wolowo ;niversity, Ile%Ife &l%)ayla, 2 & (->>9) $ater Su44l" Engineering Design5 &nn &r"or Science 'u"lishers Inc , 2ichigan &WW& (->D3) $orld $ide $eb 4ages on 6Introduction to $ater .reatment7 Princi4les and Practice of Su44l" !4erations58 &WW&, 777.+77+.&(!?1)4, *+# &'$ #lockley, * I and 5odfrey, ' S (.@@@) Doing it Differentl"5 !homas !elford 'u"lishers, )ondon #oughton, # W (->9-) #einforced 0oncrete Detailer8s /anual5 ,letcher W Sons )imited, Norwich #outhillier, ' (->D-) H"draulic .ables for $ater Su44l" and Drainage5 &nn &r"or Science 'u"lishers Inc , 2ichigan #rain, 2 and Carris, ! (.@@.) How GPS $or%s5 Cowstuffworks, Inc , 777."&7$#)%%7&(;$.*&0 #SI (->>9) Structural 9se of 0oncrete5 #ritish Standards Institution, )ondon

#urrough, ' & (->D7) Princi4les of Geogra4hical Information S"stem for Land #esource Assessment5 +laredon 'u"lisher, 0xford +houchan, ! S (.@@.) GIS and Its A44lications, *epartment of 5eography, ;niversity of 1a$asthan, Eaipur *avies, * (.@@.) Engineers5 Engineering and the e:ol:ing Profession5 !he Structural Engineer, 8olume D@, No 9, pp /-%//

ES1I (->>@) 9nderstanding GIS7 .he A#0'I-2! /ethod5 ES1I 'u"lications, 1edlands ,eatherstone, 1 E and Nalluri, + (->D.) 0i:il Engineering H"draulics5 5ranada 'u"lishing +ompany, )ondon ,oote, J E and )ynch, 2 (->>4) ;Geogra4hical Information S"stem as an Integrating .echnolog"7 0onte<t5 0once4ts and Definitions5= *epartment of 5eography, ;niversity of !exas, &ustin 5IS *evelopment +entre (.@@@) $orld $ide $eb Pages on ;Geogra4hical Information S"stem An !:er:iew5= 777.! $6e-e,&10e'#.'e#?#e*"'&,&!2?! $ Cammer, 2 E and Cammer, 2 E Enr (->>7) $ater and $astewater .echnolog"5 *rd Edition5 'rentice%Call, Inc , Eaglewood +liffs I"id (.@@.") 9n4ublished #e4ort on 6(> ?illages8 $ater Su44l" Scheme7 #e:ised Draft *58 1eid +rowther Nigeria )imited, )agos )aing, * (->9/) $ater .reatment Handboo%5 Stephen &ustin and Sons )td, )ondon )o, 2 I + (->>>) Lecture -otes on 6.reatment of $ater @ $astewater58 *epartment of +ivil Engineering, Cong Jong ;niversity of Science and !echnology, Jowloon 2ac5inley, ! E and +hoo, # S (->>@) #einforced 0oncrete Design A .heor" and E<am4les5 +hapman W Call Inc , )ondon 2adu, I (.@@-) Personal 0ommunication on 6Design of $ater .reatment Plant58 )agos 2an=, * (.@@-) Product 0atalogue on ;Da:nor 61ioSand8 2ilter S"stem5= *avnor Water !reatment !echnologies )imited, +algary 2osley, W C , #ungey, E C and Culse, 1 (->>>) #einforced 0oncrete Design5 Bth Edition5 'algrave 2acmillan, Campshire

Nilsor, & C (->>9) Design of 0oncrete Structures5 (Cth Edition5 2c5raw%Cill Inc , Singapore 0$o, E 0 (.@@@) Lecture -otes on 6Design of 0oncrete Structures I58 *epartment of +ivil Engineering, 0"afemi &wolowo ;niversity, Ile%Ife 0ladepo, J ! (.@@-) Lecture -otes on 6Structural Anal"sis II58 *epartment of +ivil Engineering, 0"afemi &wolowo ;niversity, Ile%Ife 0niyide, J J (.@@@) 9n4ublished SI$ES #e4ort submitted to De4artment of Electrical Engineering5 ;niversity of Ilorin, Ilorin 0yenuga, 8 0 (.@@-) Sim4lified #einforced 0oncrete Design5 Cnd Edition3 &S10S )imited, )agos 1eid +rowther (.@@@) 9n4ublished #e4ort on ;Preliminar" Design of the ?illages8 $ater Su44l" Schemes5= 1eid +rowther Nigeria )imited, )agos 1eid +rowther (.@@.a) 9n4ublished #e4ort on ;(> ?illages8 $ater Su44l" Scheme7 -otes on the 0onstruction A44roach5= 1eid +rowther Nigeria )imited, )agos 1eynolds, + E and Steedman, E + (->DD) #einforced 0oncrete Designer8s Handboo%5 (>th Edition5 E W , N Spon (+hapman W Call, Inc ), )ondon 1eynolds, S (->>-) !4erational manual for Parle"s $ater .reatment Plant5 Salt )ake Water Works, Salt )ake Smith, E (.@@.) ;.he 6Partnering8 #oute to Success5= !he Structural Engineer, 8olume D@, No -., pp .. Star, E and Estes, E (->>@) GIS7 An Introduction3 'rentice%Call Inc , Eaglewood +liffs !e"edge, N (->D/) /ethods of Structural Anal"sis5 2acmillan 'ress )imited, )ondon

!urner, ' (->>D) $orld $ide $eb 4ages on 6$ater .reatment 2A&58 :ersion C3C5 777.1(&- 6e'*e*&B&1.*&0?7+#e(%+<?7+#e(%+<."#0 !wort, & + , )aw, , 2 and +rowley, , W (->D4) $ater Su44l"5 *rd Edition5 Edward &rnold 'u"lishers, )ondon 8an de 8laed, J (->44) !4erations of Slow Sand 2ilters in 1eport of /rd +ongress of International Water Supply &ssociation (IWS&), Su"$ect No 9, IWS&, )ondon Wahi, 1 (.@@@) /anaging GIS ProDects5 ES1I 'u"lications, 1edlands WC0 (->>/a) Guidelines for Drin%ing $ater &ualit" in $H! #ecommendations5 Cnd Edition5 WC0, 5eneva WC0 (->>/") Protection and Im4ro:ement of $ater &ualit" in $H! #ecommendations5 Cnd Edition5 WC0, 5eneva

APPENDIX B DESIGN PROCESS FOR THE DRAINAGE CHANNEL De$ !' D+#+ 0verall +hannel )ength L D 7-9m &verage +hannel Width L @ 4m &verage +hannel *epth L @ 3m +hannel !hickness L @ @94m Surcharge )oad (*avnor ,ilter ;nit) L 3@@@kg covering a circle of . .m diameter #ulk weight of Soil, T L ->kNHm/ &ngle of internal friction, t L /@u

& typical cross%section of the drainage channel is as shown in ,igure #- 2ost of these data are illustrated in the figure L&+6 E$# 0+# &' Walls Surcharge 'ressure L (3@@@kg g -@mHs.) v ( P g . .. g w) L -@ 4./kNHm. Earth 'ressure, 'a L Ja g T g C Ja L +oefficient of active pressure L tan. (34 K tH.) L @ /// C L Ceight of wall L @ 394m 'a L @ /// g ->kNHm/ g @ 394m L / @@4kNHm. Earth ,orce, ,& L x g @ 394m g / @@4kNHm. L @ 9-3kN Surcharge, ,S L -@ 4./kNHm. g @ 394m g -m g @ /// L - 773kN Self%weight of wall, ,+ L .3kNHm/ g @ 394m g @ @94m g -m L @ D44kN !otal L / .//kN

F !)(e B. T21 *+, C(&$$B$e*# &' &% D(+ '+!e C"+''e,

;niformly distri"uted load, ;*) L ,S Q ,+ L . 4->kN ;niformly varied load, ;8) L ,& L @ 9-3kN %ase Earth 'ressure, 'a L @ /// g ->kNHm/ g @ 74m L 3 --/kNHm. Earth ,orce L 3 --/kNHm. g @ 74m g -m L . 79/kN Self%weight of "ase L .3kNHm/ g @ 74m g @ @94m g -m L - -9kN !otal L / D3/kN L ;*) for "ase L&+6 '!$ Wall ;*) L . 4->kN v @ 394m L 4 /@/kNHm ;8) L @ 9-3kN v (x g @ 394m) L / @@7kNHm %ase ;*) L / D3/kN v @ 74m L 4 >-.kNHm !he illustration for these loadings is clearly shown in ,igure #. ,rom the diagram, it can "e noted that the direction in which the loads act varies, though they may "e e<ual in magnitude

&nalysis of Structure
,E2#& L (w-l. H-.)Q(w.l.H.@) L^(4 /@/ g @ 394.)H-._Q^(/ @@7 g @ 394.)H.@_L @ -/3kNm ,E2&# L (%w-l. H-.)%(w.l.H/@)L^(%4 /@/ g @ 394.)H-._%^(/ @@7 g @ 394.)H/@_L %@ -..kNm ,E2*+ L (w-l. H-.)Q(w.l.H/@) L @ -..kNm ,E2+* L (%w-l. H-.)%(w.l.H.@) L %@ -/3kNm ,E2+# L (wl. H-.) L (4 >-. g @ 74.)H-. L @ .@DkNm ,E2#+ L (%wl. H-.) L (%4 >-. g @ 74.)H-. L %@ .@DkNm

,I5;1E #.A !ypical )oad *istri"ution on *rainage +hannel

2&# L ,E2&# Q ^(.EIH@ 394) (.& Q #)_L %@ -.. Q D 3.-EI& Q 3 .--EI# 2#& L ,E2#& Q ^(.EIH@ 394) (& Q .#)_L @ -/3 Q 3 .--EI& Q D 3.-EI# 2#+ L ,E2#+ Q ^(.EIH@ 74) (.# Q +)_L %@ .@D Q 7 -43EI# Q / @99EI+ 2+# L ,E2+# Q ^(.EIH@ 74) (# Q .+)_L @ .@D Q / @99EI# Q 7 -43EI+ 2+* L ,E2+* Q ^(.EIH@ 394) (.+ Q *)_L %@ -/3 Q D 3.-EI+ Q 3 .--EI* 2*+ L ,E2*+ Q ^(.EIH@ 394) (+ Q .*)_L @ -.. Q 3 .--EI+ Q D 3.-EI* +onditions for E<uili"riumA 2&# L 2#+ L @ 2#& Q 2#+ L @ 2+# Q 2+* L @ 2&# L @A 2#+ L @A D 3.-EI& Q 3 .--EI# L @ -.. 3 .--EI+ Q D 3.-EI* L %@ -.. (a) (") (-) (.)

2#& Q 2#+ L @A 3 .--EI& Q -3 494EI# Q / @99EI+ L @ @93 2+# Q 2+* L @A / @99EI# Q -3 494EI+ Q 3 .--EI* L %@ @93 ,rom e<uation (a), Cence, D 3.-EI& L @ -.. % 3 .--EI# 3 .--EI& L @ @7- K . -@7EI# D 3.-EI* L %@ -.. % 3 .--EI+ 3 .--EI* L %@ @7- K . -@7EI+

(/)

&lso, from e<uation ("), Cence,

(3)

Su"stitute e<uation (/) into e<uation (-), and e<uation (3) into e<uation (.)A -. 37>EI# Q / @99EI+ L @ @-/ / @99EI# Q -. 37>EI+ L %@ @-/ (4) (7)

Solving e<uations (4) and (7) simultaneously givesA EI# L @ @@-/D3 EI+ L %@ @@-/D3 ,rom e<uation (/), EI& L @ @-/9> EI* L %@ @-/9> Cence, 2&# L @, 2+# L @ .@3kNm, 2#& L @ .@3kNm, 2+* L %@ .@3kNm, 2#+ L %@ .@3kNm, 2*+ L @

!hese moments are illustrated on ,igure #/ ,rom the figure, it can "e seen that they are end%moments Cence, it is important to determine the maximum moment that would act along the span of each mem"er, a"out a point, using the principles of static e<uili"rium For e$ber '%&

&"out point &, 2max L %@ .@3 K (@ 4 g 4 /@/ g @ 394.) K ^@ 4 g / @@7 g @ 394 g (. g @ 394H/)_L %- @/kNm For e$ber %#&

&"out point #, 2max L %@ .@3 Q @ .@3 K (@ 4 g 4 >-. g @ 74.) L %- .4kNm For e$ber D#&

&"out point *, 2max L @ .@3 Q (@ 4 g 4 /@/ g @ 394.) Q ^@ 4 g / @@7 g @ 394 g (. g @ 394H/)_L - @/kNm

*esign 'rocedure
+over L .4mm, fcu L .4NHmm., effective depth, d L 94 K .4 K -@ L 3@mm, fy L 3.4NHmm.

FIGURE B3: Resultant End-Moments of Drainage Channel

Wall J L 2max v ("d.fcu) L - @/E7Nmm v (-@@@mm g 3@.mm. g .4NHmm.) L @ @.7 I L d^@ 4 Q b@ .4 K (JH@ >)c_ I L @ >4d

&st L - @/E7Nmm v (@ >4 g 3.4NHmm. g @ >4 g 3@mm) L 79mm. &smin L @ @@-/"h L @ @@-/ g -@@@mm g 94mm L >9 4mm. *esign specifications allow -@mm as the least "ar diameter for ease of construction Cence, "alancing with the provisions of clause / -. -- . in #S D--@, provide o-@y.@@mm cHc (&sprov L />/mm.) &lso, provide o-@y.@@mm for distri"ution S"e+( 8 L (4 /@/kNHm g @ 394m) Q (x g @ 394m g / @@7kNHm) L / .//kN L 8H("d) L / .//E/NH(-@@@mm g 3@mm) L @ @3@NHmm. c L @ Dfcu L 3NHmm. Since i c, shear is 0J and no shear reinforcement is needed

B+$e
J L 2max v ("d.fcu) L - .4E7Nmm v (-@@@mm g 3@.mm. g .4NHmm.) L @ @/-/ !hat implies I L @ >4d Cence, &st L - .4E7Nmm v (@ >4 g 3.4NHmm. g @ >4 g 3@mm) L D- 4mm. &smin L @ @@-/"h L @ @@-/ g -@@@mm g 94mm L >9 4mm. 'rovide o-@y-4@mm (main and distri"ution "ars respectively) in accordance with the provisions of clause / -. -- . /

De#+ , '! +'6 B+(BBe'6 '! S*"e6),e

!he detailed drawing for the drainage channel is illustrated in ,igure #3 ,rom this, the "ar%"ending schedule for the entire channel6s length (including the irregular section) is produced as shown on !a"le #-

F !)(e B8:

De#+ , '! %&( + #21 *+, *(&$$B$e*# &' &% #"e 6(+ '+!e *"+''e,

T+4,e B.

B+( Be'6 '! S*"e6),e &% Re '%&(*e0e'# %&( #"e D(+ '+!e C"+''e,

APPENDIX C DESIGN PROCESS FOR THE CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

)oad Estimation
+a "etaining Wall0s %ac/fill 1oad &erator ;nit Q +ontained water &erator +oncrete ;nit (.3kNHm/ g 3 /47m/) 1oof (@ 9kNHm. g ->/ ./m.) +oncrete #lockwall (4kNHm. g .D D4m.) ,ilter6s +oncrete ;nits (.3kNHm/ g 3D 4Dm/) *avnor ,ilter ;nit (3@kN g .) )ive )oad (. 4kNHm. g ..9 9/m.) T&#+, !herefore, Surcharge 'ressure L (!otal #ackfill )oad)H(#ackfill area) Surcharge 'ressure L ./..kNH(-D >m g -. @3>m) L -@ .kNHm. ,or design purpose, #ackfill surcharge pressure L --kNHm. +b "etaining Wall0s Frontfill 1oad 'umps (/kN g . nos ) 'ump roof (@ 9kNHm. g 3.m.) 'ump Couse6s +oncrete ;nit (.3kNHm/ g . >7m/) Sandcrete #lockwall (4kNHm. g D@m.) !reated Water !reated Water tanks 7kN /@kN 9-kN 3@@kN 73@kN ->.kN -.@kN -@4kN -/7kN -34kN --77kN D@kN 49@kN /3//;N

!reated Water tanks6 support (.3kNHm/ g 4 43@m/) &ppurtenances 'ump Couse6s sla" (.3kNHm/ g D@ D//m.) )ive )oad (. 4kNHm. g .9@m.)

-//kN 4@kN ->3@kNHm/ 794kN 8.3A;N

T&#+, ,rontfill Surcharge 'ressure L (!otal ,rontfill )oad)H(,rontfill area) ,rontfill surcharge pressure L 3-/9kNH(> -37m g .> 3/7m) L -4 /9kNHm. ,or design purpose, frontfill surcharge pressure L -7kNHm.

!he various loads listed a"ove can "e seen from ,igure +- !he figure gives an outline of the retaining site and shows the locations of various features relative to the retaining wall

&nalysis of Structure
#ulk ;nit Weight of Soil, L ->kNHm/ &llowa"le "earing pressure L 7@kNHm. &ngle of internal friction, L /@ &ngle of +ohesion L @ b#eing a homogeneous cohesionless soil used land reclamation c &ctive earth pressure coefficient, Ja L tan. b34 K (H.)c (- K sin )H(- Q Sin) 'assive earth pressure coefficient, Jp L -H Ja !otal height of retaining wall, C L - 9m Ja L @ ///, Jp L / @@@

!he loading diagram of the retaining wall is illustrated in ,igure +- ,rom the figure, it can "e seen that the load diagrams have different shapes for different loads 2oreover, it clearly shows the "ackfill and frontfill sides Cence, #ackfill Earth 'ressure, '# L Ja g g C# '# L @ /// g ->kNHm/ g - 9m L -@ 97kNHm. --kNHm. ,rontfill Earth 'ressure, ', L / g ->kNHm/ g @ 7m L /3 .kNHm. #ackfill Surcharge 'ressure, 'S# L @ /// g --kNHm. L / 77/kNHm.

,igure +-A 0utline of the 1etaining Wall Site

,igure +. +ross%sectional )oad *iagram of the +antilever 1etaining Wall

,rontfill Surcharge 'ressure, 'S, L / g -7kNHm. L 3DkNHm.

Cori=ontal ,orces
#ackfill Earth ,orce, C# L x g - 9m g --kNHm. g -m L > /4kN ( ,rontfill Earth ,orce, C, L x g @ 7m g /3 .kNHm. g -m L -@ .7kN ( #ackfill Surcharge ,orce, CS# L @ /// g - 9m g --kNHm. g -m L 7 .3kN ( ,rontfill Surcharge ,orce, CS, L / g @ 7m g -7kNHm. g -m L .D DkN ( ) ) ) )

8ertical ,orces
Wall L .3kNHm/ g @ /m g - 3m g -m L -@ @DkN ( ) #ase L .3kNHm/ g @ /m g - Dm g -m L -. >7kN ( )

#ackfill Earth L ->kNHm/ g -m g - 3m g -m L .7 7@kN ( ) ,rontfill Earth L ->kNHm/ g @ 4m g @ /m g -m L . D4kN ( ) #ackfill Surcharge L --kNHm. g -m g -m L --kN ( ) ,rontfill Surcharge L -7kNHm. g @ 4m g -m L DkN ( )

T&#+, ( V) C A..8D;N

+heck for Sta"ility

+aSliding ), Ca L 7 .3 Q > /4 z-4 7kN ), Cp L -@ .7 Q .D D L /> @7kN

&ctive hori=ontal forces causing sliding ( 'assive hori=ontal forces resisting sliding (

+oefficient of friction, { L tan t L tan /@| L @ 4D !otal 1esisting forces L { (8) Q Cp L (@ 4D g 9- 3>) Q /> @7 L D@ 4.kN Safet" 0riteria7 (1esisting forceHSliding force) l - 7

(D@ 4.kN) v (-4 7kN) L 4 -9 ]] - 7 Cence, the structure is safe against sliding +b Overturning 0verturning moment (caused "y hori=ontal forces a"out point &), 2ov 2ov L (7 .3kN g @ D4m) Q (> /4kN g @ 49m) L -@ 7/3kNm (Note that moments due to frontfill forces are neglected "ecause they are $ust taken to further sta"ilise the retaining wall ) 1esisting moment (caused "y vertical forces a"out point &), 2ra

2ra L (-@ @DkN g @ 74m) Q (-. >7kN g @ >m) Q (.7 7@kN g - /m) Q (. D4kN g @ .4m) Q (--kN g - /m) Q (DkN g @ .4m) Q (-@ .7kN g @ .m) Q (.D DkN g @ /m) L D@ 4@-kNm (Note that the inclusion of the moment due to the frontfill forces is a way to simulate the worst condition that the structure must "e a"le to resist )

Safet" 0riteria7

(1esisting 2oment) v (0verturning 2oment) ] . @ D@ 4 v -@ 4/ L 9 74 ] ] . @

Cence, the structure is safe against overturning

#earing 'ressure &nalysis

'-,. L (NH*) m (72H*.) L (NH*) b- m (7eH*)c where N L !otal vertical forces * L #ase width 2 L Net moment a"out the "ase "ottom of all forces (due to "oth hori=ontal and vertical forces) e L eccentricity e<uili"rium distance, x L (2resisting K 2overturning) v N L (D@ 4 K -@ 4/) v 9- 3> x L @ >9>m from & e L @ 4* K x L @ >m K @ >9>m L %@ @9>m }e} L @ @Dm emax L * v 7 L @ /m }e} i emax Cence, middle third rule is satisfied '-, . L (9- 3>H- D) b- m (7 g @ @Dm v - Dm)c

'- L 4@ /.kNHm. '. L .> --kNHm. 2aximum "earing pressure on soil is 4@ /.kNHm. (i the allowa"le "earing capacity of 7@kNHm.)

#ending 1einforcement
W+,,
& factor of safety of - 3 is applied to the hori=ontal forces on the wall !hen, moments of the hori=ontal forces are taken a"out the centreline of the "ase !his is "ecause cantilever walls, generally, fail "y rotation a"out a point some ways a"ove the toe 2ult L b> /4kN g ((- 9 v /) K @ -4) g - 3c Q b- 3 g 7 3 g ((- 9 v .) K @ -4)c 2ult L -- 99kNm

*esign 'arameters
+over L 4@mm, )ink L -@mm, fy L 3.4NHmm. , fcu L .4NHmm. , diameter L .@mm,

d L /@@ K -@ K -@ K 4@ L ./@mm

J L 2ult v ("d.fcu) L -- 99E7Nmm v (-@@@mm g ./@.mm. g .4NHmm.) L @ @@DD Cence, I L @ >4d &st L -- 99E7Nmm v (@ >4 g 3.4NHmm. g @ >4 g ./@mm) L -//mm. per -m run &smin L @ @@-/"h L @ @@-/ g -@@@mm g /@@mm L />@mm. per -m run

'rovide o-@y.@@mm cHc longitudinal and transverse on "oth I , and 0 , ,rom experience, "eing the larger unit, the reinforcement information of the wall is suita"le for the "ase & trial convinced the traineeq !he reinforcement detailing for the cross%section of the retaining wall is as shown on ,igure +/ ,rom this figure, the "ar%"ending schedule is extracted as ta"ulated in !a"le +-

,igure +/ Wall

*etailing of the +ross%section of the +antilever 1etaining