Histogram

What is a Histogram?

Histogram is a visual tool for presenting variable data. It organises data to describe the process performance. Additionally histogram shows the amount and pattern of the variation from the process.

Histogram offers a snapshot in time of the process performance.

Why do We Get Variation?

Variation is essentially law of nature.

Output quality characteristics depends upon the input parameters. It is impossible to keep input parameters constant. There will be always variation in the input parameters. Since there is variation in the input parameters, there is also variation in the output characteristics

Law of Nature

In nature there is always variation. Take case measurement of the following: height of adult male in a city. weight of 15 years old boy in a town. weight of bars 5 meter long 25 mm dia. volume in 300 cc soft drink bottle. number of minutes required to fill an invoice.

Case when Data Does Not Show Variation

There could be two reasons when data do not show variation:

a) Measuring devices are insensitive to spot variation. b) Too much rounding off the data while recording.

Insensitive Measuring Device

If the measuring device is not sensitive, enough to respond to small changes in value of the quality characteristics, variation will not be reflected in the data. For example: Weighing gold chains by using weighing scale used for vegetables.

Too Much Rounding Off During Recording

It could also be possible that too much rounding off might have been carried while recording the measurements. This normally happens when the column in data recording sheet is not wide enough to record all the decimal places of measurements. Because of paucity of the space, workmen round off observations on their own.

Definition of Histogram

A histogram is a graphical summary of variation in a set of data. The pictorial nature of the histogram enables us to see patterns that are difficult to see in a table of numbers.

Data Table - Weight of Bars in kg.

476 513 480 486 508 502 542 489 490 500 507 469 514 537 500 500 479 523 491 500 509 520 474 498 500 478 524 483 503 502 516 489 496 500 487 520 497 490 492 513 500 504 526 502 508 501 528 503 510 512

Picturisation of Data
16 N=50 Bar Weight

14
Frequency 12 10

8
6 4 2 0 470 480 490 500 kg 510 520 530 540

Key Concept of Histogram

Data always have variation Variation have pattern

Patterns can be seen easily when summarized

pictorially

Presentation of Distribution
Histogram is represented by a curve. The curve is known Frequency Distribution

Study of Histogram

While studying histogram look for its

Location of mean of the process Spread of the process Shape of the process

Location of the Process

Process A Process B

Location of process A

Location of Process B

Quality Characteristics

Spread of the Process

Process B

Process A

Spread of process B
Spread of Process A

Shape of the Process

Skewed Distribution
Normal Distribution

Quality Characteristics

Constructing Histogram

Basic Elements for Construction of Histogram

For constructing the histogram we need to know the following:

Lowest value of the data set Highest value of the data set Approximate number of cells histogram have Cell width Lower cell boundary of first cell

Finding Lowest & Largest Value in Data Set

If the number of observations in the data set is small, then finding smallest and largest value is not a problem. However, if the number of observations is large, then we require an easier way to get smallest value and largest value in the data set. This can be achieved by grouping the data in rows, columns and then scanning.

Organizing Data in Rows & Columns

Step - 1 Organise the data in a group of 5 or 10

1 3.56 3.48 3.48 3.41 3.50

2 3.46 3.56 3.46 3.37 3.49

3 3.48 3.50 3.50 3.49 3.46

4 3.42 3.52 3.56 3.45 3.46

5 3.43 3.47 3.38 3.44 3.42

Construction of Histogram

Step - 2
Generate 2 more columns to record Smallest value in each row in column S Largest value in each row in column L

Addition of Column S & Column L

3.56 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.42 3.42 3.56 3.43 3.53 3.49 3.44 3.50 3.43 3.53 3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47 3.47 3.56 3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38 3.38 3.56 3.41 3.37 3.49 3.45 3.44 3.37 3.49

Construction of Histogram

Step-3 Scan column S to find smallest value in that column, S. S is overall smallest value in the data set. Scan column L to find largest value in that column, L. L is overall largest value in the data set

Scanning of Columns S & L

3.56 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.42 3.42 3.56 3.43 3.53 3.49 3.44 3.50 3.43 3.53 3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47 3.47 3.56 3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38 3.38 3.56 3.41 3.37 3.49 3.45 3.44 3.37 3.49
Overall smallest reading = 3.37 Overall largest reading = 3.56

Range of the Data Set

Step-4 Find range of the data Range of data = Largest value - smallest value

In our case Range R = L - S = 3.56 - 3.37 = 0.19

Initial Number of Cells in Histogram

Step-5
Decide the initial number of cells, say K, a histogram shall have.

Number of cells a histogram can have, depends upon the number of observations N, histogram is representing. There are three methods to decide initial number of cells.

Note: The number of cells, K initially chosen may change when histogram is finally made

Table for Choosing Number of Cells

Method No. 1

Number of observation (N) Under 50 50 - 100 101 - 250 More than 250

Number of cells (K) 5 to 7 6 to 10 7 to 12 10 to 20

Alternative Methods for Deciding No. of Cells

Method No. 2

Number of cells, K = 1 + 2.33 Log 10 N

Method No 3

Number of cells, K = N

Temporary Cell Width

Step-6 Find temporary cell width, TCW

Range (R) TCW = Number of cells chosen (K)

0.19
7

= 0.0271423

Rounding of Temporary Cell Width

Temporary cell width, TCW needs rounding off. For ease of plotting For getting distinct cell boundary

Construction of Histogram
Step - 6 Round off TCW to get class width

Rounding off of TCW, should be in the multiple of 1 or 3 or 5 of least count.

The multiple should be nearer to TCW

Least Count of the Data

1 3.56 3.48 3.48 3.41 3.50

2 3.46 3.56 3.46 3.37 3.49

3 3.48 3.50 3.50 3.49 3.46

4 3.42 3.52 3.56 3.45 3.46

5 3.43 3.47 3.38 3.44 3.42

Least count of the data is 0.01

Procedure for Getting Class Width

In our case least count of the data, LC is 0.01 and TCW = 0.0271428 If multiple factor, M is 1 then we have M LC = 1 x 0.01 = 0.01 This multiple is not nearer to TCW If multiple factor is 3 then we have M x LC = 3 x 0.01 = 0.03 This multiple is nearer to TCW

Hence class width, CW = 0.03

Class Boundaries
Step - 7 Determine class boundaries Class boundaries are necessary for making tally sheet. Frequency obtained in tally sheet is utilised for making histogram.

Class boundaries should be distinct

Distinct Class Boundaries

Distinct class boundaries are the one, on which no individual data lies. With the distinct class boundary the data will enter in a

particular cell only.

Nomenclature of Cell Boundaries

Let LCB(1), LCB(2), are the lower cell boundaries of cell no.1, cell No. 2. respectively. Let UCB(1), UCB(2), are the upper cell boundaries of cell no.1, cell No. 2. respectively.

Elements of Histogram

Lower cell boundary of cell no. 2

Upper cell boundary of cell no. 2

Upper cell boundary of cell no. 1 Cell No. 2 Lower cell boundary of cell no. 1 Cell No. 1 Cell No. 3

Lower cell boundary of cell no. 3

Upper cell boundary of cell no. 3

CW

CW

CW

Continuous Scale

Calculation of Cell Boundaries

If we know the lower cell boundary of cell No.1, LCB(1), and class width, CW we can find other cell boundaries as follows: UCB(1) = LCB(1) + CW LCB(2) = UCB(1) UCB(2) = LCB(2) + CW LCB(3) = UCB(2)

and so on

Getting Lower Cell Boundary of Cell No.1

Choose a starting value A, which is slightly lower or equal to smallest value, S. Value of S in our case is 3.37

We can take A = 3.37

LCB = A - ( CW / 2 ) = 3.37 - ( 0.03 / 2 ) = 3.355

Getting Cell Boundaries

UCB(1) = LCB(1) + CW
= 3.355 + 0.03 = 3.385 LCB(2) = UCB (1) = 3.385

UCB(2) = LCB(2) + CW
= 3.385 + 0.03 = 3.415 Continue finding cell boundaries, till a particular upper cell

boundary is greater than the largest value of data set.

Filling of Frequency Column Count the number of tally marks in each cell and enter the count in Frequency column
SN Cell Boundary 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3.355 - 3.385 3.385 - 3.415 3.415 - 3.444 3.445 - 3.475 3.475 - 3.505 3.505 3.535 3.535 - 3.565 Mid Value 3.37 3.40 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.52 3.55 Tally Marks Frequency 2 2 3 4 8 4 2

Drawing Histogram

Draw vertical axis

Draw horizontal axis

Drawing Histogram
9
8 7
Label vertical axis from zero to a multiple of 1, 2 or 5 to accommodate the largest frequency

Frequency

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Label horizontal axis with mid values of the cells, and indicate the dimension of quality characteristics

3.37 3.40 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.52 3.55 mm

Drawing Histogram
9 8 7

Frequency

5
4 3 2 1 0

Leave one cell width space from vertical axis

3.37

3.40 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.52 3.55

mm

Drawing Histogram

Draw bars to represent frequency in each cell. Height of bars

is equal to number of data in each cell.

Title the chart.

Indicate total number of observations

Drawing Histogram
9 8

Metal Thickness N=25

Frequency

7
6 5

4
3 2 1 0

3.37 3.40 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.52 3.55 mm

Assessing process capability

Design Tolerance VS Process Spread

LSL Frequency
16 14

USL

Design Tolerance
Process Spread

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

47

48 49 50 51 52 53 54 kg

Assessing Process Capability

Process capability is a comparison between design tolerance and spread of the process. Whenever design tolerance is more than process spread, then the process is capable. Whenever design tolerance is less than the spread of the process, then the process is not capable.

Assessing Process Capability

LSL

USL

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

kg
Process is not capable

Assessing Process Capability

LSL

USL

47

48 49 50 51 52 53 54 kg
Process is just capable

Assessing Process Capability

LSL

USL

46 47

48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 kg
Process is capable

Assessing Process Capability

LSL USL

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

kg
At the moment process is not capable