Types of Errors

&
How to reduce them
Functional Elements of and Instrumentation System
Errors
1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error
Gross error
some gross error can
be detected & some others
cannot.
complete elimination is not
possible.
Types of gross errors
Human Error
due to humans
a) may be due to misreading of
instruments.
b) Incorrect adjustments
c) Improper application of instruments
d) Computational mistakes etc.
common in begineers
Remedy
take care in reading and recording
measured data
Take at least three separate readings
(preferably under conditions in which
instruments are switched off-on)
needs good practice
Installation error due to
improper applications
faulty insulations
is predominant if device used beyond
limit
Or if used in excess temp. , vibration,
pressure
Or poor impedance matching
Remedy
use devices according to the
specifications recommended by
manufactures
Zero error :
If the instrument is not set to
zero before taking measurement.
Due to variation in ambient conditions
Due to ageing
Systematic error
relatively constant error
frequency evident in direct
observation
Types of Systematic errors
Instrumental error
eg. Irregularity of spring in
galvanometers
calibration error
Remedy
selecting a suitable instruments for
the particular measurements according
to applications
Applying correction factors after
determining the amount of error.
Calibrating the instruments against a
known standard
Environmental errors
due to surroundings
Eg. Noise from electrical machine.
Magnetic field, temperature.
Remedy
By providing proper shielding.
Random Error or Uncertanity error
Errors due to unknown Causes.
Magnitude and direction not known
Expressed as average deviation of probale
errors or standard deviation
Remedy
Increase the no. of readings and
using statically method
Statistical Analysis
Arithmetic Mean
Deviation from Mean
d
1
=x
1
- A.M.
d
2
=x
2
- A.M.
etc
Average Deviation
D= E |d| / n
Standard Deviation
o = sqrt (E |d
i
|
2
/ n)
For finite observations
o = sqrt (E |d
i
|
2
/ (n-1))
Variance
v= o
2
mean square deviation
Probable error
= +/- 0.6745 o
(obtained from Gaussian error
curve)
Limiting error
specified by manufactures
Precision
a measure of reproductively
a measure of degree to which
successive measurements differ
from one another.
Higher precision means tight
cluster of repeated results
lower precision means scattering of
results
Precision composed of conformity &
Significant figures
Significant figures
indication of precision is obtained by
no. of significant figures
Accuracy and precision
difference :
Accuracy- telling truth
Precision : repeating same story.
Calibration
to check the instrument against a
known value and finding the error and
then finally making the instrument more
accurate.
Error is determined at no. of points
and graph is plotted this graph is
error calibration curve.- used for
calibration.
Sensitivity
ratio of deflection of pointer to given
change in measured quantity.
or
smallest change in measured quantity to
which an instrument responses.
inverse of sensitivity is deflection
factor.
Unit depends on type of I/p & o/p.
Obtained from slope of I/p o/p
calibration curve
Value of sensitivity influenced by
requirement of inst. Application.
static sensitivity = Vq
i
/ V q
o
Deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity
Range or Scale range.
difference b/w the largest and smallest
reading of instrument.
If. X
max
. is max. value that can be
measured an instrument and
X
min
. Min . Value that can measured using
an instrument , then
We say range of that instrument is
b/w X
min
& X
max
Span or scale span.
variation from minimum to maximum
value
X
max -
X
min
38
1. Basic Concept
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
True value, X
T
Mean of measurement
output, X

Variations, i.e.
random error
Systematic error = X

X
T
Repeatability (that describes
precision) Standard deviation of
measurement data
Systematic error: Shift in the mean value
Random error: Standard deviation
Repeat measuring the same physical quality a number of
time, we shall obtain the following:
39
2. Random errors
They are represented by repeatability described in
earlier lectures.
Repeatability (R) is numerically equal to the half
range random uncertainty (U
r
) of the measurement.
For normal distribution (n), at 95%
confidence level
x mean, population
-1.96o +1.96o
Repeatability, R = Zo
=1.96o
z
x mean, population
For normal distribution (n), at o% confidence
level
- Z
o
o + Z
o
o
Repeatability, R = Z
o
o
z
40
To estimate the population standard deviation from
the sample deviation, say, n = 10 or n = 20, we shall
use the Students t distribution. The repeatability
may be expressed as
Repeatability, R = Z
o
o = t s
where the value of t can be found from the t
distribution table based on the sample size n and the
confidence level o,
s is usually referred to as the sample standard
deviation.
( )
1
1
2

=

=
n
x x
s
n
i
41
Random errors can largely be eliminated by
calculating the mean of the measurements,
since in statistical analysis of data
where is the standard deviation of the
sample mean, o is the standard deviation of
the population, and n is the sample size (i.e.
number of repeated measurements for the
same measurand). The standard error of the
mean is usually expressed by .
n
x
x
i
=
n
x
o
o =
x
o
x
o
42
3. Error reduction using intelligent
instruments
It also includes
- a microcomputer, and
- one or more transducers (secondary transducers)
The secondary transducers monitor the environmental
conditions (modifying inputs). By reading the outputs of the
primary transducer and the secondary transducers, the
microcomputer processes the signals based on a pre-loaded
programme.
* It can be programmed to take a succession of
measurements of a quantity within a short period of time
(sampling frequency)
-1
and perform statistical calculations on
the readings before displaying an output measurement. This
is valid for reducing random errors.
43
The ability of intelligent instruments to reduce
systematic errors requires the following pre-
conditions be satisfied:
The physical mechanism by which a measurement
transducer is affected by ambient condition changes
must be fully understood and all physical quantities
which affect the transducer output must be identified.
The effect of each ambient variable on the output
characteristic of the measurement transducer must be
quantified.
Suitable secondary transducers for monitoring the value
of all relevant ambient variables must be available for
input to the intelligent instrument.
44
The accuracy of a measurement system is a
function of its ability to indicate the true
value of the measured quantity under
specific conditions of use and at a defined
level of confidence.
The accuracy A is expressed by
where R is the instrument repeatability and
2 2
s
U R A + + =
4. Calculations of accuracy and errors
4.1 Accuracy of a measuring instrument
45
Systematic Error
Random Error
( Zo)
46
Example. The systematic error of a balance
is estimated to be 5g and the random error
of its measurements is 25g. State the
repeatability and calculate the accuracy of the
instrument.
Solution:
Repeatability, R = U
r
= 25g
Systematic error, U
s
= 5g
g A 495 . 25 5 25 , Accuracy
2 2
= + + =
As the systematic error and the repeatability are
both stated in grams, the accuracy of the
instrument is 26g.
It is usual to express the accuracy in terms of
its full scale deflection (f.s.d.).
Accuracy = f.s.d.
% 26 . 0 % 100
10 10
26
3
=

47
The sum of the systematic and random
errors of a typical measurement, under
conditions of use and at a defined level of
confidence.
Error assessment must also include the error
of the calibrator itself and take account of
the confidence level upon which it is
founded.
4.2 Estimation of total error
48
4.3 Compound error/uncertainty
In many instances, the ultimate error (uncertainty) of a
measurement is dependent upon the errors of a number of
contributory measurements which are combined to determine
the final quantity. The measurement output
M=M(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
,)
is a function of a number of individual measurements x
1
, x
2
,
x
3
, etc. All of these measurements have individual error of
Ax
1
, Ax
2
, Ax
3
, etc. Then, the compound error of the
measurement M, AM, can be determined by substituting into
the equation of M=M(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
,) the maximum and
minimum values of x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, etc., and thus finding the
maximum and minimum values for M.
49
This would obviously be a laborious process, and
the problem is better solved using partial
differentiation:
Attentions must be paid to those high value
terms that give dominant contributions to AM.
i
i
dx
x
M
dM

c
c
=
i
i
x
x
M
M A
c
c
~ A

i
i
x
x
M
A
c
c