Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109 118

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Journal
of
Vocational Behavior
j o u r nal hoe!a"e# $$$%elsevier%co&locate&jv b
'he role of frien(s in career co!roise# Sae)"en(er
frien(shi! intensi*es "en(er (ifferences in e(ucational choice
Saantha Sinclair

+ ,ic-ar( Carlsson+ .re(ri- Bj/r-lun(

De!t% of 0s1cholo"1+ 2un( 3niversit1+ S$e(en
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
4rticle histor1#
,eceive( 28
5ctober 2016
4vailable online
2 Januar1 2014
7e1$or(s#
.rien(shi!
8en(er
se"re"ation 8en(er (ifferences 9(ucational
choice Career choice
:e !ro!ose a
echanis of
ho$ the (esire
to aintain
frien(shi!s can
intensif1 "en(er
(ifferences in
e(ucational
choice% 'he
re;uire(
con(itions for
this echanis
$oul( be that
(1) a(olescent
ales an( feales (iffer in their overall e(ucational
!references+ (2) $antin" to sta1 close to frien(s
otivates soe a(olescents to a(just their e(ucational
choice in line $ith their frien(s< choices+ an( (6)
a(olescents have a hi"her share of sae)"en(er+
than other)"en(er+ frien(s% Stu(1 1 confire( that
these criteria $ere et+ an( Stu(1 2 foun( an
association bet$een frien(shi! !riorit1 an( "en(er
t1!e( fiel( of stu(1% =n conclusion+ a(justin"
e(ucational choices in or(er to aintain frien(shi!s
!ut a(olescents at ris- of co!roisin" their true
career interests+ an( also becoes an obstacle to a
"en(er balance(
labor
ar-et%
> 2016 9lsevier =nc% 4ll ri"hts reserve(%
1%
=ntro(ucti
on
'he ans$er to $h1 en an( $oen a-e (ifferent e(ucational choices is li-el1 to
be ultifacete(% .or e?a!le+ !revious research su""ests that "en(er at1!ical career
!aths a1 coe to be avoi(e( because of !oor self)efficac1 (Dic-erson @ 'a1lor+
2000)+ fears of bein" ne"ativel1 stereot1!e( (Ber"eron+ Bloc-+ @ 9chten-a!+ 200A)+
conforit1 to "en(er role nors (Bac-ett @ BetC+ 1981D 'o-ar+ 'ho!son+ 0laufcan+ @
:illias+ 200E)D an( that $oen avoi( ath intensive careers because the1 en(orse
counal "oals (Die-an+ Clar-+ Johnston+ Bro$n+ @ Steinber"+ 2011)% 4lthou"h
!s1cholo"ical as!ects have often been hi"hli"hte( in the literature+ an1
theoreticians have claie( that the social forces that affect career choices shoul(
receive ore attention (Blustein+ Schultheiss+ @ .lu+ 2004D 8ottfre(son+ 1981D
VilhjFls(Gttir @ 4rn-elsson+ 2016)% =n the !resent !a!er+ $e su""est that social
net$or-s are of i!ortance for "en(er (ifferences in fiel( of stu(1% :e !ro!ose a
echanis roote( in the ten(enc1 for a(olescents to for sae)"en(er frien(shi!s%
'he re;uire( con(itions for this echanis to have an i!act on "en(er se"re"ation
$oul( be that (1) a(olescent ales an( feales (iffer in their overall e(ucational
!references+ (2) $antin" to sta1 close to frien(s otivates soe a(olescents to
a(just their e(ucational choice in line $ith their frien(s< choices+ an( (6) a(olescents
have a hi"her share of sae)"en(er+ than other)"en(er+ frien(s% =f these three criteria
are et+ there $ill be an effect of increase( "en(er se"re"ation in the fiel( of stu(1 (ue
to frien(shi!s in a(olescence% .or e?a!le+ if a 1oun" $oan $ants to sta1 close to her
frien(s $hen a-in" the transition fro hi"h school to colle"e+ she has a hi"her
!robabilit1 of a(justin" her choice in line $ith the e(ucational choices of feale rather
than ale frien(s+ si!l1 because she has ore of the forer than the latter% Because
there are "en(er (ifferences in occu!ational interests to be"in $ith (Su+ ,oun(s+ @
4rstron"+ 2009)+ 1oun" $oen $ho a(just their choice in line $ith frien(s $ill
be ore li-el1 to choose a feale)(oinate( (co!are( to ale)(oinate() fiel(
of stu(1+ $hereas 1oun" en $ill be ore li-el1 to choose one that is ale)(oinate(%
Because "en(er se"re"ation in school in the for of "en(er (ifferences in course
enrollent inevitabl1 sha!es the (ivision of en an( $oen into (ifferent
occu!ations (Si-ora @ 0o-ro!e-+ 2012D S1th @ SteinetC+ 2008)+ an( a(olescents<
as!irations !re(ict their future
Corres!on(in" author at#
Bo? 216+ S9)22100 2un(+
S$e(en%
9)ail a((ress#
Saantha%SinclairH!s1%lu%se
(S% Sinclair)%
0001)8E91&I see front atter >
2016 9lsevier =nc% 4ll ri"hts
reserve(%
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4
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
career (evelo!ent (Cochran+ :an"+ Stevenson+ Johnson+ @ Cre$s+ 2011D Schoon+
2001)+ this effect $ill in the lon" run serve to aintain an( intensif1 "en(er
se"re"ation on the labor ar-et% 4lthou"h not all a(olescents shoul( be e?!ecte( to
a(just their e(ucational choices in or(er to be $ith frien(s+ those $ho have a hi"h fear of
isolation or consi(er theselves to be lo$)achievers at school a1 be li-el1 to (o so%
2% .rien(s as barriers to
nontra(itional choice
Several career (evelo!ent theories e!hasiCe that career)relate( interests an(
choice behaviors are affecte( b1 conte?tual factors% .or e?a!le+ social co"nitive career
theor1 (SCC'D 2ent+ Bro$n+ @ Bac-ett+ 1994+ 2000) !ro!oses that several co"nitive)
!erson variables (e%"%+ self)efficac1 an( "oals) interact in reci!rocal $a1s $ith other
as!ects of the !erson (e%"%+ "en(er+ ethnicit1) an( $ith as!ects of his or her
environent (e%"%+ social su!!orts+ barriers)+ in sha!in" career (evelo!ent% Barriers
are often (efine( as events or con(itions+ either $ithin the !erson or in his or her
environent+ that a-e career !ro"ress (ifficult (S$anson @ :oit-e+ 199E+ !% 464)%
Kualitative $or- has in(ee( in(icate( that conte?tual su!!orts an( barriers are ore
fre;uentl1 entione( b1 a(olescents as relevant to their career choice
i!leentation co!are( to !erson factors (2ent et al%+ 2002)% Siilarl1+ accor(in" to
8ottfre(son<s (1981+ 200L) theor1 of circuscri!tion an( co!roise+ !eo!le<s
!erce!tions of o!!ortunities an( barriers to obtain a certain t1!e of job $ill be
$ei"hte( $ith their interests to for into as!irations% =f !erce!tions of e?ternal
barriers leave a certain career choice inaccessible+ a career co!roise occurs $here
in(ivi(uals a(just their occu!ational as!irations ('saousi(es @ Joe+ 2008)%
0erceive( o!!ortunities an( barriers coul( concern+ for e?a!le+ the !erceive( ris- of
une!lo1ent or ease of obtainin" trainin" for the job $ithin the surroun(in"
"eo"ra!hic area+ but a1 also consist of social factors%
=n the !resent !a!er+ $e focus on the !ossibilit1 that the fear of losin" frien(s can
otivate soe a(olescents to a-e a career co!roise% 'he nee( to belon"
h1!othesis (Baueister @ 2ear1+ 199L) states that !eo!le are stron"l1 otivate( b1 a)
the nee( for fre;uent !ersonal interactions $ith another !erson+ an( b) the nee( to
!erceive that the relationshi! is ar-e( b1 stabilit1+ affective concern+ an(
continuation into the foreseeable future% :hen a value( relationshi! is threatene(+ the
in(ivi(ual shoul( e?!erience ne"ative affect an( strive to secure the safet1 of the
relationshi! (2ear1+ 'abor+ 'er(al+ @ Do$ns+ 199L)% .or e?a!le+ an a(olescent $hose
best frien( is in his class a1 e?!erience concern or even an?iet1 $hen he realiCes that
he coul( en( u! in a (ifferent school+ se!arate( fro his frien(% :e !ro!ose that $hen
this situation creates a threat of se!aration+ it a1 be !erceive( as an e?ternal barrier to
obtain a certain career+ resultin" in a co!roise $ith interests (8ottfre(son+ 1981)%
=n other $or(s+ the a(olescent a(justs his e(ucational choice as a eans of reainin"
close to his frien(%
4on" vocational scholars there has recentl1 been an u!s$in" in the e!hasis on
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
L
relational as!ects of career (evelo!ent (Blustein+ 2011D Blustein+ 0reCioso+ @
Schultheiss+ 199LD Blustein et al%+ 2004D .lu+ 2001D 0hilli!s+ Christo!her)Sis-+ @
8ravino+ 2001D Schultheiss+ 2006+ aon" others)% =n contrast to the ore classical
a!!roach to career (evelo!ent $here the in(ivi(ual is soeties vie$e( as reachin"
career relate( (ecisions in an autonoous anner+ this relational a!!roach is base( on
assu!tions of huan bein"s as otivate( b1 strivin" to (evelo! an( aintain close
inter!ersonal relationshi!s throu"hout the lifes!an% 'hese stu(ies thus ten( to focus on
the ;ualit1 (iension of close relationshi!s an( ho$ these relationshi!s can !rovi(e a
secure base for e?!loration of career alternatives% =n(ee(+ e!irical fin(in"s su""est
that attachent to !eers can be of i!ortance for a(olescent career (evelo!ent
(7rac-e+ 2002D Schultheiss+ 7ress+ ManCi+ @ 8lasscoc-+ 2001)+ even above an( be1on(
!arental attachent (.elsan @ Blustein+ 1999)%
=t is $ell establishe( that $e ten( to befrien( !eo!le $ho are siilar to us (Bafen+
2aursen+ Bur-+ 7err+ @ Stattin+ 2011)% 5ne as!ect of siilarit1 is that of "en(er% =n(ee(+
!eo!le ten( to have ore sae) co!are( to other)"en(er frien(s across the lifes!an
(Mehta @ Strou"h+ 2009)+ an( a(olescence is no e?ce!tion% 4lthou"h chil(ren ten( to
!refer sae)"en(er frien(s fro an earl1 a"e+ this ten(enc1 t1!icall1 !ea-s bet$een
i((le chil(hoo( an( earl1 a(olescence (Maccob1+ 1990)+ an( the !ro!ortion of sae)
"en(er frien(s ten(s to be at least E0N (urin" a(olescence (Mehta @ Strou"h+ 2010D
0oulin @ 0e(ersen+ 200E)% .urtherore+ even $hen a(olescents for other)"en(er
frien(shi!s+ the1 are often in the for of secon(ar1 as o!!ose( to best frien(s (0oulin
@ 0e(ersen+ 200E)%
'his coinci(es $ith the tie of entr1 into u!!er secon(ar1 e(ucation (the final
sta"e of secon(ar1 e(ucation) in ost 59CD (5r"aniCation for 9conoic Co)o!eration
an( Develo!ent) countries $hich t1!icall1 occurs aroun( the a"e of 1L or 1A (59CD+
2016)% 9ven thou"h the (uration of u!!er secon(ar1 e(ucation (iffers bet$een
countries+ a coon feature is that soe !ro"ras are terinal in the sense of
!re!arin" the stu(ents for entr1 (irectl1 into $or-in" life+ $hile others are
!re!arator1D i%e%+ !re!arin" stu(ents for tertiar1 e(ucation% =n S$e(en $here the
!resent research $as con(ucte(+ 1L 1ear ol(s have a choice of
1A national !ro"ras to a!!l1 to+ that s!ecialiCe in for e?a!le social or natural
sciences (!re!arator1)+ or construction or restaurant $or- (terinal)% 'he S$e(ish
s1ste is thus siilar to an1 9uro!ean countries (e%"%+ Denar-+ 8eran1+ Bel"iu+
CCech ,e!ublic+ =tal1+ an( S!ain)+ an( there is also reseblance to the 3%S% hi"h school
s1ste in that soe courses are an(ator1 $hile others allo$ for s!ecialiCation% =n
S$e(en+ the choice of hi"h school !ro"ra in !art (eterines future access to hi"her
e(ucation% 'he ore o!!ortunit1 for choice on behalf of the stu(ent in the e(ucation
s1ste+ the lar"er the effect of !rioritiCin" frien(s shoul( be for "en(er se"re"ation on
the labor ar-et%
=n a(olescence+ best frien(s often "o to the sae school (CalvG)4ren"ol+
0atacchini+ @ Oenou+ 2009)+ an( in(ivi(uals continuousl1 obtain aca(eic as $ell as
social attitu(es an( behaviors fro their frien(s (,1an+ 2000)% 4s Jones+ 4u(le1)
0iotro$s-i+ an( 7iefer (2012) note+ the transission of such attitu(es an( beliefs a1
A
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
be es!eciall1 i!ortant in a(olescence+ $hich is a !erio( $hen s!en(in" tie $ith
frien(s an( valuin" frien(shi!s increase (2arson @ ,ichar(s+ 1991)% Bo$ever+ a
(istinction shoul( be a(e bet$een "eneral !eer socialiCation an( the echanis
!ro!ose( in the !resent stu(1% .irst+ havin" ostl1 sae)"en(er frien(s a1 over tie
result in an increase in "en(er t1!ical behaviors an( attitu(es throu"h reinforceent
!rocesses in interaction+ (i%e%+ !eer socialiCation)% .or e?a!le+ biolo"ical se?
(ifferences or ten(encies for a(ults to encoura"e "en(er stereot1!e( behavior a1 be
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
E
reinforce( in !eer interactions as s!en(in" tie $ith !eers increases% =n(ee(+ research
su""ests that frien(s ten( to becoe ore siilar over tie (Bafen et al%+ 2011D
7an(el+ 19E8)% =n contrast to this !eer socialiCation !rocess+ $hich (escribes a
reci!rocal e?chan"e bet$een frien(s $ith attitu(es an( beliefs chan"in" "ra(uall1 over
tie+ the echanis !ro!ose( in this !a!er concerns a ore (irect tra(eoff bet$een
an in(ivi(ual<s social nee(s an( actual career !references% S!ecificall1+ this effect coul(
reflect a basic nee( of $antin" to sta1 close to one<s frien(s ("oin" to the sae school
or the sae class)+ $hich a1 cause the in(ivi(ual to a(just his or her choice in line
$ith the choice of a frien(% 4(olescents $ith stron" inter!ersonal nee(s a1 be
!articularl1 li-el1 to a-e such a(justents%
=t is i!ortant to note that our !ro!ose( effect on e(ucational (an( occu!ational)
"en(er se"re"ation $oul( not anifest itself if there $ere no overall "en(er
(ifferences in !references to be"in $ith% Bence+ the ain contribution of our
!ro!ose( echaniss is not in e?!lainin" ho$ occu!ational se"re"ation $as create(
in the first !lace+ but rather ho$ it is currentl1 aintaine( an( reinforce(% 0ut
(ifferentl1+ it can e?!lain $h1 "en(er (ifferences in fiel( of stu(1 (an( hence career
!aths) are resistant to chan"e% 4s such+ this echanis (oes not challen"e an1 of the
!reviousl1 !ro!ose( e?!lanations behin( "en(er (ifferences in vocational
!references (e%"%+ self)efficac1 an( stereot1!e threat) but a1 rather a(( to the
se"re"ation above an( be1on( these effects% =n a sense+ our !ro!ose( echanis $oul(
act as a rubber ban( $here in(ivi(uals $ith at1!ical !references are li-el1 to be !ulle(
bac- into ore "en(er t1!ical behavior because of their frien(s+ resultin" in overall
"en(er ainstrea ten(encies% .or e?a!le+ if a 1oun" $oan $oul( li-e to !ursue a
career in !lubin" she a1 have to leave her feale frien(s behin(D in other $or(s+
she $oul( face a hi"h social barrier% 'his i!lies that she $oul( nee( to be ;uite
stron"l1 otivate( to becoe a !luber+ as this career choice coes $ith the ris- of
sacrificin" frien(shi!s% =n contrast+ a 1oun" an $ith i(entical level of interest in
becoin" a !luber $oul( be uch ore li-el1 to have a frien( $ho is also intereste(
in this occu!ation%
=t shoul( also be e!hasiCe( that at the in(ivi(ual level+ the conse;uence of a(justin"
one<s e(ucational !references to be $ith frien(s a1 ver1 $ell be the o!!osite of
increase( "en(er t1!icalit1 in soe cases% 'his $oul( be true for an in(ivi(ual $ho has
!riaril1 other)"en(er frien(s $ith !references that are t1!ical for their "en(er+ or
$ho has !riaril1 sae)"en(er frien(s $ith !references that are at1!ical of their
"en(er "rou!% 5ur !ro!ose( echanis thus a!!ears to be conce!tuall1 (istinct
fro !rocesses that involve conforit1 to "en(er stereot1!es an( nors ($hen
in(ivi(uals internaliCe !rescri!tive "en(er role nors into their self)conce!tD Bac-ett
@ BetC+ 1981)%
=n su+ our !ro!ose( echanis a((s to the literature b1 intro(ucin" an i!ortant
contributor to "en(er se"re"ation in e(ucation an(+ in the lon" run+ on the labor
ar-et%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
8
6% 5vervie$ of
e!irical stu(ies
=n the !resent !a!er $e clai that if !eo!le a(just their fiel( of stu(1 in line $ith
their frien(s< choices+ an( frien(shi! net$or-s are "en(er se"re"ate(+ the ten(enc1 of
frien(shi! !riorit1 can becoe an obstacle to "en(er e;ualit1% :e con(ucte( t$o
stu(ies to estiate the a"nitu(e of this e(ucation co!roise effect on "en(er
t1!ical choice%
=n Stu(1 1+ $e e?aine( a(olescents< !ros!ective behavioral intentions# are the1
$illin" to a(just their choice of hi"h school !ro"ra (e!en(in" on $hat their frien(s
$ill choose* .urther+ $e investi"ate( four factors that a1 affect such frien(shi!
!riorities% .irst+ althou"h the nee( to belon" sees to be a universal huan nee(+ there
is also consi(erable variation aon" in(ivi(uals in the "eneral nee( to belon" an( in
fears about bein" sociall1 e?clu(e( (Baueister @ 2ear1+ 199LD 8ere @ MacDonal(+
2010D 0ic-ett+ 8ar(ner+ @ 7no$les+ 2004)% Base( on !revious research sho$in" that
!eo!le $ho e?!erience threats to belon"in" ten( to (irectl1 focus on their social
connections (8ar(ner+ 0ic-ett+ @ Bre$er+ 2000D 7no$les+ 2ucas+ Mol(en+ 8ar(ner+ @
Dean+ 2010)+ $e su""est that a hi"h fear of isolation increases the ten(enc1 to
co!roise one<s fiel( of stu(1 in line $ith frien(s% Secon(+ consi(erin" that the
otivation to secure the safet1 of a relationshi! shoul( (e!en( on ho$ value( the
relationshi! in ;uestion is (2ear1 et al%+ 199L)+ $e e?!ecte( that the ten(enc1 to
a(just one<s fiel( of stu(1 $oul( be stron"er for closer frien(s (e%"%+ best frien(s)% 'hir(+
$e reasone( that lo$ aca(eic self)conce!t (i%e%+ feelin" li-e a lo$)achiever in school)
a1 increase the !robabilit1 of a-in" choices that (e!en( on frien(s% .or e?a!le+
reainin" close to frien(s $hen chan"in" schools a1 be a eans of "ettin" hel! $ith
hoe$or- or other achieveent relate( resources (Crosnoe+ Cavana"h+ @ 9l(er+
2006)% .inall1+ feelin" uncertain about $hich fiel( to choose a1 translate into a
stron"er ten(enc1 to a(just one<s choice in line $ith frien(s%
=n our secon( stu(1+ $e turne( to the ;uestion of $hether the effect of frien(shi!
!riorit1 on "en(er se"re"ation is !resent in actual choices+ an( further if this effect "oes
be1on( that of other !eo!le such as !arents an( teachers% .or e?a!le+ even thou"h
!arents a1 e?ert substantial influence on their chil(ren<s choices+ the1 a1 be ore
otivate( to encoura"e a(vance( careers in "eneral rather than "en(er t1!ical
careers !er se% =n Stu(1 2 $e thus h1!othesiCe( that !erceive( e(ucation
co!roise (easure( !ost)choice) in line $ith frien(s< choices relates to actual
"en(er t1!ical choice+ co!are( to the !erceive( i!ortance of !arents+ teachers+
career counselors+ interests+ an( career !riorities% =n both stu(ies $e obtaine( verbal
infore( consent an( follo$ both international (404) an( local ethical "ui(elines%
4%
Stu(1
1
4%1%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
9
Metho(
4%1%1%
0artici!ants
'he initial sa!le consiste( of 8A stu(ents in the ei"hth "ra(e+ $ho $ere soon to
a!!l1 for hi"h school !ro"ras in S$e(en% 5ne of the (i( not re!ort "en(er an( as
this is crucial to our research ;uestion+ $e oitte( this !artici!ant% .urther+ t$o
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
10
!artici!ants $ere oitte( because the1 s-i!!e( several ;uestions+ leavin" a sa!le of
86 !artici!ants (48 feales an( 6L alesD
M
a"e
P 14%66+ SD P %L2)%
:e (eci(e( on the sa!le siCe base( on !o$er anal1ses usin" the 8Q0o$er
soft$are% :e e?!ecte( "en(er se"re"ation in frien(shi! net$or-s to be lar"e an( as
our "oal $as to i(entif1 ain contributors to e(ucation co!roise (ue to frien(s
(e%"%+ fear of isolation)+ $e $ere intereste( in effects that $ere e?!ecte( to be stron" or
o(erate% 'o this en(+ $e (eci(e( on a sa!le siCe in e?cess of 80N !o$er for o(erate
effect siCes (r R %60)%
4%1%2% Materials an( !roce(ure
'he !artici!ants $ere first as-e( to list the first naes of their five best frien(s $ho
$ere about the sae a"e as theselves (not inclu(in" roantic !artners an(
siblin"s)+ an( to ran- the fro the best (o$n to the fifth best frien(% 'his serve( as an
unobtrusive easure of frien(shi! "en(er se"re"ation# =n this $a1+ $e avoi(e(
activatin" "en(er conce!ts+ $hich i"ht have influence( our (ata%
'o assess the (e"ree of "en(er t1!icalit1 in e(ucational !references+ the !artici!ants
$ere then !rovi(e( $ith a list of all the S$e(ish national hi"h school !ro"ras an(
as-e( to select the first+ secon(+ an( (o$n to the fifth choice+ ha( the1 a!!lie( that
sae (a1% 'he1 also rate( ho$ certain the1 $ere of $hich !ro"ra the1 $oul( !ic- as
their first choice%
Re?t+ the -e1 ;uestion of $hether the !artici!ants $ere $illin" to co!roise their
e(ucational choice to be $ith frien(s $as investi"ate( b1 as-in" the to ia"ine that
their ver1 best frien( (!reviousl1 re!orte( as frien( nuber 1) chose a !ro"ra that
the1 ha( not inten(e( to a!!l1 to+ but that the1 coul( nevertheless consi(er a!!l1in" for%
'he !artici!ants in(icate( $hether the1 $oul( choose the sae !ro"ra as their best
frien( (1 P (efinitel1 not+E P (efinitel1)% 'his ;uestion $as then re!eate( for each of
the reainin" four frien(s%
4ca(eic self)conce!t $as ca!ture( $ith three ites (Marsh @ 5<Reill+ 1984)# =
learn thin"s ;uic-l1 in ost school subjects+
= (o $ell on tests in ost school subjects+ an( =< "oo( at ost school subjects (1 P
(o not a"ree at all+E P co!letel1 a"reeD
S P %86)%
:e assesse( fear of isolation $ith the follo$in" ites (base( on a scale b1 Ba1es+
Matthes+ @ 9velan(+ 2011)# 5ne of the $orst thin"s = can thin- of is if 1 frien(s
$oul( han" out an( not invite e to join the+ =t is i!ortant to e to fit in $ith the
"rou! that = a $ith+ =t $oul( bother e if nobo(1 $ante( to han" out $ith e+ an(
=t $oul( bother e if = $asn<t invite( to !arties or other "atherin"s (1 P (o not
a"ree at all+ E P co!letel1 a"ree)% :e also inclu(e( a ore s!ecific ite $here the
!artici!ants rate( the i!ortance of choosin" the sae !ro"ra as one of their best
frien(s (1 P not at all i!ortant+ E P ver1 i!ortant)% 'his scale ha( !oor reliabilit1 (S
P %AL) $hich coul( not be i!rove( b1 e?clu(in" ites% '$o variables that $e chose
not to anal1Ce in (etail $ere inclu(e(% .irst+ $e as-e( the !artici!ants about their
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
11
!arents< occu!ation in or(er to confir that our sa!le $as re!resentative $ith
res!ect to socioeconoic (iversit1+ $hich it $as% 'he !artici!ants $ere also as-e( to
"uess $hich !ro"ras their frien(s $oul( choose% =t turne( out that the1 ha( a har(
tie re!ortin" this (as su""este( b1 issin" values an( creative ans$ers) an( as such $e
foun( this variable har( to inter!ret% .inall1+ the !artici!ants ans$ere( (eo"ra!hic
;uestions%
4%1%6% Data !re!aration
=t turne( out that several of the !artici!ants ha( trouble ran-in" ore than four
frien(s+ !resuabl1 because the1 (i( not have that an1 close frien(s% :e therefore
oitte( the fifth frien( variable fro further anal1sis+ leavin" us $ith a total of 662
frien(s< naes% .our frien(s ha( "en(er abi"uous naes (e%"%+ 7i)% =n these cases+
$e ran(ol1 assi"ne( the value of ale or feale+ base( on the assu!tion that ales
an( feales have "en(er abi"uous naes to a siilar e?tent (because abi"uous
naes $ere so fe$+ the (ecision of ho$ to han(le the ha( no i!act on the resultsD
even so+ $e chose the ost conservative o!tion)% .or each selecte( hi"h school
!ro"ra (e%"%+ natural science) $e co(e( the !ercenta"e of feales enrolle( in the
!ro"ra base( on national statistics% '$o !artici!ants faile( to ans$er $hether the1
$oul( chan"e their choice for frien( nuber four% :e re!lace( these issin" values
$ith the value of frien( nuber three+ as the ans$ers for frien( nuber three an( four
correlate( hi"hl1%
4%2% ,esults an( (iscussion
4%2%1% 9(ucational !references
.eale !artici!ants chose hi"h school !ro"ras $ith on avera"e A2N feale
stu(ents+ $hereas ale !artici!ants !referre( !ro"ras $ith 66N feale stu(ents+
confirin" that our sa!le $as re!resentative of the !o!ulation (co!are( to
national statistics)%
4%2%2% .rien(shi! "en(er se"re"ation
'o estiate the (e"ree of "en(er se"re"ation in the !artici!ants< frien(shi!
net$or-s+ $e create( t$o variables for the nuber of ale an( feale frien(s+
res!ectivel1% 4s e?!ecte(+ nearl1 all of the ale !artici!ants< frien(s $ere ale (M P
6%86+ SD P %4L) $hereas the feale !artici!ants ha( alost no ale frien(s (M P %
61+ SD P %EL)+ an( thus ha( a clear ajorit1 of feale frien(s (M P 6%A8+ SD P %EL)%
Raturall1+ this (ifference bet$een feale an( ale !artici!ants in the "en(er
(istribution of frien(s $as si"nificant+ t(81) P T24%A8+ ! b %001%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
12
4%2%6% 9(ucation co!roise relate( to
frien(shi! "en(er se"re"ation
'he h1!othesis that the $illin"ness to a(just one<s fiel( of stu(1 $oul( be stron"er
for closer frien(s $as confire( $ith a !lanne( linear contrast (usin" the re!eate(
function in S0SS)+ .(1+ 82) P 60%E0+ ! b %001+ !artial U
2
P %2E% Bo$ever+ the re!orte(
$illin"ness to s$itch to another !ro"ra for the sa-e of a frien( $as still hi"hl1
correlate( for the four frien(s+ an( $e coul( thus avera"e (base( on the ean) the
results $ithin)!artici!ants to a sin"le variable (S P %94)% :e foun( an une?!ecte(
"en(er (ifference in that feale !artici!ants $ere ore $illin" (M P 6%L1+ SD P
1%64) than ale !artici!ants (M P 2%LE+ SD P 1%69) to a(just their choice for the sa-e
of a frien(+ t(81) P 6%11+ ! P %006%
So far $e have seen that there is lar"e "en(er se"re"ation aon" frien(s+ an( that a
!ortion of a(olescents $oul( consi(er co!roisin" their e(ucational choice in
or(er to be $ith frien(s% 'his su""ests a stron"er total influence e?erte( b1 sae)
"en(er (co!are( to other)"en(er) frien(s+ but the ;uestion of ho$ lar"e this
(ifferential influence is reains% 'hus+ the ne?t ste! $as to estiate the siCe of this
(ifferential influence% 'o this en(+ $e ulti!lie( the $illin"ness to chan"e !ro"ra scale
$ith the nuber of feale an( ale frien(s+ res!ectivel1% 'his 1iel(e( a scale of the
total i!act of ale frien(s an( feale frien(s+ res!ectivel1% :e $ere s!ecificall1
intereste( in the interaction bet$een !artici!ant "en(er an( frien(s< "en(er on total
influence% 'o this en(+ $e con(ucte( a 2 (co!roise for feale an( ale frien(sD
$ithin subjects) V 2 (!artici!ant "en(erD bet$een subjects) 4R5V4% 'he !re(icte(
interaction $as si"nificant in su!!ort of our h1!othesis+ .(1+ 81) P 1L9%E1+ ! b %001+
!artial U
2
P %AA% 'he eans in .i"% 1 reveal that feale a(olescents $ere uch ore
li-el1 to a-e a co!roise in line $ith feales than ales+ t(4E) P T 9%L1+ ! b %001+
$hereas ale a(olescents $ere clearl1 ore influence( b1 ales than feales+ t(64)
P 9%6A+ ! b %001% 5f less interest to our research ;uestion+ there $as no si"nificant
ain effect of "en(er of the frien(s+ .(1+ 81) P 1%49+ ! P %26+ !artial U
2
P %018+ but a
si"nificant ain effect of !artici!ant "en(er+ .(1+ 81) P 9%AE+ ! P %06+ !artial U
2
P
%11% :e $oul( caution a"ainst (ra$in" an1 conclusions about these ain effects
because of the !resence of the substantial interaction effect% Because of the lo$ share of
other)"en(er frien(s+ resultin" in s-e$e( variables+ $e also con(ucte( a series of non)
!araetric tests (Mann:hitne1)3 an( ,elate()Sa!les :ilco?on Si"ne( ,an- test)+
$hich confire( our fin(in"s%
4%2%4% 0re(ictin" e(ucation
co!roise
:e !rocee(e( b1 con(uctin" a ulti!le re"ression anal1sis in or(er to investi"ate
$hich factors best e?!lain the $illin"ness to chan"e !ro"ras in line $ith frien(s
($ith the $illin"ness to s$itch !ro"ra scale as the criterion variable)% :e (eci(e( on
a ulti!le re"ression a!!roach since our focus $as on the uni;ue contribution of our
!re(ictor variables $hile controllin" for the others% .or e?a!le+ $ill the "en(er
(ifference foun( in the univariate anal1ses reain even $hen controllin" for fear of
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
16
isolation* Because $e ha( ;uite fe$ variables+ $e (eci(e( to enter the
siultaneousl1 rather than testin" an( co!arin" ulti!le o(els (i%e%+ ste!$ise
re"ression)% .urther+ because the variables $ere not clearl1 norall1 (istribute( $e
use( robust stan(ar( errors (usin" S'4'4 12D 52S stan(ar( errors 1iel(e( siilar
results)% :e also use( stan(ar(iCe( variables to allo$ for (irect inter!retations of the
beta coefficients% 'he o(el turne( out si"nificant+ .(4+ EE) P 8%EA+ ! b %001+ $ith ,
2
P
%24% 4s can be seen in 'able 1+ fear of isolation $as a si"nificant !re(ictor of $illin"ness
to chan"e !ro"ras for the sa-e of frien(s+ $hereas the effect of aca(eic self)conce!t
$as ar"inall1 si"nificant+ an( certaint1 of choice $as in the e?!ecte( (irection but
non) si"nificant% Descri!tive statistics for these variables are !resente( in 'able 2% 'he
"en(er (ifference of feale !artici!ants bein" ore $illin" to a(just their choice
reaine( $hen controllin" for the other variables%
Influence score
5
10
15
'o conclu(e+ it a!!ears that soe a(olescents (in !articular those $ho have a hi"h
fear of isolation) $ill in(ee( consi(er a-in" a career co!roise b1 a(justin" their
fiel( of stu(1 accor(in" to their frien(s< choices% 4s frien(shi! net$or-s are "en(er
unbalance(+ this eans that co!roise is si"nificantl1 ore li-el1 to occur in line
$ith sae)"en(er+ co!are( to other)"en(er+ frien(s%
0
Female participants Male participants
Influence of male friends Influence of
female friends
.i"% 1% 'he ten(enc1 for a(olescent ales an( feales to a(just their e(ucational
choice in line $ith ale an( feale frien(s% =nfluence score P $illin"ness to
a(just choice of e(ucation in line $ith frien(s ulti!lie( $ith the nuber of
ale an( feale frien(s+ res!ectivel1%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
14
'able 1
0re(ictors of $illin"ness to a(just choice (ue to frien(s (Stu(1 1)%
Variable B S
9
W
8en(er T 0
T
0%2L

.ear of isolation 0
%
0
%
0%2E

3ncertaint1 of choice T
0%2
0
%
T
0%1L
4ca(eic self)conce!t T
0%2
0
%
T
0%1E
X
Constant 4
%
0
%
Rote% R P 86% Stan(ar( errors are set as robust% 8en(er is co(e( as 0 P feales+ 1 P ales%
X
! b %10%

! b %0L%
L% Stu(1 2
'he fin(in"s of Stu(1 1 sho$e( that the re;uire( con(itions for the !ro!ose( effect
e?ist in !ros!ective behavioral intentions% But $hat about real e(ucational choices* =f
$e can (eonstrate that the actual "en(er)t1!e( choices that en an( $oen a-e
can be relate( to e(ucation co!roise in line $ith frien(s+ this $oul( len( further
cre(ibilit1 to our !ro!ose( echanis% =n Stu(1 2+ $e therefore turne( to investi"ate
$hether hi"h school stu(ents in retros!ect !erceive that the1 have a(juste( their
actual e(ucational choice in line $ith frien(s< choices% .urtherore+ $e e?aine(
co!roise in line $ith frien(s in relation to the !erceive( i!ortance of other choice
relate( factors% 9ven thou"h a stu(1 consistin" of retros!ective self)re!orts $oul( be
of liite( value on its o$n+ to"ether $ith Stu(1 1 it serves as a co!leentar1
!iece of evi(ence to evaluate our !ro!ose( echanis%
L%1% Metho(
L%1%1% 0artici!ants
'he !artici!ants $ere 1L0 stu(ents (8L ales an( AL fealesD M
a"e
P 1A%9L+ SD P %
80)% 4s in Stu(1 1+ this $as a sa!le of convenience but $e trie( to a-e sure that the
!artici!ants cae fro (ifferent S$e(ish hi"h school !ro"ras $ith var1in" "en(er
(istributions% 9ach !artici!ant receive( a score accor(in" to the !ercenta"e of stu(ents
enrolle( in the !ro"ra (base( on national statistics) of the sae "en(er as the
!artici!ant% 'his variable serve( as an in(icator of "en(er t1!ical choice+ $ith a
!ositive value re!resentin" "en(er t1!ical choice (i%e%+ ore than L0N of stu(ents
enrolle( in the !ro"ra bein" of the sae "en(er as the !artici!ant)+ an( a ne"ative
value in(icatin" at1!ical choice (less than L0N of stu(ents bein" of sae "en(er as the
!artici!ant)% Statistical !o$er $as calculate( in the sae $a1 as in Stu(1 1% Bo$ever+
because $e ha( ulti!le !re(ictors+ an( $e $ante( to have !recision to (istin"uish
bet$een the+ $e use( a lar"er sa!le co!are( to Stu(1 1%
L%1%2% Materials an( !roce(ure
'he !artici!ants first re!orte( $hich !ro"ra the1 atten(e(% Re?t+ the1 $ere as-e(
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
1L
to thin- bac- on the tie $hen the1 ha( a!!lie( to hi"h school+ an( in(icate the
i!ortance of the follo$in" factors for their choice of !ro"ra# frien(s< e(ucational
choicesD an( the follo$in" control variables# o$n interests an( career concernsD an(
a(vice fro career counselors+ teachers+ an( !arents (1 P no i!ortance+ E P hi"h
i!ortance)% 'he1 $ere then as-e( to $rite (o$n the first naes of the frien(s $ho
ha( been of i!ortance for their e(ucational choice% 4s in Stu(1 1+ this allo$e( for
unobtrusive easureent of frien(s< "en(er+ $ith inial ris- of revealin" the
h1!othesis% Re?t+ the !artici!ants res!on(e( to four ore s!ecific ;uestions about the
role of frien(s in their e(ucational choice+ e%"%+ Bo$ i!ortant $as it to choose the sae
!ro"ra as one of 1our frien(s fro school* (1 P not at all i!ortant+ E P ver1
i!ortant)% :e cobine( the in total five ites concernin" co!roise of e(ucational
choice (ue to frien(s into a scale (S P %81)% 5f the five ites inclu(e( in this
!erceive( co!roise scale onl1 three s!ecificall1 as-e( about !rioritiCin" a !ro"ra
or school to be to"ether $ith frien(s% 'o confir that the !re(ictive relationshi! $as
not (ue to onl1 the t$o ore "eneral ites+ $e con(ucte( sensitivit1 anal1ses $hich
sho$e( that runnin" re"ressions $ith each ite in isolation !ro(uce( nearl1 i(entical
results as the scale as a $hole%
'able 2
Descri!tive statistics for factors affectin" $illin"ness to a(just
choice (ue to frien(s (Stu(1 1)%
Variable M SD
.ear of isolation 4
%
1%16
3ncertaint1 of choice 4
%
1%84
4ca(eic self)conce!t L
%
1%19
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
1A
L%2% ,esults an( (iscussion
L%2%1% .rien(shi! "en(er se"re"ation
5ne hun(re( an( t$ent1)si? !artici!ants re!orte( naes of frien(s $ho ha( an i!act on their choice of !ro"ra% 4s
e?!ecte(+ the !artici!ants re!orte( si"nificantl1 ore naes of frien(s belon"in" to the sae "en(er "rou! as theselves (M P
2%82+ SD P 2%18) as co!are( to frien(s of the other "en(er (M P %44+ SD P %E9)+ t(12L) P 1L%84+ ! b %001% 4s in Stu(1 1+ ale
!artici!ants re!orte( ore sae)"en(er frien(s (M P 6%10+ SD P 1%11) co!are( to feale !artici!ants (M P 2%4L+ SD P6%18)+
t(124) P 6%14+ ! P %002% Bo$ever+ there $as no si"nificant "en(er (ifference in the nuber of other)"en(er frien(s re!orte(+
t(124) P T %90+ ! P %6E%
L%2%2% 0erceive( e(ucation co!roise
=nterests (M P A%09+ SD P 1%2A) an( career !riorities (M P L%46+ SD P 1%E6) $ere rate( as ore i!ortant than the
i!ortance of other !eo!le (!arents# M P 6%46+ SD P 1%E6D teachers# M P 2%L6+ SD P 1%A1D career counselors# M P 2%A4+ SD P
1%ALD an( the co!roise (ue to frien(s scale# M P 2%A0+ SD P 1%61)% Bo$ever+ one can sus!ect soe resistance in a(ittin" to
havin" base( one<s e(ucational choice on other !eo!le+ relative to the i!act of interests an( career as!ects% Bence+ $e believe
that the re!orte( influence of other !eo!le i"ht be un(erestiate( in this stu(1 (ue to social (esirabilit1 concerns% 'here $as no
(ifference bet$een ale an( feale !artici!ants in to $hat e?tent the1 felt that their choice ha( been co!roise( (ue to
frien(s+ t(148) P T %01+ ! P %99%
L%2%6% Co!roise relate( to "en(er se"re"ation in *el( of stu(1
Bavin" confire( that our !artici!ants $ere ore influence( b1 sae)"en(er than other)"en(er frien(s+ $e ove( on to test
our h1!othesis that !erceive( e(ucation co!roise in line $ith frien(s lea(s to ore "en(er t1!ical choices% :e (eci(e( to test
this b1 eans of ulti!le re"ression anal1sis in or(er to be able to e?aine the in(e!en(ent contribution of the !erceive(
influence of frien(s+ $hen the effects of the other !erceive( sources of influence are controlle( for% Because this $as our focus
(rather than fin(in" the o!tial re"ression o(el)+ $e (eci(e( on a sin"le o(el an( to enter all effects siultaneousl1% 'o this
en(+ $e ran a re"ression anal1sis $ith the co!roise (ue to frien(s scale+ an( !erceive( i!ortance of !arents+ teachers+ career
counselors+ interests+ an( career !riorities on "en(er t1!ical e(ucational choice (!artici!ant "en(er $as not inclu(e( because its
effect $oul( erel1 be a !ro(uct of the sa!lin")% Because soe of our variables $ere not norall1 (istribute(+ $e use( robust
stan(ar( errors (S'4'4 12+ 52S stan(ar( errors 1iel(e( hi"hl1 siilar results)%
'he results of this re"ression can be foun( in 'able 6% 'he o(el turne( out si"nificant+ .(A+ 142) P 6%06+ ! P %002+ $ith ,
2
P %
10%
'he avera"e !artici!ant atten(e( a !ro"ra $ith A2N of stu(ents bein" sae "en(er
as the !artici!ant% Su!!ortin" our !re(ictions+ havin" a(juste( one<s choice accor(in"
to frien(s< choices eant havin" a(e a ore "en(er t1!ical e(ucational choice%
S!ecificall1+ an increase b1 one stan(ar( (eviation on the co!roise (ue to frien(s
scale corres!on(e( to an increase of four !ercenta"e units in "en(er t1!ical
e(ucational choice% 'hat is+ co!roisin" one<s choice to be $ith frien(s eant
selectin" a !ro"ra $ith on avera"e
AAN (co!are( to A2N) sae)"en(er stu(ents% =f $e loo- at the effect of co!roise in
line $ith onl1 sae)"en(er frien(s+ the effect is (as e?!ecte() even ore !ronounce(D
in fact+ this corres!on(e( to atten(in" a !ro"ra $ith on avera"e A9N sae)"en(er
stu(ents%
Soe$hat sur!risin"l1+ hi"her !erceive( i!ortance of career counselors also
corres!on(e( to a ore "en(er t1!ical fiel( of stu(1% Rone of the reainin" variables
!re(icte( "en(er t1!ical choice%
=t is i!ortant to -ee! in in( that frien(s $ere not rate( as the to! contributor to
e(ucational choiceD for e?a!le+ interests $ere !erceive( as ore i!ortant overall%
Revertheless+ to the e?tent that choice $as a(juste( in line $ith frien(s+ this ha(
conse;uences for "en(er t1!ical fiel( of stu(1+ $hereas there $as no such relationshi!
for interests% =t is also i!ortant to note+ ho$ever+ that robust stan(ar( errors in the
re"ression anal1sis onl1 hel!s to !rotect the anal1sis fro s!urious statistical fin(in"s
('1!e = error) an( (o not ree(1 that a s-e$e( variable a1 be un(er!o$ere(% 4 closer
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
1E
loo- at the variables reveale( a !ossible ceilin" effect on the interest variable%
4lthou"h this is not sur!risin" since !eo!le are li-el1 to feel that their interests are
an
'able 6
0re(ictors of "en(er t1!ical e(ucational choice (Stu(1 2)%
Variable B S
9
W
.rien(s 4
%
1
%
0%21

'eachers T
1%8
1
%
T 0%09
0arents T
1%0
2
%
T 0%0L
Career counselors 6
%
1
%
0%18
=nterests T
1%L
1
%
T 0%0E
Career !riorities T
2%A
1
%
T 0%14
Constant A2
%6
1
%
Rote% R P 1L0% Stan(ar( errors are set as robust%

! b %0L%

! b %01%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
18
i!ortant foun(ation for their career choices+ it liits this variable<s statistical !o$er
an( a1 as- a true relationshi!% 'he
(lac-in") contribution of this control variable shoul( thus be inter!rete( $ith soe
caution%
A% 8eneral (iscussion
A%1% Su!!ort for the !ro!ose( echanis
:e !ro!ose( a echanis for intensifie( "en(er se"re"ation in fiel( of stu(1% 5ur
e!irical fin(in"s confir that its three ain assu!tions are fulfille(# 'here are
"en(er (ifferences in e(ucational choices+ frien(s ten( to be of the sae "en(er+ an(
soe a(olescents a!!ear $illin" to coit tra(e)offs $ith their interests $hen it
coes to e(ucational choices% S!ecificall1+ Stu(ies 1 (behavioral intentions) an( 2
(!erceive( co!roise relate( to actual choice) !rovi(e t$o co!leentar1 !ieces
of evi(ence for our !ro!ose( echanis% 'o"ether+ the fin(in"s su""est that the fear
of losin" frien(s can constitute a barrier to obtain a (esire( career (8ottfre(son+ 1981D
2ent et al%+ 2000)+ $hich a1 result in a career co!roise% 'his co!roise $ill not
be ran(o+ but clearl1 "en(er)t1!e(+ an( $ill thus have conse;uences for "en(er
se"re"ation on the labor ar-et% 'he frien(shi! echanis thus a((s to the literature
on the lin- bet$een "en(er an( career (evelo!ent b1 e!hasiCin" an a((itional
route+ besi(es "en(er socialiCation !rocesses (e%"%+ Bac-ett @ BetC+ 1981D 'o-ar et al%+
200E)+ to "en(er)t1!e( career choice%
'he !resent research further investi"ate( the !s1cholo"ical un(er!innin"s of the
!ro!ose( frien(shi! echanis% .irst+ as e?!ecte(+ the $illin"ness to a(just one<s
e(ucational choice $as "reater for closer frien(s+ confirin" that the otivation to
secure the safet1 of a relationshi! shoul( (e!en( on ho$ value( the relationshi! in
;uestion is (2ear1 et al%+ 199L)% Secon(+ fear of isolation o(erate( the effect% =n other
$or(s+ concern of bein" alone is associate( $ith an increase( !ro!ensit1 to tra(e
e(ucational interests for sta1in" close to one<s frien(s% 4n( thir(+ there $as a ten(enc1
for aca(eic self)conce!t to o(erate the effect+ su""estin" that confi(ence in one<s
aca(eic abilities a1 buffer a"ainst tra(in" interests for frien(s%
A%2% 0otential "eneraliCation of the echanis
'he echanis (eonstrate( here coul( li-el1 be a!!licable for other "rou!s an( in
other conte?ts $here se"re"ation e?ists% 9ssentiall1+ $hen there are s1steatic
(ifferences in !references bet$een "rou!s+ an( !re(oinantl1 in)"rou! ebers in
the circle of frien(s+ our !ro!ose( echanis a1 be in !la1% .irst+ frien(shi! is not
restricte( to "en(er siilarit1 but a1 also concern other social "rou!s% 'o the e?tent
that one<s frien(s belon" to a !articular social "rou!+ an( the ebers of this social
"rou! have siilar career !references+ an effect a-in to the one (eonstrate( here
a1 occur% .or e?a!le+ !eo!le $ith !re(oinantl1 blue)collar frien(s a1 be ore
li-el1 to tra(e their actual job !references for such an occu!ation instea(+
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
19
!articularl1 if the ris- of bein" alone loos lar"e% 'he reverse shoul( be true for
in(ivi(uals in $ell)off circles $ho $oul( li-e to $or- $ith their han(s but lac- frien(s
$ho share this interest%
Secon(+ the effect a1 be of relevance in other conte?ts than fiel( of stu(1+ such as
e!lo1ee turnover on the labor ar-et# :hen !eo!le consi(er s$itchin" to a ne$
$or-!lace+ our echanis su""ests that frien(shi! !riorities shoul( atter in the
for of self)selection into $or-!laces $here !erceive( social o!!ortunities are hi"h an(
social barriers are lo$% 4lthou"h there is ar"uabl1 less roo for a "en(er)t1!e( choice to
arise in this conte?t (because s!ecialiCation has alrea(1 ta-en !lace+ an( since a(ults
a1 not be as !eer focuse( as a(olescents)+ it a1 still e?ist+ !articularl1 for
in(ivi(uals $ith a hi"h fear of isolation%
'o conclu(e+ our !ro!ose( echanis a1 have consi(erabl1 lar"er sco!e than
e(ucational choice+ ran"in" fro 1oun" chil(ren choosin" to !la1 $ith (olls versus
truc-s to "ro$n)u!s s$itchin" jobsD its stren"th bein" that it !in)!oints the influence
frien(s $ill have $henever there is a !otential tra(eoff bet$een one<s o$n+ an(
frien(s<+ !references% 4lthou"h its relative i!ortance is li-el1 to var1 across conte?t
an( further research is $arrante(+ $e $oul( not be sur!rise( if there are other s!ecific
situations $here this effect $ill be of hi"h i!ortance to the !oint $here it affects life
chan"in" (ecisions%
A%6% 2iitations
'he e!irical results re!orte( here are liite( to self)re!orts+ a t1!e of (ata $hich
a1 be subject to social (esirabilit1 concerns% Bo$ever+ as it is har(l1 (esirable to
re!ort tra(in" one<s actual career interests for the choices one<s frien(s a-e+ $e a1
ar"uabl1 have un(erestiate( the effect% .urtherore+ as $e estiate( the role of
sae)"en(er vs% other)"en(er frien(s in an in(irect anner+ social (esirable
res!on(in" relate( to frien(s< "en(er $as iniiCe(% =f one is concerne( about
internal vali(it1+ i%e% $ith (irect testin" of the echanis itself+ an e?!eriental
a!!roach $oul( !robabl1 be !referable% 5ne $a1 to "o $oul( be to ani!ulate the
nee( to belon" (e%"%+ throu"h !riin" or false fee(bac- about !eer rejection) to see if
this !ro(uces ore "en(er)t1!e( !referencesD a-in to $hat "en(er i(entit1 threat
(oes (Sinclair @ Carlsson+ 2016)% 4(itte(l1+ there is also roo for further
s!ecification of the e(iatin" an( o(eratin" social)co"nitive echaniss of the
effect+ as the ain !ur!ose of the !resent stu(1 $as restricte( to intro(ucin" the basic
echanis an( co!leent it $ith relevant (ata% .urtherore+ the $illin"ness to
a(just one<s e(ucational choices a1 (e!en( on a((itional frien(shi! factors+ besi(es
closeness level of the frien(shi!%
4s (escribe( in the =ntro(uction section+ there are (ifferences in e(ucational
structure that a1 !ut liits to the tra(eoff bet$een frien(shi! an( o$n e(ucational
!references% =n a sense+ frien(shi! !riorit1 coul( be seen as a lu?ur1 ren(ere( !ossible
b1 societies that allo$ for free choice% :hen one<s !rofession is (ictate( b1 fail1+ cast
s1stes an( the li-e+ the influence of frien(shi! on e(ucational choice shoul( be of little
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
20
concern%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
21
0revious research in(icates that in(ivi(ual (ifferences in collectivis are in soe
cases of i!ortance for $or- values (Bartun"+ .oua(+ 2eon"+ @ Bar(in+ 2010)% =t is
also !ossible that the ten(enc1 to !rioritiCe frien(shi!s in e(ucational choice a1 be
!articularl1 !ertinent in ore collectivist cultures+ $here social relations ten( to
constitute a ore central !art of an in(ivi(ual<s i(entit1 (Mar-us @ 7ita1aa+ 1991)%
5n the other han(+ in collectivist cultures it a1 be the case that fail1 ebers+
rather than frien(s+ are "iven ain !riorit1 $hen it coes to career choices% 4 recent
cross)cultural stu(1 $ith 4erican+ Chinese+ an( Bon" 7on" sa!les in(icates that+
at least $hen it coes to the role of !erceive( su!!ort fro !eers for career
e?!loration an( coitent+ these cultures (o not (iffer (Cheun"+ :an+ .an+ 2eon"+
@ Mo-+ 2016)%
A%4%
=!lication
s
5ur fin(in"s attest to the i!ortance of consi(erin" inter!ersonal relationshi!s
in career (evelo!ent research% =t is i!ortant+ ho$ever+ to -ee! in in( that $e
!ro!ose a s!ecific echanis of ho$ frien(shi! !riorit1 lea(s to aintaine(
e(ucational "en(er se"re"ation% :e (o not atte!t to !rovi(e a co!lete anal1sis of
career choice as (o for e?a!le relational theorists (e%"%+ Blustein+ 2011)+ an( SCC'
(2ent et al%+ 1994)+ but rather a s!ecific an( uni;ue contribution to the literature% 'he fact
that it is a s!ecific echanis i!lies that it cannot be e?!ecte( to cover all !ossible
varieties of influence bet$een frien(s% :e of course realiCe that !eer influence can
also be of a ore (1naic nature than is ca!ture( b1 our echanis+ for e?a!le+
one !ossibilit1 a1 be that soe in(ivi(uals have the !ersonal a"enc1 to !ersua(e
their frien(s to a(just their choice instea(%
5ur fin(in" that soe a(olescents factor in frien(shi! in their e(ucational choices
has i!lications for relate( o(els+ such as 8ottfre(son<s (1981+ 200L)
circuscri!tion an( co!roise o(el% 'his o(el also focuses on se?)t1!e of the
job+ but e!hasiCes that "en(er at1!ical occu!ations are rejecte( alrea(1 in
chil(hoo( because of !erceive( inco!atibilit1 $ith "en(er i(entit1% =n ters of
8ottfre(son<s conce!ts+ there a!!ears to be no connection bet$een our !ro!ose(
frien(shi! echanis an( the circuscri!tion !rocess% 'he co!roise !rocess+
ho$ever+ is siilar in that !erceive( barriers to obtain a certain t1!e of career a1 be
$ei"hte( $ith one<s interests to for into career choice%
5ur fin(in"s are also consistent $ith social co"nitive career theor1 (2ent et al%+ 1994+
2000) in that in(ivi(uals not onl1 activel1 influence their situation but also a1 be less
a$are of certain e?ternal barriers to their career outcoes% =n SCC'+ ho$ever+ "en(er
is !riaril1 consi(ere( as a !erson factor+ $hile our frien(shi! echanis e!hasiCes
ho$ the role of "en(er as a !erson factor interacts $ith the role of "en(er (in
frien(shi! net$or-s) as a conte?tual variable% SCC' further !ro!oses that !ro?ial
conte?tual influences can affect career i!leentation either in a (irect $a1+ or in an
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
22
in(irect $a1+ o(eratin" the relation bet$een interests an( "oals or bet$een "oals an(
actions (2ent et al%+ 2000)% 5ur frien(shi! echanis coul( be inter!rete( as an
e?a!le of the latter+ sho$in" ho$ a barrier (the !erceive( ris- of losin" frien(s) can
o(erate the lin- bet$een interests an( e(ucational choice% 4s such+ our echanis is
consistent $ith the "eneral line of thou"ht in both SCC' (2ent et al%+ 2000) an( in
8ottfre(son<s (200L) theor1 of circuscri!tion an( co!roise+ but cannot be
(irectl1 inferre( fro either theor1%
=f soe in(ivi(uals are $illin" to tra(e their true interests for the o!!ortunit1 to be
$ith frien(s+ this a1 create ne"ative conse;uences for societ1 as $ell as for the
in(ivi(ual% Consi(er for e?a!le a 1oun" an $ho+ because of frien(s+ !ursues a career
!ath in en"ineerin"+ (es!ite bein" ore intereste( in health care% 9ven if he (oes not
suffer an1 !ersonal conse;uences fro his career co!roise+ his choice a1 ean
that he occu!ies a !osition that a ore otivate( feale en"ineer coul( have fille(
an( that the labor ar-et isses out on a $ell)nee(e( ale nurse% 'hat is+ because this
echanis a((s to the occu!ational "en(er se"re"ation on the labor ar-et+ it a1
contribute to the "en(er "a! in $a"es (0etersen @ Mor"an+ 199L) an( a1 !ossibl1
hin(er or"aniCational !erforance (7rishnan @ 0ar-+ 200L)%
Career choices are aon" the ost i!ortant (ecisions in life+ an( !revious research
su""ests that co!roise can result in re(uce( $ell)bein" an( $or-)relate(
satisfaction (Carr+ 199ED Meir+ Melae(+ @ Dinur+ 199LD 'saousi(es @ Joe+ 2008)%
=n(ee(+ it has been sho$n that inactions are associate( $ith ore re"ret than actions
(8ilovich @ Me(vec+ 199L)+ su""estin" that choosin" to settle for a career !ath that
the in(ivi(ual consi(ers less interestin" a1 have ne"ative !s1cholo"ical
conse;uences later in life% Bo$ever+ even thou"h the (ecision to tra(e one<s
e(ucational !references for frien(s a!!ears irrational at first "lance+ it shoul( be note(
that re(uce( self)estee an( $ell)bein" relate( to the loss of frien(s a1 also be ver1
!ainful to the in(ivi(ual% 'he !erceive( costs of losin" co!an1 a1 loo lar"e in the
short ter $hereas the costs associate( $ith career co!roise a1 not% =n the li"ht
of such cost calculations a co!roise a!!ears less irrational% 5n the $hole+ re"rets
about social relationshi!s are ore intense than several other t1!es of re"rets (e%"%+
health relate( issues)+ but career re"rets are aon" to! re"rets too (Morrison+
9!stu(e+ @ ,oese+ 2012D ,oese @ Suerville+ 200L)% ,e"ar(less of ho$ reasonable it
is to $ei"h frien(shi! into one<s career relate( (ecisions+ our fin(in"s certainl1 have
i!lications for Baueister an( 2ear1<s (199L) belon"in"ness h1!othesis% 'he fin(in"
that the $ish to be aon" frien(s a!!ears stron" enou"h to affect career relate(
choices len(s cre(ibilit1 to the clai that the nee( to belon" is a crucial !s1cholo"ical
otive%
=n conclusion+ the effect of frien(shi! !riorit1 on e(ucational choice is an obstacle to
the labor ar-et becoin" ore "en(er balance(% 4lthou"h it is not !ossible (or
(esirable) to eliinate social nee(s+ in(ivi(uals an( societ1 $oul( benefit fro
interests+ rather than frien(s< choices+ as the ain !riorit1 $hen it coes to career
relate( (ecisions%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
26
,efere
nces
Baueister+ ,% .%+ @ 2ear1+ M% ,% (199L)% 'he nee( to belon"# Desire for
inter!ersonal attachents as a fun(aental huan otivation% 0s1cholo"ical
B u llet in + 11E+ 49E L29% Ber"eron+ D% M%+ Bloc-+ C% J%+ @ 9chten-a!+ B% 4% (200A)%
Disablin" the able# Stereot1!e threat an( $oen<s $or- !erforance% Buan
0erforance+ 19+ 166 1L8% Blustein+ D% 2% (2011)% 4 relational theor1 of $or-in"%
Journal of Vocational Behavior+ E9+ 1 1E%
Blustein+ D% 2%+ 0reCioso+ M% S%+ @ Schultheiss+ D% 0% (199L)% 4ttachent theor1 an(
career (evelo!ent# Current status an( future (irections% 'he Counselin"
0s1cholo"ist+ 26+ 41A 462%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
24
Blustein+ D% 2%+ Schultheiss+ D% 9% 0%+ @ .lu+ B% (2004)% 'o$ar( a relational
!ers!ective of the !s1cholo"1 of careers an( $or-in"# 4 social constructionist
anal1sis%
Journal of Vocational Behavior+ A4+ 426 440%
CalvG)4ren"ol+ 4%+ 0atacchini+ 9%+ @ Oenou+ Y% (2009)% 0eer effects an( social
net$or-s in e(ucation% ,evie$ of 9conoic Stu(ies+ EA+ 1269 12AE%
Carr+ D% (199E)% 'he fulfillent of career (reas at i(life# Does it atter for
$oen<s ental health* Journal of Bealth an( Social Behavior+ 68+ 661 644%
Cheun"+ .% M%+ :an+ S% 2% Y%+ .an+ :%+ 2eon"+ .%+ @ Mo-+ 0% C% B% (2016)% Collective
contributions to career efficac1 in a(olescents# 4 cross)cultural stu(1% Journal of
Vocational Behavior+ 86+ 26E 244%
Cochran+ D% B%+ :an"+ 9% :%+ Stevenson+ S% J%+ Johnson+ 2% 9%+ @ Cre$s+ C% (2011)%
4(olescent occu!ational as!irations# test of 8ottfre(son<s theor1 of
circuscri!tion an( co!roise% 'he Career Develo!ent Kuarterl1+ L9+ 412
42E%
Crosnoe+ ,%+ Cavana"h+ S%+ @ 9l(er+ 8% B%+ Jr% (2006)% 4(olescent frien(shi!s as
aca(eic resources# 'he intersection of frien(shi!+ race+ an( school
(isa(vanta"e%
Sociolo"ical 0ers!ectives+ 4A+ 661 6L2%
Dic-erson+ 4%+ @ 'a1lor+ M% 4% (2000)% Self)liitin" behavior in $oen# S e lf)
e s tee an( self)efficac1 as !r e( ic to r s % 8rou! an( 5r"aniCation Mana"eent+ 2L+
191 21 0% Die-an+ 4% B%+ Clar-+ 9% 7%+ Johnston+ 4% M%+ Bro$n+ 9% ,%+ @ Steinber"+
M% (2011)% Malleabilit1 in counal "oals an( beliefs influences attraction to
S'9M caree rs#
9vi(ence for a "oal con"ruit1 !ers!ective% Journal of 0ersonalit1 an( Social
0s1cholo"1+ 101+ 902 918%
.elsan+ D% 9%+ @ Blustein+ D% 2% (1999)% 'he role of !eer relate(ness in late
a(olescent career (evelo!ent% Journal of Vocational Behavior+ L4+ 2E9 29L%
.lu+ B% (2001)% ,elational (iensions in career (evelo!ent% Journal of
Vocational Behavior+ L9+ 1 1A%
8ar(ner+ :% 2%+ 0ic-ett+ C% 2%+ @ Bre$er+ M% B% (2000)% Social e?clusion an(
selective eor1% Bo$ the nee( to belon" influences eor1 for social events%
0ersonalit1 an( Social 0s1cholo"1 Bulletin+ 2A+ 48A 49A%
8ere+ J%+ @ MacDonal(+ 8% (2010)% 4n u!(ate of the e!irical case for
the nee( to belon"% 'he Journal of =n(ivi(ual 0s1cholo"1+ AA+ 96 11L%
8ilovich+ '%+ @ Me(vec+ V% B% (199L)% 'he e?!erience of re"ret# :hat+
$hen+ an( $h1% 0s1cholo"ical ,evie$+ 102+ 6E9 69L%
8ottfre(son+ 2% S% (1981)% Ci rc u scr i! t io n an( co!roise# 4 (evelo!ental
theor1 of occu!ational as!irations% Journal of C o uns eli n " 0s1cholo"1 Mono"ra!h+ 28+
L4L LE9%
8ottfre(son+ 2% S% (200L)% 4!!l1in" 8ottfre(son<s theor1 of circuscri!tion an(
co!roise in career "ui(ance an( counselin"% =n S% D% Bro$n+ @ ,% :% 2ent (9(s%)+
Career (evelo!ent an( counselin"# 0uttin" theor1 an( research to $or- (!!% E1
100)% Re$ Yor-# :ile1%
Bac-ett+ 8%+ @ BetC+ R% 9% (1981)% 4 self)efficac1 a!!roach to the career
(evelo!ent of $oen% Journal of Vocational Behavior+ 18+ 62A 669%
Bafen+ C% 4%+ 2aursen+ B%+ Bur-+ :% J%+ 7err+ M%+ @ Stattin+ B% (2011)% Boo!hil1 in
stable an( unstable a(olescent frien(shi!s# Siilarit1 bree(s constanc1%
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
2L
0ersonalit1 an( =n(ivi(ual Differences+ L1+ A0E A12%
Bartun"+ 0% J%+ .oua(+ R% 4%+ 2eon"+ .% '% 2%+ @ Bar(in+ 9% 9% (2010)% =n(ivi(ualis
collectivis# 2in-s to occu!ational !lans an( $or- values% Journal of Career
4ssessent+ 18+ 64 4L%
Ba1es+ 4% .%+ Matthes+ J%+ @ 9velan(+ :% 0% (2011)% Stiulatin" the ;uasi)statistical
or"an# .ear of social isolation otivates the ;uest for -no$le("e of the o!inion
cliate% Counication ,esearch%
htt!#&&(?%(oi%or"&10%11EE&0096AL0211428A08 (4(vance online !ublication)%
Jones+ M% B%+ 4u(le1)0iotro$s-i+ S% ,%+ @ 7iefer+ S% M% (2012)% ,elationshi!s aon"
a(olescents< !erce!tions of frien(s< behaviors+ aca(eic self)conce!t+ an(
!erforance% Journal of 9(ucational 0s1cholo"1+ 104+ 19 41%
7an(el+ D% B% (19E8)% Boo!hil1+ selection+ an( socialiCation in a(olescent
frien(shi!s% 4erican Journal of Sociolo"1+ 84+ 42E 46A%
7no$les+ M% 2%+ 2ucas+ 8% M%+ Mol(en+ D% C%+ 8ar(ner+ :% 2%+ @ Dean+ 7% 7% (2010)%
'here<s no substitute for belon"in"# Self)affiration follo$in" social an(
nonsocial threats% 0ersonalit1 an( Social 0s1cholo"1 Bulletin+ 6A+ 1E6 18A%
7rac-e+ B% (2002)% 'he role of !ersonalit1+ !arents+ an( !eers in a(olescents< career
e?!loration% Journal of 4(olescence+ 2L+ 19 60%
7rishnan+ B% 4%+ @ 0ar-+ D% (200L)% 4 fe$ "oo( $oen on to! ana"eent
teas% Journal of Business ,esearch+ L8+ 1E12 1E20%
2arson+ ,%+ @ ,ichar(s+ M% B% (1991)% Dail1 co!anionshi! in late chil(hoo( an(
earl1 a(olescence# C h a n " in " (evelo!ental co nt e? t s % Chil( Develo!ent+ A2+
284 600 % 2ear1+ M% ,%+ 'abor+ 9% S%+ 'er(al+ S% 7%+ @ Do$ns+ D% J% (199L)% Self)
estee as an inter!ersonal onitor# 'he socioeter h1!othesis% Journal of
0ersonalit1 an( Social
0s1cholo"1+ A8+ L18 L60%
2ent+ ,% :%+ Bro$n+ S% D%+ @ Bac-ett+ 8% (1994)% 'o$ar( a unif1in" social co"nitive
theor1 of career an( aca(eic interest+ choice+ an( !erforance% Journal of
Vocational Behavior+ 4L+ E9 122%
2ent+ ,% :%+ Bro$n+ S% D%+ @ Bac-ett+ 8% (2000)% Conte?tual su!!orts an( barriers
to career choice# 4 social co"nitive anal1sis% Jo ur nal of C o unselin" 0s1cholo"1+ 4E+
6A 49% 2ent+ ,% :%+ Bro$n+ S% D%+ 'alle1ran(+ ,%+ Mc0artlan(+ 9% B%+ Davis+ '%+
Cho!ra+ S% B%+ et al% (2002)% Career choice barriers+ su!!ort+ an( co!in" strate"ies#
Colle"e
stu(ents e?!eriences% Journal of Vocational Behavior+ A0+ A1 E2%
Maccob1+ 9% 9% (1990)% 8en(er an( relationshi!s# 4 (evelo!ental account%
4erican 0s1cholo"ist+ 4L+ L16 L20%
Mar-us+ B% ,%+ @ 7ita1aa+ S% (1991)% Culture an( the self# =!lications for
co"nition+ eotion+ an( otivation% 0s1cholo"ical ,evie$+ 98+ 224 2L6%
Marsh+ B% :%+ @ 5<Reill+ ,% (1984)% Self (escri!tion ;uestionnaire === (SDK ===)# 'he
construct vali(it1 of ulti(iensional self)conce!t ratin"s b1 late a(olescents%
Journal of 9(ucational Measureent+ 21+ 1L6 1E4%
Mehta+ C% M%+ @ Strou"h+ J% (2009)% 8en(er se"re"ation in frien(shi!s an(
norative conte?ts across the life s!an% Develo!ental ,evie$+ 29+ 201 220%
Mehta+ C% M%+ @ Strou"h+ J% (2010)% 8en(er se"re"ation an( "en(er)t1!in" in
a(olescence% Se? ,oles+ A6+ 2L1 2A6%
Meir+ 9% =%+ Melae(+ S%+ @ Dinur+ C% (199L)% 'he benefits of con"ruence% Career
Develo!ent Kuarterl1+ 46+ 2LE 2AA%
Morrison+ 7% ,%+ 9!stu(e+ 7%+ @ ,oese+ R% J% (2012)% 2ife re"rets an( the
S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
2A
nee( to belon"% Social 0s1cholo"ical an( 0ersonalit1 Science+ 6+ AEL A81%
59CD (2016)% 9(ucation at a 8lance 2016# 59CD =n(icators% ,etrieve(
fro% # 59CD 0ublishin"% htt!#&&(?%(oi%or" &10%1E8E&ea")2016)e n %
0etersen+ '%+ @ Mor"an+ 2% 4% (199L)% Se!arate an( une;ual# 5ccu!ation)
establishent se? se"re"ation an( the "en(er $a"e "a!% 4erican Journal of
Sociolo"1 +
101+ 629 6AL%
0hilli!s+ S% D%+ Christo!her)Sis-+ 9%+ @ 8ravino+ 7% (2001)% Ma-in" career (ecisions
in a relational conte?t% 'he Counselin" 0s1cholo"ist+ 29+ 196 216%
0ic-ett+ C% 2%+ 8ar(ner+ :% 2%+ @ 7no$les+ M% (2004)% 8ettin" a cue# 'he nee( to
belon" an( enhance( sensitivit1 to social cues% 0ersonalit1 an( Social 0s1cholo"1
Bulletin+ 60+ 109L 110E%
0oulin+ .%+ @ 0e(ersen+ S% (200E)% Develo!ental chan"es in "en(er co!osition
of frien(shi! net$or-s in a(olescent "irls an( bo1s% Develo!ental 0s1cholo"1+ 46+
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0ersonalit1 an( Social 0s1cholo"1 Bulletin+ 61+ 12E6 128L%
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124 162%
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Sinclair+ S%+ @ Carlsson+ ,% (2016)% :hat $ill = be $hen = "ro$ u!* 'he i!act of
"en(er i(entit1 threat on a(olescents< occu!ational !references% Journal of
4(olescence+ 6A+ 4AL 4E4%
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9uro!ean labour ar-ets% =nternational Journal of Co!arative Sociolo"1+ 49+ 2LE
281% Su+ ,%+ ,oun(s+ J%+ @ 4rstron"+ 0% =% (2009)% Men an( t h in " s + $oen an(
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of learnin" e?!eriences in social co"nitive career theor1% Journal of Vocational
Behavior+ E1+ 619 669%
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S% Sinclair et al% & Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 109J118
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194 % VilhjFls(Gttir+ 8%+ @ 4rn-elsson+ 8% B% (2016)% Social as!ects of career
choice fro the !ers!ective of habitus theor1% Journal of Vocational Behavior+ 86+
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