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Leonardo
Half-Brained Ideas about Education: Thinking and Learning with Both the Left and Right Brain
in a Visual Culture
Author(s): Lawrence E. Murr and James B. Williams
Source: Leonardo, Vol. 21, No. 4 (1988), pp. 413-419
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1578704
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Half-Brained I deas ab o u t Edu cat io n:
Thinking and Learning w it h Bo t h t he Left and
R ight Brain in a V is u al C u lt u re
Law rence E. Mu rr and James B. Williams
Ab s t ract -Fo r cent u ries edu cat o rs have fo cu s ed o n t he print ed and s po ken w o rd as t he mediu m
fo r t rans ferring kno w ledge.
This
emphas is
o n s peech and t ext has meant t hat t he areas o f t he
b rain's left hemis phere linked t o t hes e t ypes o f langu age pro ces s ing are w ell exercis ed, w hile
s pat ial reas o ning, s ymb o lic pro ces s ing and pict o rial int erpret at io n, w hich s eem t o b e t ied t o t he
right hemis phere,
remain largely igno red. Wit h t he develo pment o f t elevis io n and t he
micro co mpu t er, print -b as ed t ext no lo nger can mo no po lize o u r s ymb o lic enviro nment . The
emphas is o n t ext mu s t b e b alanced b y at t ent io n t o graphic fo rmat s and t he vis u al art s , b y rais ing
o u r co ns cio u s nes s o f s ymb o ls , co nnect ing
t ext and
graphics t hro u gh langu age net w o rks and
creat ing a co mpat ib ilit y w it h o u r vis u al cu lt u re.
I . I NTR ODUC TI ON
Hardly a day go es b y any mo re t hat
anyo ne w ho reads virt u ally anyt hing do es
no t find a cris is
alert ,
a w arning, a
reco mmendat io n o r a new idea ab o u t
alt ering o r impro ving edu cat io n in t he
Unit ed St at es . We read t hat mo re t han
half o f t he t eachers t eaching t his o r t hat
(part icu larly mat h and s cience)
are no t
qu alified, t hat s t u dent s co res are
go ing
do w n o r no t impro ving, t hat t eachers are
b u rned
o u t ,
t hat s t u dent s are b o red and
expect t o b e ent ert ained in t he clas s ro o m,
t hat t eachers s ho u ld b e t es t ed, t hat
kindergart ners s ho u ld b e dis co u raged
fro m
co mpet ing,
t hat t eachers are no t
held in high regard, t hat reading pro grams
are
failing,
t hat co lleges
are
falt ering,
and
s o o n.
Paralleling
t hes e inces s ant diat rib es
are t ho s e t hat b lame as
many
o f t hes e
dilemmas as po s s ib le o n t he 'b ad influ ence
o f t elevis io n'. And o f co u rs e t here is t he
pers is t ent
allu s io n t o cu ring mo s t o f t he
edu cat io nal ills , inclu ding
t hat o f t eacher
mo rale, if o nly w e had t he b illio ns o f
do llars neces s ary
t o make it all
right .
Why, w e as k, is t his happening?
So me
o f u s w o nder ho w it is t hat w e have
develo ped
t he
s o phis t icat ed t echno lo gy
b as e t hat has t aken u s t o t he mo o n and is
Law rence E. Mu rr (res earch s cient is t , au t ho r,
edu cat o r), Orego n Gradu at e C ent er, 19600 N.W.
V o n Neu mann Dr., Beavert o n, OR 97006-1999,
U.S.A.
James . B. Williams , (b io medical co mmu nicat io ns
adminis t rat o r, edu cat o r), Orego n
Healt h Sciences
Univers it y, 3181 S.W. Sam Jacks o n Park R d,
Po rt land OR 97201, U.S.A.
R eceived 6 Ju ly 1987.
repairing 'b ro ken heart s ' t hro u gh b ypas s
o perat io ns and
'b allo o ning o f o u r art eries '
at t he rat e o f s o me 100,000 o perat io ns a
year, du ring a t ime w hen o u r s cho o ls
fro m
kindergart en t hro u gh t he Ph.D.
w ere
det erio rat ing s o rapidly. Even t he
at t it u des o f ent ering co llege fres hmen
have t u rned aro u nd in t he las t 2 decades .
I n 1967, 44% o f co llege fres hmen in t he
U.S. b elieved it es s ent ial o r
impo rt ant t o
b e w ell-o ff financially.
I n 1985 t his
nu mb er had gro w n t o 71%. I n 1967, 83%
o f t hes e s ame fres hmen b elieved it w as
impo rt ant
t o develo p a
meaningfu l
philo s o phy o f life, b u t b y 1985 t his
nu mb er had
dro pped
t o 43% [1]. Fo u r
decades
ago ,
o u r
parent s
and
grandparent s
had jo b s t hey held fo r mo s t if no t all o f
t heir lives .
Many jo b s
w ere
pas s ed do w n
fro m generat io n t o generat io n. Many
w ere
farming
o r farm relat ed, many mo re
w ere in
manu fact u ring.
The s imples t explanat io n
fo r all t his
invo lves
change,
and t ho s e as s o ciat ed
element s o f t ime w hich are
o ngo ing
and
irrevo cab le. Bu t
change
it s elf is mu lt i-
lat eral: t he
farming eco no my, t he emb o di-
ment o f t he
Agricu lt u ral Age,
is
declining
in t he U.S., alo ng
w it h it s
co mplement ,
t he
manu fact u ring eco no my
o f t he
I ndu s t rial Age.
The
emerging t echno lo gies
o f t he I nfo rmat io n Age,
w hich drive a
large
s ervice eco no my,
are ever
changing,
and o u r aw arenes s o f t his new eco no mic
t u rb u lence is increas ing
as a new vis u al
cu lt u re charact erized
b y
t he infu s io n o f
t elevis io n, USA
To day, V C R s , co mpu t ers ,
et c., t akes
s hape.
Thes e declining and emerging s o cial,
eco no mic and cu lt u ral
pheno mena
are
fo rcing fu ndament al changes
in ho w w e
edu cat e o u r children and reedu cat e
o u rs elves . The
changes are jeo pardizing
o u r familiar w ays o f t he pas t and t he
t radit io n o f
jo b s t ab ilit y at t he heart o f t he
s o -called w o rk et hic. A 'go o d' edu cat io n
and hard w o rk no lo nger as s u re
jo b
s ecu rit y, and w e hear an accu mu lat ing
cho ru s o f career co ns u lt ant s u rging u s t o
b e lifelo ng learners in o rder t o develo p
flexib le t alent s t o co incide w it h flexib le
jo b s .
The pro s pect o f having t o b e
co nt inu al learners is fright ening fo r mo s t
o f u s . Mo s t o f u s do no t
enjo y learning;
mo s t o f u s have never really learned ho w
t o learn. Mo s t o f u s have b elieved t hat
w hat w e learned fo r a diplo ma o r a degree
w o u ld pro vide
u s w it h a lifelo ng t rade o r
jo b .
We learned t o earn. No w w e are
b eing as ked t o learn t o learn.
I t is o u r inab ilit y t o reco gnize s o me o f
t hes e
changes ,
let alo ne t o deal effect ively
w it h t hem, t hat has
s parked
a recent ras h
o f half-b rained ideas fo r
impro ving
t he
nat u re and qu alit y o f o u r s cho o ls and
co lleges . Since change
invo lves t ime, and
t ime
pas t
o ft en ho lds
t emplat es
o f
pas t
changes , his t o ry may pro vide
u s w it h a
cert ain ins ight , and even
fo res ight .
I I . THE C ULTUR E OF THE BOOK
Befo re t he print ed b o o k, memo ry ru led
daily
life and s erved as t he principal
vehicle fo r learning. Edu cat io n, t he
met ho do lo gy o f learning,
relied
u po n
memo ry as it s delivery s ys t em. The
memo ry o f individu als and co mmu nit ies
t rans po rt ed kno w ledge t hro u gh s pace
and t ime, and t he element s o f edu cat io n
w ere
garnered, pres erved
and s t o red in
memo ry. Even w ell int o t he Middle
Ages ,
? 1988 I SAST
Pergamo n Pres s pic.
Print edinGreat Brit ain.
0024-094X/88 $3.00+0.00
LEONAR DO,
V o l.
21,
No .
4, pp. 413-419,
1988
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s t u dent s had almo s t no s o u rces o f
info rmat io n o r ideas o t her t han t he w o rds
t heir t eachers s po ke fro m memo ry. The
s po ken w o rd w as t he
principal
mo de o f
co mmu nicat io n u nt il Gu t enb erg invent ed
mo veab le t ype and t he b o o k b ecame t he
principal agent fo r t he t rans fer o f
kno w ledge.
I n The Dis co verers , Daniel Bo o rs t in
w rit es , "Men t end t o res ent t he int ru s io n
o f a new mediu m o f co mmu nicat io n and
o ft en feel
co mpelled t o defend t he o lder
mediu m agains t ant icipat ed o r act u al
co mpet it io n. So crat es ,
fo r
example,
w ro t e
no b o o ks and b elieved t hat t hey w ere
inferio r t o t he s po ken w o rd as a means o f
edu cat io n.... The learned co mmu nit y
w arned t hat
po pu larizing b o o ks w o u ld
vu lgarize learning. Even b efo re 1500
[A.D.], a
s qu eamis h V enet ian man o f
let t ers
co mplained t hat yo u co u ld no t
w alk
alo ng t he canal w it ho u t
having
cheap b o o ks pu s hed at yo u 'like cat s in a
b ag.'
Mo re means w o rs e. Ab u ndance o f
b o o ks makes men les s s t u dio u s "
[2].
No w t hat t elevis io n and
hypert ele-
vis io n-video t o o ls s u ch as t he micro -
co mpu t er,
t he co mpact dis k and int eract ive
video
t echno lo gies -have
b eco me s o me-
w hat pervas ive in o u r
s o ciet y,
w e are
w arned again t hat
po pu larizing t elevis io n,
video
t apes and video t o o ls w ill vu lgarize
edu cat io n. I n o ne
s t u dy,
t eachers w arned
t hat t elevis io n had made t heir s t u dent s
expect t o b e ent ert ained in t he clas s ro o m
and t hat
view ing t elevis io n had changed
s t u dent s ' ab ilit y t o learn. They t ho u ght
t heir s t u dent s had s ho rt er at t ent io n s pans ,
b u t fo u nd t hem mo re res po ns ive t o vis u al
met ho ds o f
t eaching. Many t eachers
s u rveyed s aid t hey act u ally had changed
t heir
t eaching met ho ds in res po ns e t o
t elevis io n's impact [3].
Bu t s ince t he s ixt eent h cent u ry w e have
lived in t he
age o f
Gu t enb erg and t eachers
have b een
largely o b s es s ed w it h
ins t ru ct ing
t heir s t u dent s in ho w t o read. This
o b s es s io n co nt inu es alo ng w it h o u r
o b s es s io n w it h t he
print ed,
s erial b o o k
and w it h t he 'cu lt u re o f t he b o o k'. I n
C o llege: The
Undergradu at e Experience in
America, pu b lis hed b y t he
C arnegie
Fo u ndat io n fo r t he Advancement o f
Teaching,
w e
find,
"The
u ndergradu at e
co llege als o has a s pecial o b ligat io n no t
o nly t o s u ppo rt adequ at ely t he lib rary,
b u t in a
larger s ens e t o s u s t ain t he cu lt u re
o f t he b o o k [it alics o u rs ]. C o lleges s ho u ld
celeb rat e t he b o o k and s chedu le act ivit ies
each
year t hat feat u re b o o ks and
reading..." [4]. I n t he Orego nian New s -
paper,
Pau l Pint arich has w rit t en, "Once
u po n a
t ime,
in a land filled w it h
t elevis io n s et s and video dis play t erminals ,
peo ple w ho s t ill lo ved b o o ks b egan t o
w o rry ab o u t t he children. Wo u ld
t hey,
t o o , learn t o lo ve t he w rit t en
w o rd,
o r
w o u ld t hey s u ccu mb and fo llo w an
elect ro nic Pied
Piper
o ff t o s o me no n-
int ellect u al
[it alics o u rs ] never-never land?
No t t o w o rry,
fo r it s eems t he
piper's
pit ch
has
gro w n
a b it
o ff-key. C hildren
acro s s t he land o nce
again
are
fo llo w ing
an o ld-fas hio ned dru mmer int o b o o ks t o res
acro s s t he co u nt ry. ... Fro m 1980 t o
1985,
s ales o f hardco ver children's and ju venile
b o o ks ju mped fro m $16 millio n t o an
as t o nis hing $219 millio n.... Meanw hile
s ales o f
paperb ack b o o ks in t he s ame
genre
ro s e fro m $66 millio n t o $113
millio n..."
[5].
Du ring t he s ame perio d (1980-1985)
t he pers o nal co mpu t er emerged and mo re
t han 12 millio n s u ch co mpu t ers w ere s o ld
K--KF
Su perio r co
I nferik
o f lingu is t ic s o u nds , and t he
pro ces s ing o f t ext (T) in gener-
al ix int imat ely t ied t o t he o per-
at io no f areas int he left hemi-
s phere o f t he b rain.
in t he Unit ed St at es
[6].
Als o
du ring
t he
s ame
t ime,
t he video cas s et t e reco rder
(V C R )
w as
develo ped,
manu fact u red and
s o ld
co mmercially. By
1986
nearly
7 o f 10
ho mes in t he Unit ed St at es had a V C R .
By co mparis o n, o nly
ab o u t 2 ho mes in 10
had a s izeab le b o o k
co llect io n, inclu ding
encyclo pedias [7].
So t he
po rt ab le
'vis u al
b o o k',
t he video cas s et t e
t ape,
o ver a
perio d
o f 5
years
has int ru ded int o o u r
co ns cio u s nes s t o a far
great er
ext ent t han
500
years
o f b o o k
pu b lis hing.
Fo r
nearly
500
years ,
Wes t ern civili-
zat io n has lived in t he
age
o f
Gu t enb erg.
Print has do minat ed o u r
co ncept io n
and
percept io n
o f t he edu cat io nal
pro ces s .
Print has
s haped
o u r lit erat u re and
co ndit io ned o u r
res po ns e
t o
lit erary
There is no w ay t o t ell w het her t he
pat t erns ext ract edb y t he right hemi-
s phere are real o r imaginedw it ho u t
s u b ject ing t hem t o left hemis phere
s cru t iny. Ont he o t her hand, mere
crit ical t hinking, w it ho u t creat ive and
int u it ive ins ight s , w it ho u t t he s earch
fo r new pat t erns , is s t erile and
do o med. To s o lve co mplex pro b -
lems inchanging circu ms t ances re-
qu ires t he act ivit y o f b o t h cereb ral
hemis pheres : t he pat h t o t he fu t u re
lies t hro u gh t he co rpu s callo s u m
(fro m C arl Sagan inThe Drago ns o f
Eden, 1977.)
re
Thalamu s
ereb ellu m
nmis s u res
V is u al ands pat ial fu nct io ns , in-
clu ding t he ideo graphic reading
o f Eas t ernlangu ages (s u ch as
C hines e andJapanes e) are int i-
mat ely t iedt o t ho s e cent ers int he
right hemis phere o f t he b raint hat
int erpret andpro ces s pict o rial and
graphic (G) mat erials .
Fig.
1. Schemat ic
repres ent at io n
o f left and
right
b rain
hemis pheres
and
co rres po nding
t ext and
graphics pro ces s ing co mpo nent s o f t he pers o nal co mpu t er.
Mu rr and
Williams ,
Edu cat io n in a V is u al C u lt u re
414
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Sket ches and graphic element s
fro m t he mo re t han 8000 pages
o f Leo nardo da V inci's no t es illu s -
t rat e t he no n-s erial co nnect io ns
o f t ext b lo cks and graphic co mpo -
nent s t o pro vide an u nders t and-
ing o f co mplex t echnical, s cient if-
ic, and even philo s o phical co n-
cept s . His no t es pro vide u nu s u al
examples o f co nt ext b u ilding. I t
mu s t have b een da V inci w ho eli-
cit ed t he expres s io n "a pict u re is
w o rt h a t ho u s and w o rds ."
experiences .
The lit erat i have b een t he
gat ekeepers
o f t his age, mo no po lizing t he
edu cat io nal pro ces s , do minat ing s cho o ls
o f edu cat io n and inhib it ing s o ciet y's
ab ilit y t o co mprehend
and u t ilize t he
emerging
vis u al cu lt u re and it s t o o ls -
t elevis io n and t he micro co mpu t er.
The
emergence
o f t his vis u al cu lt u re b egan
w it h t he invent io n o f t he firs t
pract ical
met ho d o f pho t o graphy
in 1839 and
co nt inu ed w it h t he int ro du ct io n o f mo vies
in 1894, t he firs t t elevis ed pict u re
in 1923,
t he firs t animat ed cart o o n in 1928, fu ll
co mmercial t elevis io n in 1941 and t he
accelerat io n o f vis u al
co ncept s
o ver t he
pas t
decade w it h t he int ro du ct io n o f t he
pers o nal co mpu t er,
t he V C R and video
and
co mpact
dis ks . C ert ainly print
and
t he print ed
b o o k w ill co nt inu e t o exert a
po w erfu l
influ ence o n o u r edu cat io nal
pro ces s es
and o u r s o ciet y,
b u t
equ ally
cert ain is t he fact t hat
print -b as ed
t ext no
lo nger can mo no po lize
o u r s ymb o lic
enviro nment . Since langu age s hapes
o u r
percept io n
o f realit y
it is clear t hat new
co ncept s
o f
langu age
mu s t b e
develo ped
w it h t he
emergence
o f t he vis u al cu lt u re.
Ju s t as t he pract ice
o f
langu age
in
_
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.........,~,,.
, ~ ?(
r
s J
.:;
.,.,., A_ . .........
...-
,
,..... f i^ "t j
.
1^-^
^^ ~*_-t - - # ' ' 'd
-
--
'
f
_ J W j.. mt @ . :'........., " 1..._f| #?
Wes t ern civilizat io n, as s erved b y s peech
and memo ry, w as alt ered b y t he invent io n
o f an
alphab et
and lat er it s enco ding
in
b o o ks t hro u gh mo veab le t ype,
s o it mu s t
b e alt ered again as a res u lt o f t he
invent io n o f vis u al t o o ls .
I I I . LEFT-BR AI N V S. R I GHT-BR AI N
LEAR NI NG
Ou r emphas is
o n t he
lingu is t ic
t rans -
mis s io n o f kno w ledge t hro u gh s peech
and t ext du ring
at leas t t he las t 500
years
has meant t hat cert ain areas in t he left
hemis phere
o f t he b rain linked t o t hes e
feat u res o f
langu age pro ces s ing
have b een
w ell exercis ed, w hile t he realm o f
s pat ial
reas o ning, s ymb o lic pro ces s ing
and
pict o rial int erpret at io n,
w hich s eems t o
b e predo minant ly
t ied t o t he
right
hemis phere
o f t he b rain, has remained
largely igno red (Fig. 1). C o gnit ive
s cient is t
Ho w ard Gardner,
in his 1984 b o o k
Frames
o f
Mind, has w rit t en,
Pro gres s
in s cience may,
in fact , b e
clo s ely yo ked t o t he develo pment
o f
cert ain s pat ial dis plays . Acco rding
t o
E. Fergu s o n, many
o f t he
pro b lems
in
w hich s cient is t s and engineers are
engaged canno t b e des crib ed in verb al
fo rm. The s cient ific pro gres s in t he
R enais s ance may have b een int imat ely
t ied t o t he reco rding and co nveying o f a
vas t b o dy o f kno w ledge in draw ings -
as fo r ins t ance, in t he reno w ned s ket ches
o f Leo nardo da V inci [s ee Fig. 2].
I ns t ead o f memo rizing lis t s o f o b ject s
o r part s (as medieval w o rkers o ft en had
t o do ), as piring s cient is t s co u ld no w
s t u dy t he act u al o rganizat io n o f
machines and o rganis ms t hat w ere no t
availab le fo r ins pect io n.... And in a
mo ment clo s er t o o u r o w n t imes , t he
s t ru ct u re o f t he DNA
mo lecu le,
as
ferret ed o u t b y James Wat s o n and
Francis C rick, depended crit ically u po n
t he ab ilit y t o s ket ch t he vario u s w ays in
w hich mo lecu les might b e b o u nd w it h
o ne ano t her. Thes e experiment s -s o me-
t imes co ns t ru ct ed in t he s cient is t s '
heads , s o met imes o n paper, and s o me-
t imes u s ing an act u al t hree-dimens io nal
mo del-led in t he end t o t he co rrect
reco ns t ru ct io n o f t he do u b le helix [8].
(See Fig. 3.)
Science po pu lis t C arl Sagan in The
Drago ns o f
Eden w rit es ,
There is no w ay t o t ell w het her t he
pat t erns ext ract ed b y t he right hemi-
s phere are real o r imagined w it ho u t
s u b ject ing t hem t o left hemis phere
s cru t iny. On t he o t her hand, mo re
crit ical t hinking, w it ho u t creat ive and
int u it ive ins ight s , w it ho u t t he s earch fo r
new pat t erns , is s t erile and do o med. To
s o lve co mplex pro b lems in changing
circu ms t ances requ ires t he act ivit y o f
b o t h cereb ral hemis pheres : The pat h t o
t he fu t u re lies t hro u gh t he co rpu s
callo s u m
[9]. (See Fig. 1.)
The clinical (neu ro lo gical) evidence fo r
hemis pheric pro ces s ing s elect ivit y w it hin
t he b rain has accu mu lat ed t o an eno rmo u s
fo rce o ver t he pas t s everal decades . Pau l
Bakan, in an art icle in t he jo u rnal
Percept u al and Mo t o r Skills , s ho w ed in
1969 t hat right hemis phere preference, as
indicat ed b y lat eral eye mo vement s , w as
no t ed fo r s cience and engineering majo rs
vers u s left hemis phere preference fo r
lit erat u re and hu manit ies majo rs in u nder-
gradu at e co llege pro grams [10]. James
Dab b s , repo rt ing in t he jo u rnal Ps ycho -
phys io lo gy
in 1980, no t ed a dis t inct io n in
b lo o d flo w t o each s ide o f t he b rain fo r
co llege
s t u dent s majo ring
in
Englis h as
co mpared
t o s t u dent s majo ring
in
archit ect u re. A
higher
flo w o f b lo o d t o
t he left b rain hemis phere
w as fo u nd in
Englis h s t u dent s , w hile a
higher
flo w t o
t he right hemis phere
w as s ho w n in
archit ect u re s t u dent s [11]. Jo s eph Bo gen,
a
neu ro s u rgeo n, argu ed
in a 1975 paper
t hat t he
emphas is
o n t he
acqu is it io n o f
verb al s kills and t he
develo pment
o f
analyt ic t ho u ght pro ces s es neglect s
t he
develo pment
o f
impo rt ant
no nverb al
ab ilit ies . This , he claimed, w as s t arving
Mu rr and
Williams ,
Edu cat io n in a V is u al C u lt u re
? 1987 Law rence E. Mu rr and James B. Williams
Fig. 2. Excerpt s fro m t he w o rks o f Leo nardo da V inci illu s t rat ing t he
graphics -heavy s t yle o f his
t hinking and pro ces s ing o f co mplex info rmat io n. No n-s erially linked b lo cks o f t ext u al des cript io ns
and draw ings (graphics ) pro mpt a fo rmat fo r rapidly 'get t ing t he pict u re'.
L.-;,--.
.-- - ...
415
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half t he b rain and igno ring it s po t ent ial
co nt rib u t io n t o t he w ho le
pers o n [12].
Similarly, R o b ert Orns t ein, in his 1977
b o o k The Ps ycho lo gy o f C o ns cio u s nes s ,
co nclu ded t hat t he emphas is o n langu age
and lo gical t hinking in Wes t ern s o ciet ies
has ens u red t hat t he left hemis phere is
w ell exercis ed w hile fu nct io ns o f t he right
hemis phere are largely neglect ed. Orns t ein
as s ert ed t hat s cho o ls s pent mo s t o f t heir
t ime t raining s t u dent s in
predo minant ly
left -hemis phere s kills [13].
The implicat io ns o f differences b et w een
Wes t ern and Eas t ern cu lt u res als o have
b een s cru t inized. I n Frames
o f Mind
Ho w ard Gardner w rit es ,
C las s ro o m, and Linda Williams , in
Teachingfo r t he Tw o -Sided Mind: A Gu ide
t o
R ight Brain/Left Brain Edu cat io n [15].
The mes s age and hu ndreds o f s u ppo rt ing
clinical argu ment s are als o co nt ained in
t he 1984 edit io n o f Left Brain, R ight Brain
b y Sally Springer and Geo rg Deu t s ch
[16]. Bu t t eaching, o n t he w ho le, has
invo lved
maint aining t he 'So crat ic
met ho d', t he mnemo nic art , even in t he
face o f t he
po pu larizat io n o f t he b o o k.
What has b een s lo w t o change in t he pas t
2000 years w ill cert ainly no t b e alt ered in
t he next 2 o r 20 years , b u t change it mu s t
I n t he pho no lo gically b as ed s ys t ems o f
t he Wes t , reading relies part icu larly o n
t ho s e areas o f t he b rain t hat pro ces s
lingu is t ic s o u nds ; b u t in t ho s e s ys t ems
(in t he Orient ) w here ideo graphic reading
is preferred, reading is mo re cru cially
dependent u po n t ho s e cent ers t hat
int erpret pict o rial mat erials . (This
dependence may als o o b t ain fo r t ho s e
deaf individu als w ho have learned t o
read.) Finally, in t he cas e o f t he
Japanes e, w ho have b o t h a s yllab ary
reading s ys t em (Kana) and an ideo -
graphic s ys t em (Kanji), t w o mechanis ms
fo r reading are ho u s ed in t he s ame
individu al. Thu s , o ne kind o f les io n w ill
cau s e relat ively great er inju ry t o t he
deco ding o f Kana s ymb o ls , w hile ano t her
w ill w reak it s havo c part icu larly o n t he
deco ding o f Kanji s ymb o ls [14].
Fro m t his , w e might b egin t o as s ert
t hat t he eco no mic s u cces s o f
Japan,
as
co mpared t o many Wes t ern co u nt ries ,
might b e ro o t ed in t he co nt ras t b et w een
t he b ilat eral and mu lt is ens o ry pro ces s ing
t he
Japanes e learn t hro u gh t heir
langu age
and t he limit at io ns o f Wes t erners '
predo minant ly left -b rain, o ne-t rack minds .
We might even 'envis io n' a kind o f
inco mpat ib ilit y w hen dealing w it h ideo -
graphic langu ages : left -b rain pro ces s ing
t rying t o co nnect w it h a
right -b rain
pro ces s o r. 'Sho es t hat do n't fit ' might b e
an accu rat e met apho r
t o des crib e t he
many edu cat io nal pro po s als fo r
'changing'
o r
impro ving
t he lo t o f edu cat io n in U.S.
s cho o ls and co lleges
as w ell as t he cu rrent
ent hu s ias m fo r
Japanes e langu age co u rs es ,
w hich o ft en invo lve left -b rain
langu age
t eachers
t eaching ideo graphic, right -b rain
langu ages !
I V . WHOLE-BR AI N EDUC ATI ON
Teachers have b een chided fo r nearly 2
decades t o
change
t heir
w ays
in o rder t o
edu cat e t he w ho le b rain, t he w ho le
pers o n.
Po s t man and
Weingart ner,
in
Teaching As a Su b vers ive
Act ivit y,
in 1969
made
many
o f t he
po int s
made mo re
recent ly b y Michael Grady,
in
Teaching
and Brain R es earch: Gu idelines fo r t he
? 1987 Law rence E. Mu rr andJames B. Williams
Fig. 3. Graphic, art is t ic and s ymb o lic repres ent at io ns o f t he co ncept u al develo pment o f t he b enzene
ring fro m t he s nake dreams o f Keku le and o f t he evo lu t io n o f s t ereo chemis t ry leading t o t he s t ru ct u ral
repres ent at io ns o f DNA as t he head o f a s nake. We s u b mit t hat s u ch vis u al images are es s ent ial fo r
u nders t anding co mplex, s t ru ct u ral and micro s t ru ct u ral is s u es in s cience and t echno lo gy. "The vivid
ro le o f imagery in t he s o lu t io n o f pro b lems has o ft en b een reco u nt ed b y s cient is t s and invent o rs . I n o ne
o f t he mo s t famo u s o f s u ch acco u nt s , t he chemis t Friedrich Keku le came acro s s t he s t ru ct u re o f t he
b enzene
ring. He fell as leep and 'again t he at o ms w ere
gamb o ling b efo re my eyes .... My ment al
eye... co u ld no t dis t ingu is h larger s t ru ct u res ... all t w ining and
t w is t ing
in s nake-like mo t io n. Bu t
lo o k! What w as t hat ? One o f t he s nakes had s eized ho ld o f it s o w n t ail and t he fo rm w hirled mo ckingly
b efo re my eyes . As if b y a flas h o f light ning,
I aw o ke.' Thes e ins ight s had
s u gges t ed t o Keku le t hat
o rganic co mpo u nds
like b enzene are no t
o pen s t ru ct u res , b u t clo s ed rings . And in a mo ment clo s er t o
o u r o w n t imes , t he s t ru ct u re o f t he DNA mo lecu le, as ferret ed o u t b y James Wat s o n and Francis
C rick, depended crit ically u po n t he ab ilit y t o s ket ch t he vario u s w ays in w hich mo lecu les might b e
b o u nd w it h o ne ano t her. Thes e experiment s -s o met imes co ns t ru ct ed in t he s cient is t s ' heads ,
s o met imes o n paper, and s o met imes u s ing an act u al t hree-dimens io nal mo del-led in t he end t o t he
co rrect reco ns t ru ct io n o f t he do u b le helix." Qu o t at io n fro m Ho w ard Gardner, Frames o f Mind[8].
Mu rr and
Williams ,
Edu cat io n in a V is u al C u lt u re 416
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Eight years ago
a
b o y
w as o ne-
fo u rt h as o ld as he w ill b e o ne year
fro m no w . Ho w o ld is he no w ?
I
- (x
-
8)= 1/4(x+1);
x = 11
years
o ld no w
x = # o f
years
o ld t he
b o y
is no w
(x
-
8) = # o f years o ld he w as 8 years ago
(x + 1) = # o f years o ld he w ill b e o ne year
fro m no w
* (x
-
8)
=
1/4(x+1)
* (x
-
x/4)
= 8 + 1/4;
(8
=
32/4)
* (3x/4)
= 33/4
* 3x = 33
* x = 11
* (x
-
8)
= 1/4 (x+1)
* 4x -
32 = x + 1
* 3x = 33
* x = 11
? 1987 Law rence E. Mu rr and James B. Williams
[
A s ingle elect ro n is b o t h a part icle and a w ave and epit o mizes t he co n-
cept o f w ave-part icle du alis m. This is elegant ly depict ed in an equ a-
t io n called t he Schr6dinger Equ at io n w hich fo rms t he b as is o f t he s o -
called qu ant u m t heo ry.
V
2
+ 8M(E-U) = 0
v 2 =
d 2 d2
d /
dx2
+dy2
+ dz2
-
=
WAV E FUNC TI ON-
T
M = MASS |
6 = SOME
C ONSTANT
E
=
ELEC TR ON ENER GY
U
=
POTENTI AL ENER GY I NFLU-
ENC I NG THE ELEC TR ON
---------------------------l I I :
I
The
s imple pict u re s ho w ing
an elect ro n as s o me kind o f w ave
packet
is
an
at t empt
t o
depict graphically
t he
pat t ern implicit
in t he mat hemat ical
expres s io n.
Fig. 4. The linking o f t ext -b as ed and graphic o r s ymb o lic paradigms t o u nders t and mat hemat ical and relat ed is s u es . (a) C o rres po ndence b et w een co -called
reading pro b lems and t heir mat hemat ical (s ymb o lic) repres ent at io n. Learners are o ft en u nab le t o pro ces s t he t ext u al co nt ext b u t can eas ily deal w it h t he
s ymb o lic (graphic) regime. (b ) Symb o ls and graphics can deal w it h co mplex is s u es in s cience s u ch as qu ant u m phys ics
and t he w ave-part icle nat u re o f
elect ro ns in w ays t hat t ext canno t .
and change
it w ill. Given t he rat e o f
change o f t echno lo gy,
o u r
ab ilit y
t o
w o rk, o u r very s u rvival, w ill
depend
o n
o u r b eing
invo lved in t he mo ment u m o f
t he
emerging
vis u al cu lt u re.
Let u s as s u me, in
s pit e
o f t he
co mplexit ies
o f t he b rain and o u r
meager
effo rt s t o
explain s pecific int ricacies , t hat
left -b rain and
right -b rain
dis t inct io ns do
indeed exis t and t hat w e
pro ces s
info r-
mat io n and creat e o u r realit ies
b y
int egrat ing verb al, t ext u al and vis u al
inpu t
in o rder t o
'get
t he
pict u re'.
Then t o
des crib e in t ext t he s t ru ct u re o f
DNA,
fo r
example (pro ces s ing
t his info rmat io n in
t he left hemis phere)
makes no s ens e w hen
t he co nt ext can b e
develo ped immediat ely
b y pro ces s ing
a mo del o r
pict u re
o f t he
DNA mo lecu le in t he right hemis phere
(s ee Fig. 3).
To
expand
t his
argu ment ,
it
do es no t make s ens e t o
emphas ize
t ext -
b as ed
des cript io ns
o f s cient ific
pheno mena
in
general,
o r mat hemat ical
pheno mena
in
part icu lar (Fig. 4).
To learn s cience and mat hemat ics
effect ively might requ ire
t he
co nfigu rat io n
o f
right -b rain
t o o ls . Gardner has
w rit t en,
"Like a
paint er
o r a
po et ,
a mat hemat ician
is a maker o f
pat t erns :
b u t t he
s pecial
charact eris t ics o f mat hemat ical
pat t erns
are t hat
t hey
are mo re
likely
t o b e
permanent
b ecau s e
t hey
are made w it h
ideas ..." [17]. Therefo re, creat ing
cu r-
ricu lu m inno vat io ns and t rying t o ext end
o r 'as s u re' academic excellence in t he
s cho o ls
b y ext ending memo ry-b as ed
learning s cience and mat hemat ics is an
o u t s t anding exercis e in
fu t ilit y, a magni-
ficat io n o f t he edu cat io nal fru s t rat io n w e
have felt fo r s everal decades .
I n t he co nt ext o f differences b et w een
left -b rain and right -b rain pro ces s ing, t he
rhet o ric des crib ing t he deb at e o ver mat h
t eaching in C alifo rnia, chro nicled in t he
Was hingt o n Po s t , s eems pat ent ly ab s u rd.
One o f t he mo s t endu ring and perplexing
mys t eries in edu cat io n has b een w hy
s t u dent s w ho s ail t hro u gh his t o ry and
s pelling w ince at lo ng divis io n and
algeb ra. Edu cat o rs , res earchers and
parent s have lo ng argu ed o ver ho w t o
o verco me
pro b lems
w it h mat h, an
argu ment t hat led in t he 1960s t o t he
'New Mat h,' w hich relied o n
t eaching
t he t heo ry b ehind t he co mpu t at io ns .
That met ho d w as generally regarded as
u ns u cces s fu l and w as ab ando ned.... I n
t he lat e 1970s , t he b ack-t o -b as ics mo ve-
ment emphas ized drill and memo rizat io n
in mat h co u rs es , an emphas is many
edu cat o rs s ay t hey
b elieve
neglect ed
a
b ro ader u nders t anding o f s u ch ab s t ract
co ncept s as 'b o rro w ing,' and fract io ns .
St u dent s learning
ho w t o divide w ho le
nu mb ers b y fract io ns , fo r
example,
have b een t o ld t o memo rize
qu ips s u ch
as : 'Yo u rs is no t t o reas o n
w hy, ju s t
invert and mu lt iply.' Bu t many have no
idea w hy t hey are
invert ing t he
fract io n ...
[18].
I ndeed, memo rizing
t he s ymb o lis m
o f
mat hemat ics , a
graphic, ideo graphic
langu age,
is
pres erving needles s ly
t he left -
b rain
pro ces s ing met ho do lo gies
o f 2000
years ago . Pu t t his in t he
pers pect ive o f
t he s t u dent w ho enjo ys s ymb o lic algeb ra
b u t is
co mplet ely co nfu s ed b y 'reading
pro b lems ', i.e. mat hemat ical pro b lems
co u ched in verb al fo rm. Ho w many o f u s
fo u nd it
co nfu s ing t o w o rk o n a
pro b lem
in w hich t he
graphic, s ymb o lic langu age
o f mat hemat ics w as enco ded in
'alphab et ic
s o ft w are' (i.e. t ext ) fo r
pro ces s ing in t he
left hemis phere, in o rder t o elicit a
s o lu t io n t o b e pict u red in t he
s pat ial
pro ces s o r o f t he right hemis phere? What
an exercis e in ab s u rdit y t o w rit e left -b rain
s o ft w are fo r a right -b rain pro ces s o r (s ee
Fig. 4)!
V . V I SUAL TOOLS I N EDUC ATI ON
No w t hat w e have int ro du ced t he
co mpu t er as a
met apho r,
b o t h hardw are
and s o ft w are, let u s examine t he realit y o f
t he
minico mpu t er o r t he
pers o nal
co mpu t er. Here is a vis u al t o o l, an
example o f
hypert elevis io n, a right -b rain
prepro ces s o r, a
s u percharger o f
graphic
info rmat io n and
graphic kno w ledge,
w hich
w e have
merely reco nfigu red as a
high-
t ech
t ypew rit er!
Wo rd
pro ces s ing
is
s imply
a
reco nfigu rat io n o f left -b rain
s o ft w are, a
mas s aging
o f t ext
dis played in
a vis u al field, appealing t o t he
right
hemis phere b u t inco mpat ib le w it h it s
pro ces s ing pro t o co ls . We creat e ment al
images as w e learn and
co ncept u alize t o
'get t he pict u re' (Fig. 5). We o ft en affirm
Mu rr and
Williams ,
Edu cat io n in a V is u al C u lt u re
|T
GK
- I ___
I
I I l I I I _
a
-
.
- -
I -
417
-
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
learning, t he act o f learning, b y s aying "I
s ee!" So let u s b egin t o reco gnize t he need
t o u s e pict u res t o 'get t he pict u re'.
Pres ent ing t ext o r develo ping t ext t o
creat e a pict u re is s imply no t co mpat ib le
w it h t he no n-s erial co nnect io n w e invo ke
t o develo p ment al images and
pict u res .
We are fo rcing t he w earing o f left -handed
glo ves o n t he right hand.
I n o rder t o b e mo re appro priat ely
edu cat ed, w e need t o b egin t o
reco gnize
t he co rrect u s es fo r vis u al t o o ls and t o
creat e new vis u al t o o ls t hat are mo re
co mpat ib le w it h t he emerging vis u al
cu lt u re. Who le-b rain learning, appro ach-
ing b o t h t he left and right hemis pheres ,
might make u s effect ive learners . Learning
might even b eco me fu n, s o met hing w e do
as a mat t er o f living a u s efu l, happy,
pro du ct ive life. We need t o int egrat e t he
co mpendia o f
alphab et ic w rit ings , t he
b o o k o f o ld and new , w it h t he new fo rms
o f vis u al do cu ment at io n, t he video cas s et t e
and t he co mpact dis k.
Edu cat io n, t o b e effect ive in o u r vis u al
cu lt u re, mu s t change fu ndament ally. We
mu s t u nders t and t he learning pro ces s ,
perhaps even make b o ld
as s u mpt io ns
ab o u t
w hy peo ple perfo rm, learn o r
pro ces s different ly, if peo ple are t o
b eco me effect ive learners
(Fig. 6).
This is
es s ent ial t o facilit at e co nt inu al
learning.
The fu ndament al changes need no t b e t o o
co s t ly and w ill no t ab o lis h o u r s cho o ls o r
dis place o u r t eachers . Bu t w e mu s t b egin
b y ab ando ning o u r his t o rical emphas is
o n s erial lect u res , s erial t ext , s erial dat a
and dat a co llect io n in s erial t ext fo rm, as
w ell as o u r o b s es s io n w it h
reading,
w rit ing and art icu lat ing at an int ellect u al
s t andard derived fro m a s ens e o f s cho lar-
s hip invent ed b efo re t he Middle
Ages .
This emphas is mu s t b e b alanced b y s o me
at t ent io n t o
graphic fo rmat s , draw ing,
paint ing and t he vis u al art s , b y rais ing
o u r co ns cio u s nes s o f s ymb o ls , b y co n-
nect ing t ext and
graphics t hro u gh t he
creat io n o f
langu age net w o rks (a pro ces s
w e call
'hypermapping' (s ee Fig. 5) and b y
creat ing
an edu cat io nal s ys t em co mpat ib le
w it h o u r vis u al cu lt u re. This w ill
help u s
'get t he
pict u re'
and allo w u s t o deal
vis u ally rat her t han s imply t ext u ally and
verb ally w it h t he
co mplexit ies o f t echno -
lo gy.
We do no t advo cat e ab ando ning a
co mmit ment t o reading and
w rit ing o r
arit hmet ic; w e advo cat e
ab ando ning o nly
t he his t o rical emphas is o n t he
t eaching
met ho do lo gy. We have a fu ndament al
co ncern fo r lit eracy, b u t it s co nt ext is
changing.
The
pro liferat io n o f ico ns and
o t her
graphic
aids in o u r s o ciet ies is
making t he w o rld a friendlier
place
fo r
no nreaders and
po o r
readers o f t ext
w hile readers o f b o o ks are
finding
t he
I YPER MAPPI NGI l, 1
cI s a 41
Fig.
5. Schemat ic
repres ent at io n
o f
'hypermapping',
o r t he
co ncept u al linking
o f t ext and
graphic
element s t o creat e langu age maps . This repres ent at io n als o depict s t he no n-s erial, co nnect io nis t
linking o f ideas t hat leads t o effect ive learning-'get t ing t he pict u re'.
int ru s io n o f graphics b ew ildering;
w e
s u ffer fro m a kind o f vis u al
illit eracy.
I t may no t b e a
s imple
co incidence t hat
in t he perio d 1980-1985,
w hen t he
pers o nal co mpu t er
and t he V C R b ecame
po pu larized
in t he Unit ed St at es , t he s ale
o f children's b o o ks increas ed
dramat ically.
V is u al t o o ls finally may pro vide
u s w it h
t he mo s t effect ive learning
fo rmat s o f t he
pas t 500 years .
To hear a
s t o ry
and t o s ee
t he
s t o ry
at t he s ame t ime fo rces
s ens o ry
co nnect io ns t o b o t h t he left - and
right -
hemis phere pro ces s o rs . 'Teddy R u xpen',
a
t o y
b ear
acco mpanied b y
au dio
t apes
keyed t o
pict u re b o o ks , may
b e t he
fo reru nner o f
po w erfu l t eaching
t o o ls -
no t
s imply t eaching t o ys .
The
pers o nal
co mpu t er
s ho u ld b eco me t he facilit at o r
o f w ho le-b rain learning,
t he es s ence o f
t he
co rpu s callo s u m, b ridling
t he left and
right hemis pheres
and
co nnect ing
t he
b o o k and t he video cas s et t e
t ape,
t he
new s paper
and t elevis io n, vis u al s t at ics
and dynamics , s cience and t he lib eral
art s , t he Wes t and t he Eas t , creat ing
a
w o rld co nvergence t o w ard co mmo n
per-
cept io ns
and
s ingu lar
realit ies .
R EFER ENC ES AND NOTES
1. Dat a fro m t he C arnegie Fo u ndat io n fo r
t he Advancement o f
Teaching;
s ee fo r
example C o llege: The Undergradu at e
Experience
in America (New Yo rk:
Harper,
1987).
2. Daniel Bo o rs t in, The Dis co verers (New
Yo rk: R ando m Ho u s e, 1983) p. 529.
3. Margu erit e Michaels , "A
R epo rt C ard
fro m Ou r Teachers ", Parade Magazine
(1 Decemb er 1985) pp. 4-5.
4. C arnegie Fo u ndat io n [1].
5. Pau l Pint arich, "Ho o ked o n Bo o ks " in
Orego nian New s paper (20 Ju ly 1986).
Mu rr and
Williams ,
Edu cat io n in a V is u al C u lt u re 418
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
6. See fo r example R u s s Lo ckw o o d, "Trends :
Mo ving On", Pers o nal C o mpu t ing 11,
No . 10, 64 (1987).
7. Fro m dat a o f t he Elect ro nic I ndu s t ries
As s o ciat io n, Was hingt o n, DC , 1986.
Mo re recent market analys is figu res b y
Pau l Kajan As s o ciat es in Lo s Angeles ,
C A, co nfirm t hes e s t at is t ics .
8. Ho w ard Gardner, Frames o f Mind (New
Yo rk: Bas ic Bo o ks , 1983).
9. C arl Sagan, The Drago ns o f
Eden (New
Yo rk: R ando m Ho u s e, 1977).
10. P. Bakan, "Hypno t izab ilit y, Lat eralit y o f
Eye Mo vement , and Fu nct io nal Brain
As ymmet ry", Percept u al and Mo t o r Skills
28, 927-932 (1969).
11. J. Dab b s , "Left -R ight Differences in
C ereb ral Blo o d Flo w and C o gnit io n",
Ps ycho phys io lo gy
17, 548-551 (1980).
12. J.E. Bo gen, "The Ot her Side o f t he Brain,
V I I : So me Edu cat io nal As pect s o f
Hemis pheric Specializat io n", UC LA Edu -
cat o r 17, 24-32 (1975).
13. R o b ert Orns t ein, The Ps ycho lo gy o f
C o ns cio u s nes s (New Yo rk: Harco u rt ,
1977).
14. Gardner [8] p. 88. See als o H. Gardner,
"What We Kno w (and Do n't Kno w )
ab o u t t he Tw o Halves o f t he Brain",
Harvard Magazine 80, 24-27 (1978).
15. Neil Po s t man and C harles Weingart ner,
Teaching As a Su b vers ive Act ivit y (New
Yo rk: Delaco rt e, 1969); Michael P. Grady,
Teaching and Brain R es earch: Gu idelines
fo r
t he C las s ro o m (New Yo rk: Lo ngman,
1984); Linda V erlee Williams , Teaching
fo r
t he Tw o -Sided Mind: A Gu ide t o R ight
Brain/Left
Brain Edu cat io n (New Jers ey:
Prent ice Hall, 1983).
16. Sally P. Springer and Geo rg Deu t s ch,
Left Brain, R ight Brain (New Yo rk:
Freeman, 1981).
17. Gardner
[8] p. 139.
18. Barb ara V o b ejda, The Was hingt o n Po s t ,
Sect io n A8 (20 Oct o b er 1986).
SI MPLE LEAR NI NG THEOR I ES AND LETHODOLOGI ES
*
BI MOOL.
PR I MAR Y LEAR NI (a 1.EOR Y
I
AdAl mm0 o ms mpmu b y o mis
o t I ed agat s I mm /d)
t dagr ipNa (s gm.
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mu md
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im To dpmc#s u I X-
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.
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do ko W. I . t o o khl b admmd t o ammt t h|i -
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Fig. 6. Graphic repres ent at io n o f learning met ho do lo gies t hat are b as ed u po n t he no t io n t hat t ext and
graphic fo rmat s are pro ces s ed s o mew hat s pecifically in t he left and right b rain hemis pheres .
I f o ne
accept s t his premis e, t hen learning fo rmat s can b e s kew ed t o t he efficiencies and deficiencies o f
individu al learners t o pro vide a b alance o f pro ces s ing s kills u s ing b o t h hemis pheres o f t he b rain mo re
effect ively.
Mu rr and
Williams ,
Edu cat io n in a V is u al C u lt u re
?
419
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